Mohamed BenAbdellah University

Faculty of letters and Sidi Human Sciences Saiss Fes

S. 6. Linguistics Option.
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Course : Sociolinguistics
Instructor: Prof. Bousfiha.A.

Bilingualism

1. Definition
Though difficult to define, the term bilingualism was initially coined to
refer to those situations characterized by the existence of two different
languages within the repertoire of either an individual or the society. Speech
repertoire is meant to indicate languages, and varieties, or dialects via which an
individual interacts with others, and which he can use for different purposes or
functions. It is important to emphasize that bilingualism is not a phenomenon of
language. It is rather a characteristic of its use. It is not a feature of the code, but
of the message of the individual who has reasons for being bilingual.
Bloomfield ( 1932:56) considered bilingualism as the native like control
of two languages, that is to say, bilingualism for him involves fluency in the two
languages, but this is considered to be an extremist position. Diebold (1961:111)
sees that the concept bilingualism can be extended to include only passive
knowledge of the written language or any " contact with possible models in a
second language, and the ability to use these in the environment of the native
language". Adherents of such position, see then that receptive knowledge is
enough for there to be bilingualism.
Mackey (1959) argues that since it is always difficult, and almost
impossible to determine, exactly when, or the juncture at which, an individual
becomes a bilingual it is necessary to extend the definition of bilingualism to
include the use of not only two languages, but of any number of languages and
bilingualism will be considered as the ultimate use of two or more languages by
the same individual. Now, the question is, who is the bilingual individual ?

2. The bilingual individual

 Simply put, the bilingual individual has at his disposal, two languages
that he can use for his different communicative needs and purposes: the mother
tongue and foreign language. That is to say, first and second language. For most
individuals, the first language learned, the mother tongue, is also the most used,
and conversely the second language is also secondary in terms of use. There
are, of course, exceptional cases of individuals migrants, especially, who are
involved in language contact situations in which the mother tongue loses its
position as a primary medium of communication and becomes limited to home
and friendship. In other words, it gets displaced in all the other domains by the
dominant language of the host country.
Without going into the details of such situations, the bilingual individual
can be defined as a person who uses two or more languages, or dialects in his
everyday life . Within such perspectives, the bilingual individual does not
necessarily need to show native like fluency in the languages he speaks. He
simply needs to produce meaningful utterances to command, at least one
language skill, from the four skills: reading, speaking, listening, and writing in
another language, and to use several languages alternatively. Romaine ( 1997)
and Mackey ( 2000).
" Bilinguals usually acquire, and use their languages for different
purposes. and in different domains of life with different people, different
aspects of life require different languages" Grosjean (1997: 167). There are
cases of semi bilinguals. The term was coined to refer to bilinguals who acquire
different languages but who do not develop full competence in any of the
languages they speak. The semi bilinguals generally present linguistic deficits
in six areas of language:
1. Size of vocabulary
2. Correctness of language.
3. Language creativity and creation.
4.Unconscious processing of language.
5.Mastery of the functions of language.
6.Meanings and imagery.

There are also, what can be called coordinate bilinguals, and compound
ones. The compound bilinguals are those in whom two languages form a merged
system, coordinate bilinguals are those in whom the two languages systems are
kept distinct. A compound has a single semantic base connected to input and
output mechanisms. While the coordinate has two semantic bases Each
connected to language specific input/output systems.
3. Advantages of bilingualism
 A frequently asked question is whether a bilingual speaker’s brain
functions differently from that of a monolingual’s brain. A more technical way
of asking the question, as Li Wei (2000:23) argues, is whether language is
differently organised and processed in the brain of a bilingual compared with the
monolingual.
Existing data ( see Li Wei (2000), Mackey (2000)) often show that the left
hemisphere strongly dominates language processing for both monolinguals and
bilinguals, and that differences between them are the exception rather than the
rule. Bilinguals do not seem to vary from monolinguals in neurological
processes; the lateralisation of language in the brains of the two groups of
speakers is similar .
However, current research suggests that there are specific overlapping,
and interacting benefits for a bilingual person. These are of a communicative
cognitive and cultural nature, thus:
3.1. Communicative advantages.
a. Relationship with parents. Being children of parents with differing
languages is a real special linguistic situation, to which the children have to
adapt themselves. Being bilinguals facilitates thus the task of such children who
are able to communicate in each parents preferred language.
b. Community relationships. The bilingual has the chance to communicate
to a wider variety of people than a monolingual . Bilingual children are
generally much at ease communicating with the external world via languages
that are different from the ones spoken at home. The external world represents a
world of relationships at school, and extended large neighborhood. When they
are faced with subtle and fine, textures, the bilingual children adopt their
linguistic behaviors as necessary to meet the communicative requirements of
such textures.
c. Transnational communication. Bilingualism is a way to transcend the
barrier that generally exists between nations, and between ethnic groups
bilingualism facilitates an inter- national, as well as inter- ethnic communication
and allows one to establish or create relationships within the community and
across societies, or nations.
d. Language sensitivity. Bilinguals' sensitivity in communication is
triggered by their ability to wave between languages in their constant monitoring
which language to use in which situations. They are, as a result, more attuned to
the communicative needs of their of those with whom they interact.

3.2. Cultural advantages

 a. Being a bilingual implies, living into all worlds of experience, and to
be in touch with two or more cultures. Language is the tool to penetrate different
cultures.
b. A bilingual might have easy access to the job market. as he may have a
larger portfolio of jobs available. This is one of the potential economic
advantages.
3.2. Cognitive advantages.
Research has shown that bilinguals show more abilities in thinking. They
make proof of:
1.Creative thinking
2. fast cognitive development.
3. Greatest sensitivity in communication.
4. Flexible thinking.
5.More awareness of languages' associations
6. More fluency and elaboration thinking than monolinguals.

4. Disadvantages of bilingualism

Certain possible problems of bilingualism might be presented as follows:

1. More time and efforts are deployed by the bilingual parents to maintain
two languages and bring up children bilingually.
2. Bilinguals have to face the challenge of coping with school curriculum
in either language in a short time.
3. Problems of identity that may result in a sort of confusion In the
bilingual person. A child, for example, who speaks French and English fluently
is he or she to be considered French or English or Anglo French. Similarly, the
child who speaks English, and a minor language like Welsh, is he Welsh,
English, British, European, or what. Furthermore, a person speaking fluently
three or four languages, with which ethnic group is he or she going to identify
himself.
Most important, however, bilingualism is not to be blamed for, or held
responsible for bilingual children's exhibiting language or personality problems.
It is also not to be blamed for any social unrest. That may result from the
presence of more than one language in community. A final argument will be in
Li Wei (2000:21) words:" Bilingualism is not a static and unitary phenomenon.
It is shaped in different ways, and it changes depending on a variety of
historical, cultural, political, economic, environmental, linguistic, psychological
and other factors. People’s attitudes towards bilingualism will also change as the
society progresses and as our understanding of bilingual speakers’ knowledge
and skills grows. However, one thing is certain: more and more people in the
world will become bilinguals, and bilingualism will stay as long as humankind
walks the earth".

Questions for reflection

1. According to you, is bilingualism to be measured according to native-
like fluency in the two languages, equal competence in the two languages, full
or partial mastery of the two languages .... ?
2. Which criterion is of primary importance for assessing bilingualism:
language proficiency or the use of two languages?
• Most people would define a bilingual as a person who can speak two
languages. What about a person who can understand a second language perfectly
but cannot speak it? What about a person who can speak a language but is not
literate in it? What about an individual who cannot speak or understand speech
in a second language but can read and write it? Should these categories of
people be considered bilingual ?

This transcript was generated by https://otter.ai The term being

bilingualism is very difficult to define, because every intellectual person is
involved in it. And manifests it in different manners. According to some
linguists bein bilingual must be fluent in two languages. This is the position of
Bloomfield, and which is an extremist position. Some other linguists say that
minimum knowledge of the two languages is sufficient or enough for us to
speak of cases of bilingualism. Some people even went further to say that if you
have a receptive knowledge. This is a case of bilanguilisme and receptive
knowledge in the sense that you can only hear the language and understand it
and react to what you have understood. We have four kinds of skills and in those
a person may have only one, two, or three, and ther are, problems, about the way
we could measure some skills bilingualism can be linked to biculturalism, a
compound bilingual has only one semantic network in his mind. A person can be
in do middle both compound, and coordinate. psychologists are interested in the
psychology of bilinguals their study shows that their intelligence can be
influenced by their bien bilinguals, their intelligence is affected positively, but
their learning process is influenced negatively. They are slower than
monolinguals words why because monolinguals psychologists and linguists.
alike, study, attitudes, you, you will learn a language, better. If you have positive
attitudes towards it for that.