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AP Calculus BC - Review Notes - 精简版
AP Calculus BC - Review Notes - 精简版
Definitions
Precise Definition : We say lim f ( x ) = L if Limit at Infinity : We say lim f ( x ) = L if we
x →a x →∞
for every ε > 0 there is a δ > 0 such that can make f ( x ) as close to L as we want by
whenever 0 < x − a < δ then f ( x ) − L < ε . taking x large enough and positive.
Properties
Assume lim f ( x ) and lim g ( x ) both exist and c is any number then,
x→a x→a
lim g ( x=
) lim 1 − 3=
x 7
Combine Rational Expressions x →−2+ x →−2+
If y = f ( x ) then all of the following are If y = f ( x ) all of the following are equivalent
equivalent notations for the derivative. notations for derivative evaluated at x = a .
( f ( x )=) Df ( x )
df dy d
f ′ ( x=
) y=′ = = df dy
′ ( a ) y=
f= ′ = = Df ( a )
dx dx dx x =a dx x a= dx x a
=
1. ( c f )′ = c f ′ ( x ) 5.
d
(c) = 0
dx
(f ± g )′= f ′ ( x ) ± g ′ ( x )
2.
6.
dx
(
d n
x ) = n x n −1 – Power Rule
3. g )′
(f = f ′ g + f g ′ – Product Rule
7.
d
( )
f ( g ( x )) = f ′ ( g ( x )) g′ ( x )
f ′ f ′ g − f g ′ dx
4. = – Quotient Rule This is the Chain Rule
g g2
Common Derivatives
d
dx
( x) = 1
d
dx
( csc x ) = − csc x cot x
d x
dx
( a ) = a x ln ( a )
d
dx
( sin x ) = cos x
d
dx
( cot x ) = − csc2 x
d x
dx
(e ) = ex
d
( cos x ) = − sin x
d
( sin −1 x ) =
1 d
( ( x )) , x > 0
ln =
1
dx dx 1 − x2 dx x
d
dx
( tan x ) = sec2 x d
( cos −1 x ) = −
1 d
dx
( ln= x)
1
x
, x≠0
dx 1 − x2
d
dx
( sec x ) = sec x tan x d
( tan −1 x ) =
1
d
dx
( log
= a ( x ))
1
x ln a
, x>0
dx 1 + x2
Chain Rule Variants
The chain rule applied to some specific functions.
1.
d
dx
( ) n −1
f ( x ) = n f ( x ) f ′ ( x )
n
5.
d
dx
( )
cos f ( x ) = − f ′ ( x ) sin f ( x )
2.
dx
e (
d f ( x)
)= f ′( x)e ( )
f x
6.
d
dx
( )
tan f ( x ) = f ′ ( x ) sec 2 f ( x )
f ′( x)
3.
d
(
ln f ( x ) = ) 7.
d
( sec [ f ( x)]) = f ′( x) sec [ f ( x)] tan [ f ( x)]
dx f ( x) dx
f ′( x)
4.
d
( )
sin f ( x ) = f ′ ( x ) cos f ( x ) 8.
d
(
tan −1 f ( x ) = )
1 + f ( x )
2
dx dx
will use the product/quotient rule and derivatives of y will use the chain rule. The “trick” is to
differentiate as normal and every time you differentiate a y you tack on a y (from the chain rule).
After differentiating solve for y .
e 2 x 9 y 2 9 y 3 x 2 y 2 2 x 3 y y cos y y 11
11 2e 2 x 9 y 3x 2 y 2
2e2 x 9 y 9 ye 2 x 9 y 3 x 2 y 2 2 x 3 y y cos y y 11 y
2 x3 y 9e 2 x 9 y cos y
2 x y 9e x
3 2 9 y
cos y y 11 2e 2 x 9 y 3 x 2 y 2
Ex. A 15 foot ladder is resting against a wall. Ex. Two people are 50 ft apart when one
The bottom is initially 10 ft away and is being starts walking north. The angle θ changes at
pushed towards the wall at 14 ft/sec. How fast 0.01 rad/min. At what rate is the distance
is the top moving after 12 sec? between them changing when θ = 0.5 rad?
Optimization
Sketch picture if needed, write down equation to be optimized and constraint. Solve constraint for
one of the two variables and plug into first equation. Find critical points of equation in range of
variables and verify that they are min/max as needed.
∫ f ( x ) dx lim ∑ f ( xi ) ∆ x .
b
Then= *
a n →∞
i =1
Part II : f ( x ) is continuous on [ a, b ] , F ( x ) is d u( x)
f ( t ) dt u ′ ( x ) f [ u ( x ) ] − v′ ( x ) f [ v ( x ) ]
dx ∫ v( x )
=
an anti-derivative of f ( x ) (i.e. F ( x ) = ∫ f ( x ) dx )
then ∫ f ( x=
) dx F ( b ) − F ( a ) .
b
a
Properties
∫ f ( x ) ± g ( x ) dx = ∫ f ( x ) dx ± ∫ g ( x ) dx ∫ cf ( x ) dx = c ∫ f ( x ) dx , c is a constant
( ) ( ) ( ) ∫ a g ( x ) dx ( ) ∫ a f ( x ) dx , c is a constant
b b b b b
∫a f x ± g x =
dx ∫a f x dx ± ∫a cf x dx = c
∫ a f ( x ) dx = 0 dx c ( b − a )
a b
∫ c=
a
∫ f ( x ) dx ≤ ∫ f ( x )
b b
∫ a f ( x ) dx = − ∫b f ( x ) dx
b a
dx
a a
If f ( x ) ≥ g ( x ) on a ≤ x ≤ b then ∫ f ( x ) dx ≥ ∫ g ( x ) dx
b b
a a
If f ( x ) ≥ 0 on a ≤ x ≤ b then ∫ f ( x ) dx ≥ 0
b
If m ≤ f ( x ) ≤ M on a ≤ x ≤ b then m ( b − a ) ≤ ∫ f ( x ) dx ≤ M ( b − a )
b
Common Integrals
∫ k dx
= k x+c ∫ cos u=du sin u + c ∫ tan
= u du ln sec u + c
∫x = dx ∫ x=
−1
dx ln x + c 1
∫ sec u=
2
du tan u + c ∫=
1
du a tan ( ua ) + c
1 −1
a +u
2 2
g (b)
u Substitution : The substitution u = g ( x ) will convert ∫ a f ( g ( x ) ) g ′ ( x ) dx = ∫ g ( a ) f ( u ) du
b
using
cos ( x 3 ) dx cos ( x 3 ) dx = ∫ ( u ) du
2 2 8
∫ 1 5x ∫ 1 5x
2 2 5
Ex. cos
1 3
b b
Integration by Parts : ∫ u dv
= uv − ∫ v du and ∫ a u= − ∫ v du . Choose u and dv from
b
dv uv a a
∫ xe
−x 5
Ex. dx
−x −x
Ex. ∫3 ln x dx
u=
x dv =
e ⇒ du =
dx v =
−e u = ln x dv = dx ⇒ du = 1x dx v = x
∫ xe + ∫ e dx =
−x −x −x −x −x
dx =
− xe − xe −e +c
( x ln ( x ) − x ) 3
5 5 5
∫3 ln x dx = x ln x 3 − ∫ dx =
5
3
= 5ln ( 5 ) − 3ln ( 3) − 2
∫ tan ∫ cos x dx
sin5 x
3
Ex. x sec5 x dx Ex. 3
= ∫ ( sec x − 1) sec
2 4
(1−cos x ) sin x
x tan x sec xdx
( u cos x )
2 2
= ∫= dx 3
∫ ( u − 1) u du
cos x
= 2 4
(u = sec x )
= −∫
(1−u )
du = − ∫ 1−2u +u du
2 2 2 4
u u 3 3
= 17 sec7 x − 15 sec5 x + c
= 12 sec 2 x + 2 ln cos x − 12 cos 2 x + c
Trig Substitutions : If the integral contains the following root use the given substitution and
formula to convert into an integral involving trig functions.
a 2 − b2 x2 ⇒ x =
a
b
sin θ b2 x2 − a 2 ⇒ x =
a
b
sec θ a 2 + b2 x2 ⇒ x =
a
b
tan θ
cos 2 θ = 1 − sin 2 θ =
tan 2
θ sec 2 θ − 1 sec 2 θ = 1 + tan 2 θ
∫x ⌠ ( 23 cos θ ) dθ = ∫ sin122 θ dθ
16
Ex. dx 16
2
4 −9 x 2 ⌡ 4 sin 2 θ ( 2cosθ )
9
= 3 sin θ ⇒ dx
= cos θ dθ
2 2
x
∫ 12 csc dθ =
= −12 cot θ + c
3 2
4 − 9x 2 =4 − 4sin 2 θ =4 cos 2 θ =
2 cos θ Use Right Triangle Trig to go back to x’s. From
Recall x = x . Because we have an indefinite
2 substitution we have sin θ = 32x so,
integral we’ll assume positive and drop absolute
value bars. If we had a definite integral we’d
need to compute θ ’s and remove absolute value
bars based on that and,
x if x ≥ 0 4 −9 x 2
x = From this we see that cot θ = . So,
− x if x < 0
3x
∫x − 4 4−x 9 x + c
2
16
dx =
In this case we have 4 − 9x = 2 cos θ .
2 2
4 −9 x 2
P( x )
Partial Fractions : If integrating ∫ Q( x) dx where the degree of P ( x ) is smaller than the degree of
Q ( x ) . Factor denominator as completely as possible and find the partial fraction decomposition of
the rational expression. Integrate the partial fraction decomposition (P.F.D.). For each factor in the
denominator we get term(s) in the decomposition according to the following table.
Ax + B A1 x + B1 Ak x + Bk
( ax + bx + c ) + +
k
ax 2 + bx + c
2
ax + bx + c ( ax 2 + bx + c )
2 k
ax + bx + c
2
7 x2 +13 x Bx +C A( x2 + 4) + ( Bx +C ) ( x −1)
Ex. ∫ ( x −1)( x 2 + 4 )
dx 7 x2 +13 x
( x −1)( x 2 + 4 )
=x −1 + x 2 + 4 =
A
( x −1)( x 2 + 4 )
∫ 7 x2 +13 x
=
dx
( x −1)( x 2 + 4 ) ∫ x4−1 + 3xx++164 dx
2
Set numerators equal and collect like terms.
7 x 2 + 13 x = ( A + B ) x 2 + ( C − B ) x + 4 A − C
= ∫ x4−1 + x3+x 4 + x16+4 dx
2 Set coefficients equal to get a system and solve
2
An alternate method that sometimes works to find constants. Start with setting numerators equal in
x A ( x 2 + 4 ) + ( Bx + C ) ( x − 1) . Chose nice values of x and plug in.
previous example : 7 x 2 + 13=
For example if x = 1 we get 20 = 5A which gives A = 4 . This won’t always work easily.
Applications of Integrals
Area Between Curves : The general formulas for the two main cases for each are,
y f ( x) ⇒ = x f ( y) ⇒ =
b d
= A ∫a upper function
− lower function dx &= A ∫c right function
− left function dy
If the curves intersect then the area of each portion must be found individually. Here are some
sketches of a couple possible situations and formulas for a couple of possible cases.
∫c f ( y ) − g ( y ) dy
d
f ( x ) − g ( x ) dx =
b
∫a ∫ a f ( x ) − g ( x ) dx + ∫c g ( x ) − f ( x ) dx
c b
=A A A=
Ex. Axis : y= a > 0 Ex. Axis : y= a ≤ 0 Ex. Axis : y= a > 0 Ex. Axis : y= a ≤ 0
These are only a few cases for horizontal axis of rotation. If axis of rotation is the x-axis use the
y= a ≤ 0 case with a = 0 . For vertical axis of rotation ( x= a > 0 and x= a ≤ 0 ) interchange x and
y to get appropriate formulas.
Work : If a force of F ( x ) moves an object Average Function Value : The average value
of f ( x ) on a ≤ x ≤ b is f avg = ∫ f ( x ) dx
1 b
in a ≤ x ≤ b , the work done is W = ∫ F ( x ) dx
b
b−a a
a
Arc Length Surface Area : Note that this is often a Calc II topic. The three basic formulas are,
b b b
L = ∫ ds SA = ∫ 2π y ds (rotate about x-axis) SA = ∫ 2π x ds (rotate about y-axis)
a a a
where ds is dependent upon the form of the function being worked with as follows.
( ) ( dxdt ) ( )
2 2
dx if y = f ( x ) , a ≤ x ≤ b if x f ( t=
) , y g (t ) , a ≤ t ≤ b
dy 2 dy
ds = 1+ dx
=
ds + dt
dt =
1+ ( ) r 2 + ( ddrθ ) dθ if r= f (θ ) , a ≤ θ ≤ b
2 2
ds = dx
dy
dy if x = f ( y ) , a ≤ y ≤ b ds=
With surface area you may have to substitute in for the x or y depending on your choice of ds to
match the differential in the ds. With parametric and polar you will always need to substitute.
Improper Integral
An improper integral is an integral with one or more infinite limits and/or discontinuous integrands.
Integral is called convergent if the limit exists and has a finite value and divergent if the limit
doesn’t exist or has infinite value. This is typically a Calc II topic.
Infinite Limit
∞
f ( x ) dx = lim ∫ f ( x ) dx ∫ ∞ f ( x ) dx = lim ∫ f ( x ) dx
t b b
1. ∫ a t →∞ a
2.
− t → −∞ t
∞ ∞
f ( x ) dx ∫ f ( x ) dx + ∫ f ( x ) dx provided BOTH integrals are convergent.
c
3. ∫=
∞ − ∞ − c
Discontinuous Integrand
1. Discont. at a: ∫ f ( x ) dx = lim+ ∫ f ( x ) dx 2. Discont. at b : ∫ f ( x ) dx = lim− ∫ f ( x ) dx
b b b t
a t →a t a t →b a
∆x
∫ f ( x ) dx ≈ 2 f ( x ) + 2 f ( x ) + +2 f ( x ) + + 2 f ( x ) + f ( x )
b
Trapezoid Rule : 0 1 2 n −1 n
a
∆x
∫ f ( x ) dx ≈ 3 f ( x ) + 4 f ( x ) + 2 f ( x ) + + 2 f ( x ) + 4 f ( x ) + f ( x )
b
Simpson’s Rule : 0 1 2 n−2 n −1 n
a
Testing for Convergence or Divergence of a Series
Many of the series you come across will fall into one of several basic types. Recognizing
these types will help you decide which tests or strategies will be most useful in finding
whether a series is convergent or divergent.
If a n has a form that is similar to one of the above, see whether you can use the
comparison test: ∞
1
Example: ∑ 2
Comparison Test n =1 n + n
(Warning! This only works if a n and bn are always positive.) 1
Pick bn = 2 (p-series)
(i) If a n ≤ bn for all n, and ∑ bn is convergent, then ∑ a n is convergent. n
(ii) If a n ≥ bn for all n, and ∑ bn is divergent, then ∑ a n is divergent.
1 1
an = 2 ≤ 2 , and
n +n n
∞
1
∑ converges, so by
∑n
2
Consider a series b so that the ratio n =1 n
∞ ∞
1
Example: ∑ n a n bn cancels the dominant terms in (i), ∑ 2
1
converges.
n =1 2 − 1 n =1 n + n
1 the numerator and denominator of a n ,
Pick bn = n (geometric) as in the example to the left. If you
2
a 1 2 n know whether ∑ bn converges or not,
lim n = lim n
n →∞ b n →∞ 2 − 1 1 try using the limit comparison test.
n
1
= lim =1> 0
n →∞ 1 − 1 2 n Limit Comparison Test
∞
1 (Warning! This only works if a n and bn are always positive.)
∑ converges, so
an
∑a ∑b
n
n =1 2 = c > 0 (and c is finite), then
If lim n and n either both
∞ n →∞
bn
1
∑
n =1 2 − 1
n
converges.
converge or both diverge.
1
Test for Divergence 1−
n −1 2
n2 = 1 ≠ 0
∞ lim a n = lim 2 = lim
If lim a n ≠ 0 , then
n →∞
∑a
n =1
n is divergent. n →∞ n →∞ n + n n →∞
1+
1
n
∞
n −1
2
so ∑ 2 is divergent.
n =1 n + n
Testing for Convergence or Divergence of a Series (continued)
∞
n2
So ∑ (−1) n−1
n =1 n3 + 1
is convergent.
The following 2 tests prove convergence, but also prove the stronger fact that ∑a n
Ratio Test ∞
a
Example: ∑e −n
n!
If lim n +1 < 1 , then ∑a n is absolutely convergent. n =1
n →∞ a
n a n +1 e − n −1 (n + 1)!
lim = lim
a n +1 a n →∞ a n →∞ e − n n!
If lim
n →∞ an
> 1 or lim n +1 = ∞ , then
n → ∞ an
∑a n is divergent. n
= e −1 lim n + 1 = ∞ , so
n →∞
a ∞
If lim n +1 = 1 , use another test.
n →∞ a
n
∑e
n =1
−n
n! is divergent.
∞
nn When a n contains factorials and/or powers of constants,
Example: ∑3
n =1
1+ 3 n as in the above example, the ratio test is often useful.
nn n
lim n 1+ 3 n
= lim 1 n 3 Root Test
∑a
n →∞ 3 n → ∞ 3 3 If lim n a n < 1 , then n is absolutely convergent.
n →∞
1 n
= lim 1 n = ∞ a n +1
27 n→∞ 3
∞
If lim n a n > 1 or lim
n →∞ n →∞ a
= ∞ , then ∑a n is divergent.
nn n
So ∑ 1+3n is divergent.
n =1 3
If lim n a n = 1 , use another test.
n →∞