REMEDIAL TECHNICAL SERVICES

The Concise Guide

to the
Identification of Insect Attack
and Fungal Decay of Timber

by

G.R.Coleman. B.Sc(Hons).,C.Biol.,M.I.Biol.,A.I.W.Sc.,F.Inst.R.T.S..
The Concise Guide
to the Identification of
Insect Attack and
Fungal Decay of Timber

By

G.R.Coleman.B.Sc(Hons).,C.Biol.,M.I.Biol.,A.I.W.Sc..
The Concise Guide
to the Identification of
Insect Attack and
Fungal Decay of Timber

A simple Guide for those engaged in

Surveying for Insect and Rot damage in
Buildings, and a course Guide for all
those pursuing the C.S.R.T qualification.

Whilst every care has been taken to ensure the accuracy of the contents and data
contained within this publication, no guarantee or liability is assumed for the information
given.

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be utilised in any form or by any information storage or mechanical means,
including photocopying, recording, or by any information and retrieval system, without permission of the author.

© Graham Coleman 2000

The Concise Guide to the Identification of
Insect Attack and Fungal Decay of Timber

INTRODUCTION:

The ‘Concise Guide to the Identification of Insect Attack and Fungal

Decay of Timber’ has been prepared as a result of many years of
inspecting wood, and undertaking training for those taking the CSRT
qualification in Timber Infestation and Dampness.

The Guide is intended to take the investigator through simple, logical

processes in order to help him/her identify common decay and insect
damage in any timber he may find. The Guide is therefore con-
structed around basic principles and tips to take the investigator stage
by stage though an identification and evaluation process.

The Guide will also be especially useful to those wishing to take the
CSRT qualification. It provides not only an ‘aide de memoir’ to help
remind the student of different forms of insect attack and rot, it also
takes the student through the essential processes of observation and
elimination.

Many surveyors, when faced with unknown damage, immediately

respond by saying they don’t know anything about it. Yes they do! --
the damage will show rot of one type or another, or it may have holes
- big, small, round, or oval. So already we know something about the
material. And by taking the simple processes of observation and
elimination further we can usually finish up by knowing quite a lot
about the problem. Don’t forget - use a hand lens and a penknife - it
will make observation and identification much easier!

Please note that the paper clip on some samples is to give an illustra-
tion of scale - not to hold the sample together! It is a ‘standard’ size
27mm
of 27mm

I hope you will appreciate this publication, and that it will help you
with both your studies and practical surveying.

Graham Coleman. B.Sc(Hons).,C.Biol.,M.I.Biol.,A.I.W.Sc..

 IDENTIFICATION OF WOODBORER DAMAGE

Common furniture beetle - Anobium punctatum

Identification:

Attacks sapwood of softwood and

hardwoods.

Round holes approx. 2mm in diameter.

Short dust (frass) filled tunnels with
lemon shaped frass pellets (use a
magnifying glass!). Frass feels ‘gritty’
between fingers.

Tip: Tap samples to extract frass and

rub frass between fingers; it will feel
‘gritty’ because frass consists of lemon
shaped pellets, visible with magnifying
glass.

Note: Compare this frass to that of

Lyctus.

Powder post beetle - Lyctus brunneus

Identification:

Superficially it looks like Common

Furniture Beetle damage, the holes
being of similar size. BUT it only
attacks the sapwood of wide-pored
hardwoods like oak and obeche.Only
likely to be found active in recently
introduced hardwood items.

Usually lots of flour-like frass - smooth

when rubbed between fingers.

Watch out for this damage in plywood

where it attacks the obeche core!
Sometimes the surface veneer disap-
pears which leaves the exposed core -
always check frass by rubbing between
fingers.

Tip: Tap sample to get frass or if

exposed just rub fingers over the frass
surface (see lower figure) - frass is like
flour, not ‘gritty’ like furniture beetle.
(If frass is similar but very hard packed,
it is probably Ptilinus pectinicornis.)

Note: Always check the wood type and

frass!
‘Ambrosia’ beetles or Pinhole borers:

Identification:

Holes vary according to species of

‘ambrosia’ attacking, but many look
just like furniture beetle. Holes are
round AND surface of holes are stained
blackish colour (look carefully; colour
much easier to see in light coloured
wood - see small photo). The adult
beetle does the boring, not the larvae!

Test holes with a pin! -- in many of

them the pin will go down its full length
as shown in the top photo (pin only
penetrates holes about 3-5mm in the
case of furniture beetle.) Holes are also
empty - No frass at all!

Tip: Note the apparent ‘surface scoring’

and oval holes as outlined, ie, the holes
appear to run along surface as shown in
circle on figure. This is because the
wood was cut AFTER the damage
occurred. Always look for this sign -- it
is a general give-away for ‘forest’ insect
damage. (‘Forest’ insect damage doesn’t
need treating)

Waney edge or Bark borer - Ernobius mollis

Identification:

Looks very like furniture beetle at first

sight BUT note ALL the damage is
along the barked edge (waney edge).
Most attack is very superficial; it just
looks ‘scored’. Any holes are within
about 15mm (max.) of the barked edge.
Most emergence holes are through bark
if present

Plenty of frass IF bark is still on sample

-- frass is ‘bun’ shaped and there are
dark and light pellets - feels ‘gritty’;
‘buns’ smaller than Deathwatch frass

Tip: Always check for the presence of

bark/waney edge!

No preservative treatment required, just

remove the bark.
Deathwatch beetle - Xestobium rufovillosum

Identification:

Looks something like large Furniture

beetle damage. Round holes about 3mm
diameter, often very extensive tunnelling.
Lots of frass usually present so shake
timber -- frass is ‘bun’ shaped, readily
visible to the naked eye.

Attacked wood is virtually always hard-

wood with some degree of decay, often
by the white rot, Donkioporia expansa.
Wood is usually oak. However, Death-
watch beetle will attack softwood IF well
rotted and in contact with infested hard-
wood (see lower photo).

Watch out for attack in softwood samples

- check for large ‘bun-shaped pellets!

Deathwatch beetle is not usually found in

Scotland or Northern Ireland.

Tip: Think of the attack as ‘large furni-

ture beetle’ and then look for the frass --
Deathwatch in softwood the ‘buns’ are readily visible and the frass
feels very gritty. Shake sample to get
frass out.

House Longhorn beetle - Hylotrupes bajulus:

Identification:

Attacks the sapwood of softwood. Large

truly OVAL holes (NOT round holes cut
at an angle), and LOTS of very loose
frass with readily visible ‘sausage’
shaped pellets (lower photo).

Severe internal damage with lots of frass;

tunnels truly oval and tend to coalesce.
The surface of wood often remains as a
thin sound ‘veneer’ in a severe attack.
Note ‘Chewing ridges’ from larvae on
tunnel surface (inset). Dig into the
sample; lots of damage beneath surface
(lower photo).

Note: The insect is basically restricted to

the SE of England.

NEEDS TREATMENT IF ACTIVE.

Forest Longhorns

Identification:

Large, truly OVAL tunnels and holes

(not round cut at angle) but generally
slightly flattened.

Generally NO frass, but occassionally a

little fibrous material! (c/f House
Longhorn). Tunnels very discrete, ie,
sound timber between tunnels (NB
House Longhorn tunnels tend to coa-
lesce into one large frass filled cavity!)
Damage may be in both hard and
softwoods.

You may see materials with the bark

present or just removed. Note the
scoring to the surface in the lower
photo. This is because forest longhorn
larvae feed mostly on the bark and
surface of the wood (they need bark to
lay their eggs - (see inset with adults) ).
Only a few tunnels go into the wood --
these are discrete.

Tip: Look for the oval, discrete well

defined tunnels with no frass! Don’t
confuse this damage with House
Longhorn. Doesn’t need treatment.

Wood boring weevils - Pentarthrum huttoni,

Euophryum confine

Identification:

Attack soft and hardwood which have

ROTTED! This is readily evident.
Tunnels tend to run along grain, fre-
quently breaking the surface. Any
clearly identifiable emergence holes are
ragged and around 1mm diameter.

Frass is ‘gritty’ and somewhat like

Anobium frass (if it is present in the
sample).

Tip: Look for the rot and the general

damage running along the grain, often
breaking the surface.
Wharf borer - Nacerdes melanura

Identification:

Wood is WELL rotted, so check wood

first; appears to prefer softwoods.
Tunnels are large, up to 6mm across and
oval; usually run with the grain. Usually
full of a hard ‘mud’ like material and
coarse fibres.

Tip: Always check to see if holes are

oval AND check the condition of the
wood. Don’t mistake this with House or
Forest Longhorns, or Marine borer.
With this insect the wood is always
WELL rotted! Not too common: the big
problem is not the insect but rot.

Wood wasp - Urocerus gigas

Identification:

Large ROUND holes 6mm, but cut at an

angle they can look oval, so beware!
Don’t confuse with Longhorns! Re-
member, round holes cut oval indicate a
forest insect, or damage occurred before
conversion.

Lining of holes are ‘clean’ (c/f Marine

borer). Tightly packed coarse fibrous
frass may be present in holes as shown.
Not commonly found. A ‘forest’ insect.

‘Jewel’ beetles - Buprestidae

Identification:

A large group of beetles, often brightly

coloured. Damage occurs in standing
trees; it is therefore a ‘forest’ insect and
doesn’t infect seasoned wood.

Damage looks like Longhorn damage,

(large oval tunnels circa 6-8mm)
especially House Longhorn BUT holes
are more discrete. CARE - the holes
contain sausage shaped but hard packed
frass (c/f House Longhorn)!

Highly unlikely that you will come

across this damage.
Ptilinus pectinicornis

Identification:

Superficially similar to Common

Furniture Beetle and Lyctus, ie, emer-
gence holes are about 2mm diameter
and round. BUT this insect occurs in
the sapwood of a few European hard-
woods.

Tunnels are HARD packed with flour-

like frass which will have to be dug out
(Lyctus frass can be readily knocked out
or easily obtained if the frass is slightly
damp).

Extremely uncommon but could be

found in specialist hardwood goods/
furniture, and even in pieces of Euro-
pean hardwoods from timber yards.
Highly unlikely to be found in general
surveys.

Other ‘Wood borers’

Marine borer or Shipworm - Teredo spp

Identification:

NOT INSECT DAMAGE! Damage

caused by a mollusc when wood is left
in sea water.

Can be mistaken for House Longhorn

damage because of the large holes.
Note, the holes are ROUND! Some
superficially appear oval because they
have been cut on an angle.

Also note the WHITE CALCAREOUS

LINING in the holes - this is the give-
away. Obviously no frass!

Not common since the attack occurs in

sea water, and very few such timbers
would be incorporated into a house.

Tip: Always check to see that holes are

round and not round holes cut at an
angle! Watch for the white lining.
Other insects boring into wood

Identification:

There are a number of insects that

‘attack’ wood in one way or another.
Some utilise the wood for food whilst
others use it to make pupal chambers to
rear their offspring. In most cases the
wood is well rotted.

One common example of an insect using

rotting wood to form brood chambers is
given in the photo. Here, the centre of
the wood has severely rotted, and a
solitary wasp has used it to prepare
brood chambers. These are easily given
away by the presence of pieces of
insects (see wing in circle) including the
metallic colours of the thorax of some
flies; ‘membranous’ pupal cells are
usually also visible.

Very rarely one may find Stag beetles

and Pseudo-stag beetles in old rotting
oak, eg, in lintels. Again, they require
the wood to be very well rotted.

When such insects attack wood look for

the contents of the tunnels; with many
of these insects eg, solitary wasps and
bees, tunnels are blind ending. In most
of such damage the wood is usually
rotted.
NON-WOODBORING INSECTS
It is not uncommon to find other insects within buildings which could be confused with
woodboring beetles. Some of these insects are innocuous having flown in, say, from the
garden, whilst others may be, in effect, pests of stored materials. It is therefore important to be
able to distinguish some of the most common of these from woodborers. Other than Death-
watch beetle and possibly woodboring weevils, it is unlikely that the investigator will find
woodboring beetles during his/her survey, so if odd ‘beetles’ are discovered then they are
more often than not ‘non-woodborers’.

The author has found the following to be the most common encountered:

Two spotted carpet beetle - Attagenus pellio

Identification:

Two Spotted Carpet beetle is frequently

confused with Common Furniture
beetle. It is slightly larger (4-6mm) but
actual size it can be readily distinguished because
of the TWO SMALL WHITE SPOTS
on the elytra. Unlike furniture beetle, it
appears ‘smoother’ and shiny, and is
more oval in outline.

In the domestic environment they breed

in furs, skins and woollen fabrics,
especially carpets. They are also found
among dry vegetable products, and they
may also subsist on the dead bodies of
other insects pests.

Variagated carpet beetle - Anthrenus verbasci

Identification:

actual size The Variagated Carpet beetle is about

2/3rds the size of the Two Spotted
Carpet beetle (above), and like that
beetle it is oval shaped. In overall
appearance it is a ‘mottled’ colour.

The larvae feed on woollen materials,

hair, furs, bristles, skin and on dead
insects and dried animal remains.

Larder beetles -Dermestes lardarius (l) D. maculatus(r)

Identification:
Both Larder beetles are larger than the
actual size Two spotted carpet beetle.

They usually feed on dried meats, and

also dead mice, rodents and birds;
where these insects are found checks
should be made for such items.
Ash bark borer - Hylesinus fraxini

Identification:

actual size Ash Bark Borers are usually found in

very large numbers, often crawling
across floors where numbers can be
crushed with each step.

If you find large numbers of insects

that superficially look like furniture
beetle then look for ash logs brought
into the house, usually for an open fire.

Biscuit beetle - Stegobium paniceum

Identification:

Actual size
The Biscuit beetle is very easily con-
fused with Furniture beetle to which it
is closely related. Indeed, it is extremely
similar in appearance but generally
smaller (Note: Furniture beetles can
vary quite a lot in size, some being quite
small). However, it often appears to be
found earlier in the year than the emer-
gence period of Furniture beetle.

The easiest ways to tell the two apart

are (1) Biscuit beetles are more red-
Anobium Stegobium
brown in colour, (2) the rows of inden-
tations on their wing covers (elytra) are
much less pronounced, (3) they have a
dense covering of fine yellowish hairs
on the wing covers and thorax, and (4)
when viewed from the side there is no
‘hump’ on the thorax as for Furniture
beetle (see figure).

The insect is a common pest of food-

stuffs including cereal products and
dried vegetable matter. Therefore, it is
important to note where you find the
beetle: it is often found in close proxim-
ity to, or in cupboards, etc, and often
well away from wood.
 IDENTIFICATION OF ROT DAMAGE

‘Brown Rots’

Identification:

ALL ‘brown’ rots cause the wood to

crack in a CUBOIDAL manner. They
also cause darkening of the wood but
this may not be so noticeable in dark
timber.

The size of the ‘cubes’ will vary de-

pending on the wood and the particular
brown rot. In very broad and general
terms dry rot, Serpula lacrymans, tends
to form bigger cubes than other brown
rots -- but this is only a generality!

Brown rots are caused by those fungi

which attack only the cellulose and
hemicellulose fractions of the wood; the
lignin is left and this causes the darken-
ing in colour. A brown rot can NEVER
cause rot like a ‘white’ rot (see
overpage)

The brown rots you are familiar with

are Dry Rot, Serpula lacrymans, Cellar
Fungus, Coniophora puteana, the Mine
Fungus, Fibroporia vaillantii: these are
by far the most common brown rots that
you will encounter.

NOTE: When you are looking at rots it

is most important to first determine
whether it is a brown rot or not. Why?
Quite simply, if it isn’t a brown rot then
the damage can’t be dry rot!
‘White rots’

Identification:

The term ‘white rot’ is given to all those

fungi that cause the decayed wood to
appear ‘FIBROUSY’ and go lighter in
colour. There is NO cuboidal cracking
as for a ‘brown rot’.The fibrous nature
of the rotted wood is clearly distin-
guishable from brown rots.

ALL white rots are ‘wet’ rots, and

include rots like Asterostroma spp,
Donkioporia expansa, and Phellinus
contiguus.

The colour change is due to the white

rots attacking all components of the
wood, ie, cellulose, hemicellulose and
the lignin.

One thing is certain, a white rot cannot

be dry rot!

Chemical attack

Identification:

Chemical attack is frequently

misdiagnosed as a ‘white rot’ because
the wood also goes ‘fibrousy’ and
becomes lighter in colour.

However, in the case of chemical attack

the INDIVIDUAL WOOD FIBRES
become apparent, ie, the fibrous nature
is very fine. In white rot attack the
wood just takes on a coarse ‘fibrousy’
appearance. Furthermore, chemical
attack frequently ‘bleaches’ the wood,
whereas white rot attack just cause it to
lighten in colour.

Compare the white rot above and the

chemical attack opposite
Dry rot - Serpula lacrymans (a brown rot)

Identification:

If there is no mycelium/growth then all

one can say is the damage is a ‘brown’
rot. The ‘cubes’, however, are said to be
larger than found in other brown rots.

Mycelium varies from:

(a) under dryer conditions -- ‘silvery-
grey’, to buff, to fawn skin; may have
lilac/yellow patches (mycelium ‘peels’
like a mushroom),
(b) under more humid conditions --
Yellow and lilac
white cotton wool-like growth; may be
colouration in ‘tear-drops’ present under very wet and
mycelium humid conditions.

Strands may be present; these develop

within the mycelium and are BRITTLE
when dry.

Fruiting body - large fleshy plate/

Cotton wool- bracket with reddish brown surface and
like mycelium white margin. Pores wide and shallow.

Tip: Mycelium peels like a mushroom

AND dry strands are brittle and dis-
tinctly ‘crack’ on bending.

‘Tear drops’ on
mycelium

Strands
developing in
mycelium

Fruiting body
Cellar fungus - Coniophora puteana (a brown rot)

Identification:

The mycelium is not always present:

tends to develop under humid condi-
tions such as behind damp skirting, etc,
as a blackish to olive-brown sheet. If no
mycelium present then it can be diffi-
cult to identify from other brown rots.
However, in most cases the rot is
‘internal’, and leaves a very thin ‘skin’
of sound wood at the surface (see
photograph). This can be used to
suggest the damage might be ‘cellar’
fungus.

Growth, mycelium and strands, can

develop away from the wood over the
surface of very damp masonry under
very humid conditions.

Frequently, fine brown strands emanate

from rotting wood; these are quite
delicate and do not go brittle on drying.

Fruiting bodies are brown flat thin

plate-like structures with small
protuberances (see photograph)

(Coniophora marmorata looks very

similar to C. puteana)
Strands

Mycelium
growing over
masonry

Fruiting body
Mine fungus - Antrodia vaillantii (a brown rot)

Identification:

Formerly known as Fibroporia

vaillantii, it is very difficult to identify
without any fungal growth, so as with
any brown rot without growth you can’t
identify just describe it as a ‘brown’ rot.

All growth if present is effectively

PURE WHITE! Mycelium - white,
fernlike; can look like ‘frost’ on a
window (see photo).

Strands - white, tough and remain

FLEXIBLE when dry (see photo) NB
Dry rot strands are BRITTLE when
dry!.
Mycelium
Fruiting body - white, fleshy with a
small ‘honeycomb’ appearance of
surface.

Be careful - this fungus is often mis-

taken for dry rot.

Flexible
strands

Fruiting
body
Phellinus contiguus (a white rot)

Identification:

Typical white rot: coarse fibrousy

appearance, usually severely decayed.
But note in the lower sample the appar-
ent cuboidal cracks in the very surface,
so take care to examine the wood as a
whole where the fibrous nature will
then be apparent.

Mycelium about the colour of chamois

leather (‘tawny), and roughly looks like
it; often in sheets if present. Note: the
small ‘tufts’ tawny coloured growth
within cracks in rotted wood - look for
this (ringed).

Fruiting body (to left of photo at top) is

brown and ‘woody’. Lots of small
pores; can appear a bit like looking at
the end of tightly rolled, very finely
corrugated paper (pores are erratic
shape). Fruiting body moulds itself to
the shape of the wood surface: no
strands.

Asterostroma spp. (a white rot)

Identification:

Surface mycelium pinkish-grey in

colour in thin sheets; fruiting body
similar in appearance to mycelium, not
readily distinguished. Under a micro-
scope there are lots of ‘star ‘ shaped
structures in mycelium. Surface of
wood may take on a ‘weathered’ ap-
pearance.

Thin robust strands develop which can

spread long distances over damp ma-
sonry and timber.
Donkioporia expansa (a white rot)

Identification:

A white rot causing ‘stringy’ rot in Oak;

wood goes stringy and fibrous. Can
cause very severe breakdown of the
wood (top photo).

Fruiting body is woody and pores are

very small which gives the surface not a
particularly ‘pored’ look (c/f Phellinus);
pores best seen in cross section of
fruiting body where they give the cross
section a ‘striated’ appearance (see
photo and inset). Sometimes one layer
of pores is set over another layer.

Fruiting body usually moulds itself to

the wood; no strands. Fruiting body can
grow quite large, several feet across.

The mycelium may be found where it

sometimes exudes drops of a yelliwish
coloured liquid. It can look something
like ‘polystyrene’ with a thin brown
crust (lower photo).

Deathwatch beetle is commonly associ-

ated with this fungus.
Fruiting body

polystyrene-like mycelium
-- and some not so common rots:

The Stag’s Horn fungus - Lentinus lepideus

Identification:

Certainly not common but interesting in

that there are two forms of the fruiting
body occur (photo), frequently very
close together. It name is derived from
the branching fruiting body which
resembles a stag’s horn.

It is a ‘brown’ rot causing cuboidal

cracking.

Not common in the UK but may be

found in softwood timbers which have
received inadequate creasote during
impregnation treatments

The Oyster fungus - Pleurotus ostreatus

Identification:

Not frequently found. The upper speci-

men was found in HMS Victory; the
whole cluster of fruiting bodies is about
150mm across.

The fruiting body is a grey or fawn to

buff mushroom-like cap with light
coloured gills. It may or may not have a
short stalk present, but if it is it is offset
Specimen by kind permission of H. Goslyn to one side.

The fruiting body varies quite consider-

ably. The lower photo shows a form
with a large stem and small cap; this
was growing from a floor/wall junction.

The Oyster fungus is a ‘white’ rot

which might be found attacking panel
products of hardwood.
Paxillus panuoides

Identification:

The rot is a typical brown rot, the wood

initially taking on a ‘cheese-like’
consistency and a bright yellow
colouration. Latter it goes golden
brown and deep cuboidal cracking
occurs.

The fruiting body is quite small and

several may appear from what appears
to be a common base. It tends to be
yellow. The gills divide, ie, they are
‘bifurcated’.

Fine yellow to buff strands may also

form.

This fungus is certainly not common.

King Alfred’s Cakes - Daldinia concentrica

Identification:

The fruiting body is black, very hard

and ‘woody’ -- hence the name ‘King
Alfred’s Cakes’ (he burnt them!).

Whilst certainly not common in build-

ings, it is not uncommon growing on
dead wood in hedge rows.

It is easily identified by the pattern of

concentric ‘rings’ when sectioned.
NON WOOD-ROTTING FUNGI

Blue stain in service

Identification

Don’t confuse this with sapstain.

Sapstain occurs in freshly felled logs or
fresh sawn timber.

‘Blue stain in service’ is caused by a

number of fungal species. These fungi
cause black streaks to greyish patches in
the wood, most readily observable
under/on clear finishes (see photo)
where they cause obvious discoloura-
tion of the timber. The growths will
often rupture the finish (sapstain fungi
do not); this may allow further water to
enter so causing other problems.

Blue stain in service will spoil paint and

clear finishes and the stain can pen-
etrate deeply in the wood. For active
growth and survival it requires moisture
contents in excess of 20%. Whilst it
will die if infected wood is kept below
this figure, the discolouration will
remain.

These fungi do not destroy timber as

they feed only on the cell contents, not
the wood itself.
Moulds
Identification

Many types, and different colours, eg,

whiote, green, yellow. The most com-
mon encountered is Aspergillus niger,
black spot mould.

Moulds do NOT attack wood but feed

on the free sugars in the wood cells, or
organic detritus on surfaces, ie, they are
surface growths and can grow on almost
any surface. They result from condensa-
tion and maintenance of very high
humidities. Such dampness is usually
the result of internal moisture produc-
tion (‘life style’), not rising damp, etc.

The colours are usually due to spores:

some growths may form cotton-wool
like surface growth - take care not to
mistake for a true wood rotting fungus.
‘Ink cap’ fungus - Coprinus domesticus

Identification:

This fungus can loosely be described as

looking like a thin, elongated mush-
room: it has a thin stalk and small cap.
There are gills on the underside of the
cap which are black; as the growth ages
the whole head turns black and hence
the name ‘inkcap’.

It is often referred to as a plaster fungus

because it is often seen growing out of
plaster, but it will fundamentally grow
from any DAMP substrate. It generally
is not a wood destroyer, but
occassionally it can slowly decay
hardwoods, eg, laths.

The real importance of its presence is

that it identifies very damp conditions.
Where these exist it should put the
investigator on notice of dampness and,
of course, any timber in contact with
such moisture will be at risk to rot
developing.
‘Elf cup’ fungus - Peziza spp.

Identification:

The fruiting body of this fungus forms a

small fleshty cup up to 50mm across: it
is generally pale buff colour on the
upper side and white on the underside.
Some people have likened it to a rather
large ‘pasta shell’. When it dries out it
shrinks and becomes very hard and
brittle.

The fungus may be found growing from

almost any substrate including plaster,
brick, carpet, mortar. The presence of
the growth indicates VERY WET
Photograph by kind permission of Ridout Associates
conditions. Thus, whilst the organism
does not attack wood, where it is
present the substrate will be very damp,
and any timber in contact with such
dampness will be at RISK TO ROT!
 KNOW YOUR BASIC TIMBERS

Hardwoods and Softwoods

Oak (hardwood):

Note the obvious ‘ring’ porous structure

at end grain (obvious ‘holes’); ‘Pores’
are set in annual rings. Also this porous
structure breaks surface on the flat face;
grain ‘erratic’ along surface.

Beech (hardwood):

Note the ‘flecky’ appearance of the

surface, ie, grain does not appear con-
tinuous. Annual rings visible on end
grain but NO pores!

Pine (softwood):

Note the grain running the length of the

material in parallel lines; not broken (
ie, not ‘flecky’) like Beech. End grain
NOT ring porous like Oak. Wood
lighter in colour.

Close up of end grain:

Oak (left) - note the pores

Beech (centre)
Pine (right)

Oak is a ‘durable’ timber and there-

fore it has good resistance to decay.
That is why it is found as structural
timbers and also on the outside of a
property.

Beech is ‘perishable’ and at high risk

to rot if it becomes damp: it is not
used outdoors or where it is at risk to
rot. Therefore, it is usually found in
furniture within buildings.
CCA treated softwood

Treated softwood:

Softwood treated with CCA (Copper-

Chrome-Arsenic) is usually recognis-
able because the very light green tinge
to the surface of the wood. DON’T
confuse with brush applied Copper
naphthenate (Cuprinol ‘green’) which is
very bright green. In cross section the
green tinge can be seen to penetrate the
wood (outer areas look slightly
‘dirtier’), but never right through. Note
the lighter ‘natural’ colour of the
untreated wood in the centre.

CCA is a combination of water-bourne

salts in solution applied to wood under
pressure, ie, it is applied by an indus-
trial process. The depth of penetration
as indicated by the colour can vary.
Occasionally, it can be very poor; this is
usually because the wood was wet when
treated. Sometimes it may be because
the timber is resistant to the uptake of
preservative (see next page).

But note the result of rot penetrating

beneath a poor CCA treatment (lower
photo) - the interior has completely
rotted (dry rot) leaving a thin outer
sound CCA ‘veneer’. ALWAYS treat
cut ends after working to size - this will
protect against rot entering through
exposed untreated wood at the ends.

In general, the copper fraction is the

fungicide, the arsenic fraction is the
insecticide and the chrome is the fixa-
tive.

So, when looking at timber always

check for any colouration, especially in
cross section. NB: don’t mistake the
differential in colour between heart-
wood and sapwood for treatment!

Note: some industrially treated timber is

colourless. Vac-vac treated wood will
often smell of ‘solvent’ if the treatment
was fairly recent: ‘boron’ treated wood
has no smell.
 DURABILITY AND PRESERVATION OF TIMBER

Durability:

Grade of Durability Approx. life in The term DURABILITY refers to both

Very durable (eg. Teak)
Durable (eg. Oak)
Moderately durable(eg.Cherry)
Non-durable (eg. Hemlock)
Perishable (eg. Beech)
ground contact hardwoods and softwoods, and is a
measure of the resistance to decay when
More than 25 years wood is in GROUND CONTACT.
15 - 25 years However, durability refers SOLELY to
10 - 15 years the HEARTWOOD; sapwood of all
5 - 10 years timber is either non-durable or perish-
Less than 5 years able.

The durability classifications of timbers

can be found in both the Handbook of
Hardwoods and the Handbook of Soft-
woods. The classifications have been
obtained by the ‘graveyard’ test where
50mm square stakes of heartwood have
been driven into the ground and as-
sessed periodically for rot.

Extremely resistant:
Absorb only a small amount of preservative even under
long pressure treatments. They cannot be penetrated to
an appreciable depth laterally, and only to a very small
extent longitudinally. (eg. Oak)
Resistant:
Timber difficult to impregnate under pressure and
require a long treatment period. Difficult to penetrate
laterally more than about 3 - 6mm. (eg. Sapele, Spruce)
Moderately resistant:
Fairly easy to treat, and usually possible to obtain lateral
penetration of 6 - 18mm in 2 - 3 hours under pressure, or
the penetration of a large propertion of the vessels. (eg.
Yellow Pine)
Permeable:
Completely pentrated under pressure (eg. Beech)
Amenability to Preservative
Treatment:
The ability of a timber preservative to
pentrate wood varies with the species of
timber. Therefore, to give a guide as to
preservative uptake a simple classifica-
tion has been set up.
The tests which founded the classifica-
tion were based on the ability of wood
to take up creosote under pressure
impregnation. Other preservatives
applied under pressure, however, will
vary from that of creosote but the
relative impregnation between timbers
is roughly the same.
It should be noted that there can be
considerable differences in uptake
between sapwood and heartwood.

Details of timber permeability are given

in the Handbook of Hardwoods and the
Handbook of Softwoods.
 HOW TO EXAMINE INFECTED TIMBER.
When confronted with a piece of ‘infected’ timber you will always know something about
the damage -- even if you think you don’t! It is simply a question of systematic observation
and deduction. After a few minutes of careful observation and describing details, you will
certainly finish up by knowing quite a lot about the damage. How? By adhering to a sequence
of observations, using a good magnifying lens, a knife, - and applying some common sense.

Holes and/or rot present?

Holes: Wood rot?

- insect attack - brown rot (cuboidal cracking and darkening
of wood, or white rot (fibrous, stringly ap-
pearance and lightening in colour). Note; if
Timber
white rot then the rot isn’t Dry rot!
- hardwood or softwood?
- chemical attack?

Big or small holes?

Timber?
- gives a clue to the size of insect and likely
- hardwood or softwood?
damage

Damage?
Round or oval tunnels/holes?
- is rot internal or can it be readily seen from
- are holes truly oval, or round holes cut at an
surface?
angle? If the latter then the damge occurred
before the wood was cut (forest insect?)
- are emergence holes clean, stained or do they Growth?
have ragged edges? - present or absent?
- are tunnels lined with a white deposit? - if present, is it in sheets, colour, delicate or
- are holes in well rotted wood, blind ending tough?
and contain ‘bits’ of insects such as wings? - strands present or absent; are they tough or
delicate Are they brittle when dry (dry rot)?
Frass?
- present or absent? Fruiting body?
- hard packed or loose (watch out for damp - is the growth a fruiting body?
frass which tends to stick) - woody, fleshy, or sheet like?
- when rubbed between fingers is frass ‘gritty’, - pores; large, small, shape: layers of pores?
flour-like?
- does frass have form, ie, pellets, fibres? Are
these visible to the naked eye or do you need a
lens?

So, by working through a series of basic questions and letting these guide your observations,
you will have described in detail the nature of the problem - and hopefully deduced from the
observations the organism causing the damage. Even if you don’t finish up with the correct
answer, you will have still gone a long way towards the identification!
 KNOW YOUR WOODBORER SIZE AND ‘HOLES’

Comparative outlines Outlines to scale

20 mm 0

6-10mm
House Longhorn (Forest Longhorn
12 -15mm similar but flatter)

Wharf Borer
7-12mm 6-7mm

Deathwatch around
Beetle 6-8mm 3mm

Powder Post 1-2mm

Beetle 5-7mm

Bark Borer/Waney 2mm

Edge Borer 5-6mm

Ptilinus
pectinicornis 2mm
4-6mm

Common Furniture
1-2mm
Beetle 4-5mm

Woodboring weevil 1mm

3-5mm ragged

Other:
Varied-
Marine borer calcareous
white lining

Forest 6-10mm
Longhorn

Wood wasp 6-7mm

 COMMON WOODBORING INSECTS.
The following woodboring beetles can sometimes be found associated with infected wood

Common Furniture Beetle Bark Borer/Waney Edge Borer

(Anobium punctatum) (Ernobius mollis)

Deathwatch Beetle Powder Post Beetle

(Xestobium rufovillosum) (Lyctus brunneus)
 COMMON WOODBORING INSECTS.

House Longhorn Beetle Woodboring Weevils

(Hylotrupes bajulus)

Wharf Borer
(Nacerdes melanura) Ptilinus pectinicornis
 COMPARATIVE FEATURES OF INSECT DAMAGE – SMALLER INSECTS

Anobium ‘Ambrosia’ Lyctus brunneus Ernobius mollis Xestobium Ptilinus Pentarthrum

punctatum beetles rufovillosum pectinicornis huttoni
(Pinhole borers) Euophryum
confine

Common name: Common furniture Ambrosia beetles Powder Post beetle Bark borer Death-watch beetle -- Wood-boring Weevils
beetle Pinhole borers Waney edge borer

Timber attacked: Sapwood of soft and Soft and hardwoods; Sapwood of wide pored Seasoned and partly Hardwood with some Sapwood of limited Very decayed
hardwoods, old attack freshly fallen hardwoods (eg. Oak) seasoned softwood decay present, eg, range of European hardwoods and
plywood (modern logs, not seasoned with a high starch with bark present. oak, elm. hardwoods. softwoods.
plywoods tend to be timber. content (>3%). Must have bark
Softwoods can be Like Lyctus damage
immune): tropical Timbers over 10 years present to initiate
A ‘forest’ insect attacked if well usually originates in
hardwoods mostly old become ‘immune’ attack.
decayed and close to timber yard/storage.
immune. due to natural depletion
infested hardwood Found in furniture- rare
of starch

Damage: Severe tunnelling with Tunnels running Severe tunnelling in the Surface scoring to outer Like big Common Very similar to Lyctus Tunnels run along
a slight tendency to across grain. Surface sapwood with a sapwood with a few Furniture beetle; except that the frass is grain frequently
run along grain. Lots of tunnels stained tendency to run along holes into wood; most extensive tunnelling. extremely hard packed breaking surface;
of uniform coloured black/ blue-black. grain in early stages; damage in bark (if still Damage may be into the tunnels – it tunnelling done by
frass. Tunnelling done by lots of frass. Sapwood present). Note: in wood mostly internal; attack cannot be readily both larvae and adults.
adult female. often entirely exit holes less than frequently associated shaken out.
disintegrated with only 15mm away from barked with D. expansa
a thin sound surface left edge.

Frass (bore dust): Feels ‘gritty’; lemon None Flour-like; smooth Feels ‘gritty’; bun Feels very ‘gritty’; Feels flour-like but it Frass similar to
shaped pellets, when rubbed between shaped pellets of light large bun shaped must be dug out of the Common Furniture
uniform in colour. fingers. Easily and dark colours; dark pellets of uniform tunnels; not free beetle.
Easily knocked out of knocked out of wood. pellets when larva colour. Visible to flowing like that of
wood. feeds on bark, light naked eye. Lyctus.
coloured when feeding
on outer sapwood

Tunnels: Round, tending to run Round; vary in size Round; frequently join Round, mostly in bark Round; plenty of frass Round; full of hard Round; frequently
with the grain according to species with other tunnels; (if still present) packed frass break surface
tend to run along grain
in early stages

Emergence holes: Round, 1-2mm Entrance holes! Round, 1-2mm Round; 2mm Round; 3mm Round; 2mm Round and ragged;
(Very small holes of Round; size according 1mm
parasitic wasp, to species
Theocolax formiciformes,
may also be present)
 COMPARATIVE FEATURES OF INSECT DAMAGE – LARGER INSECTS
Hylotrupes bajulus
Common name: House Longhorn
Timber attacked: Sapwood of softwoods
Damage: Severe tunnelling, tunnels
often coalescing; may totally
destroy sapwood. Tunnels full
of frass. Often leaves a sound
thin veneer of wood; surface
often appears ‘corrugated’
where damage is severe. Fine
ridges usually visible on
surface of tunnels.
Frass (bore dust): Sausage shaped pellets,
readily visible to naked eye.
Frass is loose, easily shaken
out.
Tunnels: Large, oval: tunnels often
coalesce.
Emergence holes: Oval; 6-10mm
Forest Longhorns
Forest Longhorns
Hardwoods and softwoods;
green timber
Discrete tunnels running into
wood. Little, if any frass in
tunnels; sometimes some
fibrous material present in
holes.
Severe attack of bark if still
present with lots of frass
immediately under bark.
(requires bark to lay eggs in
the wild); ‘scores’ surface of
the wood under bark.
‘Forest’ insects – do not
attack seasoned wood
If present then a few coarse
fibrous ‘chewings’
Large, oval; discrete
Oval; variable – depends of
species
Urocerus gigas
Wood wasp
Softwoods of freshly felled
logs/unhealthy trees
Discrete tunnels, frequently
filled with hard packed coarse
fibrous frass, hard to dig out
from tunnel..
A ‘forest’ insect – does not
attack seasoned wood
Coarse and fibrous; hard
packed in tunnels
Large, round; discrete
Round; 6-7mm
Nacerdes melanura
Wharf borer
Severely decayed hardwoods
and softwoods (reported to
prefer softwood)
Severe tunnelling in rotted
wood; tunnels filled with
‘mud-like’ frass and coarse
fibres. Tunnels tend to run
with the grain.
Mud-like, together with
groups of coarse fibres
Oval
Oval; 6-7mm somewhat
ragged.
 COMPARATIVE FEATURES OF THE MORE COMMON ROTS.

Serpula Coniophora Antrodia Donkioporia Phellinus Asterostroma Pleurotus

lacrymans puteana vaillantii expansa contiguus spp ostreatus
Common name: Dry rot Cellar fungus Mine fungus -- -- -- Oyster fungus

Type of rot: Brown Brown Brown White White White White

Timber attacked: Mostly softwoods Hardwoods and Softwoods Hardwood; mostly oak Hardwoods and Softwoods In buildings - panel
softwoods softwoods products and particle
boards. Outside –
standing broad-leaved
trees.
Damage: Cuboidal cracking, Cuboidal cracking. Rot Cuboidal cracking; not Coarse fibrousy Coarse stringy Coarse stringy In buildings wood
deep; often ‘cubes’ are often internal, leaving so deep as dry rot. appearance; slight fibrousy appearance; fibrousy; surface of panels lighten in
large. No sound a thin surface ‘skin’ of ‘bleaching’ of wood. slight ‘bleaching’ of timber often appears colour; wood particles
surface ‘skin’ of wood sound wood. Wood in Damage is often wood ‘weathered’. tend to separate
(c/f C. puteana). very early stage of internal.
attack may show slight
yellow colouration.
Growth (a) Silky grey skin often If present, olive brown Pure white; Not always obvious; Something like a rough Grey-pink sheets; thin White, woolly mat:
(mycelium): tinged with patches of to black sheets under occasionally tinged reddish brown thick ‘chamois leather’ surface growth. growth visible between
lilac and yellow colour; humid conditions. Can with light orange felt like growth. May colour and appearance. Under a good woodchips in particle-
peels like a mushroom, be white in very early patches. Growth is occasionally exude Tufts of a tawny microscope, mycelium board.
tearing in direction of stages. usually ‘fern-like’. drops of a dark liquid. coloured growth is full of ‘star’ shaped
growth. Some areas Limited growth over Growth over/in damp frequently seen in the structures.
may be fawn coloured very damp masonry masonry but not so rotted wood
to creamy reddish- extensive as dry rot.
brown sheets especially
over masonry/earth
(b) White fluffy cotton
wool-like growth.
Grows over/in damp
masonry, soil, etc.
Strands: Grey, tough; brittle Olive brown to black; Pure white, tough; None None Pinkish-grey, fine but None
when dry relatively fine and remain flexible when quite tough. Can be
delicate. Do not become dry. Can grow quite quite long. Can grow
brittle when dry thick. over damp masonry.
Fruiting body: Fleshy pancake or Reported to be rare: White, fleshy up to Brown, woody - often Brown, woody, often Generally flat, and Fleshy, mushroom-like
(sporophore) bracket with white thin olive brown plate 15mm in thickness. large; contours wood. fits contours of wood. indistinguishable from with deep bluey-grey
margin. Pore surface with cream margin. Small angular pores Very small pores best Pores give surface the mycelium. to fawn coloured head.
reddy brown with Some small ‘lumps’ on give surface a small seen in cross section. appearance of finely Gills present, whitish.
wide, shallow pores. surface. ‘honeycomb’ like Maybe more than 1 pore rolled corrugated Head may or may not
Spores orange appearance layer present. Spores paper. Fine ‘setae’ have a stalk present
coloured, often seen form on mycelium, not (hairs) project into but if present it is to
on nearby surfaces. in fruiting body pores. one side.
USEFUL READING LIST
The following list of documents will be useful to those undertaking specialist dampness and
timber surveys. It is also a guide to a readings list for those studying for the Certificated
Surveyors in Remedial Treatment (CSRT) examination . New documents are continually
being issued by the Health and Safety Executive and other government departments and
associations so this list is a guide, and may not be comprehensive.

LEGISLATION

- Health and Safety at Work etc Act 1974

- The Control of Substances Hazardous to Health Regulations 1994 (COSHH)

- The Food and Environment Protection Act 1985 (FEPA)

- The Control of Pesticides Regulations 1986 (COPR)

- Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981 (WCA)

- The Consumer Protection Act 1987 (CPA)

- The Control of Pollution Act 1974

- The Environmental Protection Act 1990 (EPA)

- The Management of Health and Safety at Work Regulations 1992

- The Party Wall, etc, Act 1996

CODES OF PRACTICE AND STANDARDS:

- Health and Safety Executive (HSE) Guidance Note GS46 “In-situ Timber Treatment
using Timber Preservatives” (from HMSO)

- Agricultural Information Sheet AIS 16 “Guidance on storing pesticides for farmer

and other professional users” (HMSO)

- Health and Safety Commission (HSC) Approved Code of Practice; The Safe Use of
Pesticides for Non-Agricultural Purposes (HMSO)

- British Standards: BS 6576:1985, ‘Installation of Chemical Damp Proof Courses’

- BWPDA “Code of Practice of Remedial Timber Treatment” 1995(from BWPDA)

- BWPDA “Standards of Training for Operatives in Safe & Effective Wood

Preservation and Damp Proofing 1997 (from BWPDA)

- BWPDA Code of Practice for the Installation of Remedial Damp Proof Courses in
Masonry Walls 1997 (from BWPDA)
ADVISORY DOCUMENTS

- BRE Digest: 110; 163; 201; 245; 296; 297; 299; 307; 345; (from BRE)

- BWPDA leaflets on timber remedial treatments: T1, T2, T3, T4, T5, T6, T7, T8
and T9 (from BWPDA)

- “Decay of Timber in Buildings” by Dr C R Coggins (from the Rentokil Library

Services)

- BWPDA leaflets on dampness:

DP1, DP2, DP3, DP4, DP5, DP6, DP7 DP8, DP9, DP10 (from BWPDA)

- Building Research Establishment (BRE) Report BR98 “Recognising Wood Rot and
Insect Damage in Buildings” (from BRE)

- BRE Information Paper (IP 19/88): Home Inspection for Dampness

- HSE/DoE Remedial Timber Treatment in Buildings - A Guide to Good Practice and

the Safe Use of Wood Preservatives (HMSO)

- HSC, COSHH in the Construction Industry (HMSO)- HSC, COSHH in the

Construction Industry (HMSO)

- Guide to the Identification of Dampness in Buildings by G.R. Coleman

published by Wessex Publishing, Gillingham, Dorset.

- Remedial Treatment of Wood Rot and Insect Attack in Buildings by R. W. Berry

(Published by B.R.E) Ref:- BR 256
REMEDIAL TECHNICAL SERVICES
Consultancy and Laboratory Services
Specialising in

Timber Infestation and Dampness Investigations

Analysis of Cement Renders, Plasters, Moisture and Contaminant Salts
in Masonry
Analysis of Timber Samples
Identification of Insect and Fungal damage
Litigation and Expert Witness
Training in Dampness and Timber Infestation in Buildings

14, Mill Rise,

Bourton,
Nr Gillingham,
Dorset.
SP8 5DH

Tel/Fax: 01747 840715

e-mail: rts@mill-rise.freeserve.co.uk
website: www.mill-rise.freeserve.co.uk