WDI Toolpusher Reference Manual Hydraulics: © 2008 Weatherford International. All Rights Reserved

WDI Toolpusher Reference Manual Hydraulics
Contents
Chapter 1: Drilling Fluids…………………..…………………..…………… 1-1

Chapter 2: Hydraulics Revision…….……………..………………………. 2-1
Chapter 3: Hole Problems………….………………………………………. 3-1
Chapter 4: Casing………………………..………………………………….. 4-1
Chapter 5: Drilling Operations…………………………………………….. 5-1
Chapter 6: Tripping………………………………………………………….. 6-1
Chapter 7: Drilling Line ……………………………………....................... 7-1
Chapter 8: Fundamentals…………………………………………………… 8-1
Chapter 9: Horizontal Well Control……………………………………….. 9-1
Rev.1 Dec-09 © 2008 Weatherford International. 1- 1

All rights reserved.
Chapter 1: Drilling Fluids

Topics
Section 1: Function properties & Products of Mud…………………………………3
Section 2: Clay Chemistry………………………………………………………….. 18
Section 3: Polymers…………………………………………………………………..34

Section 1: Functions, Properties and Products of Mud

Three aspects of drilling fluids are covered in this section:
Main functions of mud are described
Key properties of mud are covered and related back to function
Specific products that give mud properties are described
Definition: Drilling fluid, or mud, is a fluid that carries out various functions during a
drilling operation. It is composed of liquids and solids that are mixed by the rig crew. The
design is supervised by the rig-site Mud Engineer. Mixing is usually carried out by the
Derrickman and Roustabouts.
Mud is pumped from the mud storage pits down the hole by the mud pumps. It travels
down through the centre of the drill string and enters the wellbore through jets in the drill
bit. From here it returns to surface around the outside of the drill string (annulus). Once
at surface, any pieces of formation are removed by the solids control equipment (e.g.
shale shakers). The clean mud then returns back to the mud storage pits where it is
circulated back downhole for the process to happen again.
Mud is designed to do a specific job; it is mixed by following a recipe designed to
achieve the objective of successfully drilling a well or section of a well. The Mud
Engineer takes the recipe and mixes the mud. At this stage it should be to an agreed
specification (e.g. the correct weight, thickness, etc.) Once the mud is pumped downhole
it comes into contact with the formations and the fluids within those formations. Both the
formation and formation fluid contaminate the new mud and will, to a greater or lesser
degree, affect the mud properties. Conversely, the mud may affect the formations
downhole and make them unstable.
Whatever happens downhole, the result may be expensive conditioning of the mud back
to its original properties or instability of the formations downhole that can be very costly
to fix. The interaction between mud and formation is critical to a successful drilling
operation. Those who look after the mud must reach some form of chemical and
physical balance downhole and maintain that balance as each new formation is drilled.

Mud Functions
Mud has to carry out many different functions. Some are related, but others may conflict.
Therefore, the actual mud that is pumped downhole may not be perfect, most likely it will
be a compromise.
Mud Functions
No. Function
1 Hydrostatic Pressure
2 Carry Cuttings to Surface
3 Suspend Cuttings
4 Release Cuttings at Surface
5 Carry Information from Downhole
6 Stabilise Wellbore
7 Seal off Permeable Formations
8 Minimise Formation Damage
9 Cool and Lubricate the Bit and Drill String
10 Transmit Power to Bit and Downhole Tools
11 Minimise Corrosion of Tubulars
1. Hydrostatic Pressure
The weight of the mud exerts pressure against the wellbore. It is this pressure that
prevents:
Fluids in the formation from entering the wellbore and creating a potentially
dangerous kick or blow-out
Less rigid formations from collapsing into the wellbore
HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE
MUD HYDROSTATIC
IN WELLBORE
FORMATION FLUID
PRESSURE
MUD 4800
HYDROSTATIC
5000
PSI
PSI
MUD HYDROSTATIC PREVENTS FORMATION FLUIDS ENTERING

THE WELLBORE AND ALSO HOLDS THE WALL BACK
Hydrostatic Pressure

2. Carry Cuttings to Surface

The cuttings generated by the bit have to be carried to the surface to enable drilling
operations to continue. In addition to the cuttings, cavings from an unstable section of
wellbore must be carried to the surface as well. In order for this to happen, the mud has
to be of a certain consistency (thickness) and travelling at an acceptable speed.
CARRY CUTTINGS
MUD STREAM UP THE

ANNULUS CARRIES THE
ANNULUS
CUTTINGS TO SURFACE.
SPEED (Annular Velocity) &

MUD THICKNESS (Viscosity)
ARE KEY TO SUCCESSFUL
HOLE CLEANING.
Cuttings Carried to the Surface

3. Suspend Cuttings
When circulation is stopped for a connection or trip, or even due to equipment
breakdown, it is essential that cuttings in the hole do not fall back to the bottom. The
must be able to thicken to a gel when circulation has stopped. This not only holds
cuttings, it also holds special chemicals, like Barite, that are essential to maintaining the
correct mud weight.
SUSPEND CUTTINGS
• NEED TO HOLD CUTTINGS IN

ANNULUS PLACE WHEN CIRCULATION
MUD SUSPENDS
IS STOPPED
CUTTINGS
• IF MUD CANNOT HOLD
BARITE THEN WELL
CONTROL PROBLEMS MAY
OCCUR
ANNULUS MUD
NOT ABLE TO
SUSPEND CUTTING
Suspended Cuttings

4. Release Cuttings at Surface

Once the cuttings are at surface, they have to be removed. If the mud is too thick it will
be more difficult to separate the cuttings at the shakers and other solids control
equipment. Also, if the mud reacts with the cuttings to make them soft and sticky – or
even cause them to dissolve – it will not be possible to remove them efficiently.
Cuttings Released at the Surface

5. Carry Information from Downhole
As the bit cuts the formation, it releases cuttings and formation fluids into the mud
stream. Once at surface, certain people on the rig (geologists and mud loggers) analyse
these additions. Such analysis can reveal a great deal about what is happening
downhole (e.g. pressures, gases, stability of wellbore, rock types, etc.). The mud also
acts as a route for certain mud pulse telemetry tools, like MWD and LWD, to relay
information back to the surface. If the mud is poor quality, the information is sends will
be poor quality.
CARRY INFORMATION FROM

DOWNHOLE
RE
SSU
ID PRE GA
FLU S TY
PE
WELLBORE STABILITY
E
M YP
W
D- C KT
LW RO
D
Information Carried from Downhole

6. Stabilise Wellbore
Function 1 stated that mud weight can help prevent less competent formations from
collapse. This is a mechanical effect. Mud can also stabilise the wellbore chemically.
The mud engineer designs and maintains the mud so that it will not react chemically with
the formation. This is actually quite difficult to achieve. The mud that goes down the hole
is designed to minimise or inhibit reaction. It is unlikely to stop all downhole reactions
A typical example would be inhibited muds that minimise reaction between formation
clays and the water in the mud. Another example is saturated salt water muds that would
prevent salt formations from being badly eroded if freshwater mud was used. Although
oil based muds have been a major development in minimising reactions, environmental
concerns are causing effective alternatives to be tried and tested world-wide.
STABILISE WELLBORE
UNCONSOLIDATED
SANDS- HIGH
FILTRATION MAY HELP
SHALE SECTION
WASHED OUT
CREATING CAVINGS
-DUE TO LACK OF
INHIBITION SALT SECTION
WASHED (DISSOLVED)
OUT -DUE TO LACK OF
SALT IN MUD
Stabilisation of the Wellbore
7. Seal off Permeable Formations

Mud weight provides hydrostatic pressure to hold back both formation fluids and the hole
wall. This means that the pressure exerted by the mud is greater than the pressure of
the fluids in the rock. The result is that the mud pushes its way in to the pores of the rock
and displaces the formation fluid further back into the formation. Such a process mostly
takes place in the more permeable formations, although all formations are affected to
some degree. This process of “invasion” is called filtration. If this process were allowed
to continue, in can result in:
Liquid phase of the mud reacting with the formation
Liquids and solids blocking up the pores and reducing the productivity of a
reservoir

SEAL OFF PERMEABLE SEAL OFF PERMEABLE

FORMATIONS - BEFORE FORMATIONS - AFTER
WELLBORE WELLBORE
MUD MUD
OVERBALANCE LIQUID INVASION LIQUID INVASION

BUILD UP OF
FORCES MUD INTO (FILTRATE) (FILTRATE)
FILTER CAKE
FORMATION
Before After
Mud Function in Sealing Off Permeable Formations
To minimise these effects, certain chemicals are added to the mud that “cake”
themselves to the wall of the hole. As fluids invade the pore spaces, small solids build up
the cake and prevent further invasion. The quicker this happens, the less the invasion
that takes place. Thin and impermeable filter cakes are best. If the mud is not in good
condition it may take a long time to develop an impermeable cake. This leads to:
More fluid invasion into the formation
Greater chance of becoming differentially stuck
8. Minimise Formation Damage
Filtration can cause damage to the formation. Certain non-damaging fluids and
chemicals are used in areas where it is critical not to damage or destabilize the
formation.
MINIMISE FORMATION
DAMAGE
OIL OR GAS IS UNABLE

TO FLOW DUE TO
EXCESSIVE FILTRATE
AND PLUGGING
EFFECT OF FILTER
CAKE
DEEP INVASION
LIQUID INVASION
OF FILTER CAKE
(FILTRATE)
Formation Damage Control

9. Cool and Lubricate the Bit and Drill String

Circulating fluid around the system will help to keep the bit and drill string cool. Torque
and drag can be dramatically reduced due to the lubricating qualities of certain muds –
mainly oil based.
10. Transmit Power to the Bit and Downhole Tools

The length of the circulating system and the amount of friction it houses requires high
pressure pumps to pump fluid around the well. Bit nozzles (jets) are a major source of
friction. These create a jetting action that:
Helps clean the bit
Helps move cuttings off the bottom
Helps to erode or cut the rock
POWER FOR JETTING

ACTION AT BIT
POWER FOR MOTORS

AND MWD
Power to the Bottom Hole Assembly

The smaller the nozzle and the greater the volume pumped, the larger the jetting action
will be. Downhole motors and turbines need the mud to operate. In addition, many
logging and directional tools require a certain flow of mud to function correctly.
11. Minimise Corrosion of Tubulars
The drill string, circulating system, pumps, casing, etc. are mostly made of steel that can
easily corrode. Dissolved gases like Oxygen, Carbon Dioxide and Hydrogen Sulphide,
plus dissolved salts, are the main problem. In certain cases, special chemicals are
added to minimise the potential for corrosion.
Oil in oil based mud is an obvious inhibitor whereas caustic soda is used in water based
mud to maintain a certain chemistry (pH level) that minimises corrosion. Keeping the pH
above 10 will help reduce Oxygen, Carbon Dioxide and Hydrogen Sulphide corrosion.
For H2S, hydrogen scavengers are used to neutralise the free hydrogen.

Salts in the mud increase the electrical conductivity, effectively turning the hole into a
battery. This increases corrosion rates.
This covers the Key Functions of the mud. The functions represent what the mud
should be able to do. For the mud to successfully perform these functions, it must have
specific properties.
Mud Properties
If the function of a mud is to exert hydrostatic pressure than a key property would be
density (mud weight). This is expressed as a weight per unit of volume (e.g. pounds per
gallon or kilograms per litre).
Mud Properties
No. Property
Density: amount of force (pressure) the mud applies to the wall of the
1
hole.
2 Viscosity: thickness (syrup consistency) of the mud.
3 Gels: ability of the mud to gel when not being pumped.
4 Filtration: ability to form an impermeable cake on the hole wall.
Chemistry (inhibition): property of the mud that minimises reaction
between –
Mud and formation
5
Mud and tubulars
Formation and tubulars
Correct chemistry is vital for certain mud chemicals to work properly.
Lubricity: ability to lubricate the borehole to reduce torque, drag and
6
other friction effects.
In addition to the ability to recognise mud properties, it is critical to know which

properties relate to specific functions.
Rev.1 Dec-09 © 2008 Weatherford International. 1-10

Mud Properties Related to Mud Functions

Property Related Function
Provides hydrostatic pressure to prevent formation fluids from
entering the wellbore
Helps to carry cuttings due to the buoyancy effect of higher mud
Density weight
Slows down cutting slip when pumps are stopped, allowing time for
the mud to gel
Stabilises wellbore if wall has tendency to collapse, creep or cave-in
Helps to carry the cuttings
Viscosity Does not release cuttings easily if it is too thick
Allows downhole information to be read (e.g. gas)
Suspend cuttings in the hole if pumps are stopped
Gels Suspends mud chemicals (e.g. barite, LCM, etc.) when pumps are
stopped
Seals off permeable formations and prevents too large a build-up of
cake
Filtration Helps to stabilise unconsolidated formations, such as top hole sands
Forms a cake quickly due to composition, which can minimise
damage to the formation
Minimises downhole reactions, thus allowing good quality cuttings to
reach surface and assist the geologist (the right chemistry)
Prevents the mud from affecting formations, especially shales which
swell and cave-in (the right chemistry)
Chemistry
Minimises reactions so that filtrate that enters the formation before
the cake is formed will not react and cause damage – this is critical
in reservoir sections of the hole
Helps to minimise corrosion of tubular goods (correct chemistry)
There is one function that has not been connected with any one of the key mud
properties: transmitting power to the bit and downhole tools. This function can be re-
stated as: The mud should allow pumping at an acceptable flow rate in order to
clean the hole and operate downhole tools.
Viscosity will affect the friction generated to pump at a selected rate, as will mud density.
Lubricity can help as it will allow mud solids to slide by one another with less friction,
thus reducing the coefficient of friction).
This covers the Main Functions of mud and the Key Properties linked to those
functions. Specific Mud Products are used to achieve a required property, allowing the
mud to function in the desired capacity.

Mud Products
In order for mud to carry out its functions, certain key properties must be in balance (a
chemical balance to suit the hole being drilled). In order to get that balance, certain
products are used to make and maintain the mud.
Mud Products
Product Function
Base Fluids Act as the base for the mud to be mixed.
Used to mix oil and water together when making certain
Emulsifiers
types of oil-based mud.
Viscosifiers Used for viscosity and gel strength.
Filtration Agents Provide filtration control.
Inhibitors Obtain the correct chemistry.
Weighting Agents Used for density.
Thinners To thin the mud in certain situations.
Miscellaneous Do not easily fit into the categories listed (many chemicals).
This section contains an overview of mud products used to give key properties. Refer to
the World Oil Mud Chemical Classifier (issued every May or June), mud company
handbooks, or product lists for a full list of products and details on how they work. The
Mud Engineer on each rig is also a main source of information.
Typical brand names are provided after each product listed on the following pages.
These brands were current at the time of publication.
Base Fluids
These are the different kinds of liquid that are used as a base for the mud. Water and oil
are the two main types.
Water: This can range from fresh to salty to salt-saturated. As a general rule, the more
salt that is added (e.g. Sodium, Calcium, Potassium), the less reaction that takes place
between mud and formation. The mud is therefore more inhibited.
Oil: Oil is a common base fluid for drilling mud although it is being continually developed
to make it more environmentally friendly. Base oils are good at inhibition; there is very
little reaction with the formation. As crude oils and diesels are being replaced, more
exotic, environmentally friendly base fluids are being used. Examples include:
Ultidrill – synthetic base fluid, low toxicity and biodegradable by Dowell
Novasol – synthetic base fluid by M-I

Emulsifiers
If oil and water are mixed together it does not take long for them to separate with oil on
top and water below. Emulsion muds are a mixture of oil and water. To prevent the two
parts separating, an “emulsifier” is used. In a “water-in-oil” emulsion, the emulsifier tends
to encapsulate the water droplet and prevent each droplet from joining together.
The Emulsion Stability Test is a measure of how well the two components are
separated. This can be demonstrated by the Mud Engineer on a rig.
Common Emulsifiers
Product Brand Name Company
Emulsifier Anco Green P Anchor
Emulsifier BW ECO EMUL BW Muds
Emulsifier EX-MUL Baroid
Emulsifier Interdrill EMUL Dowell
Emulsifier Invermul Baroid
Emulsifier Novamul M-I
Emulsifier Versamul M-I
Emulsifier Ulti Drill Emul HT Dowell
Viscosifiers
Clays and Polymers are the two main types of viscosifier.
Clays: The primary clay type is Bentonite for water based muds. Bentonite does not
work very well in salty base fluids where a salt gel like attapulgite is used. For oil based
muds, the clays have to be modified; they are called “organclays”.
Polymers: Polymers can be used for all types of water based mud. They can be natural
or man-made. Each has its own characteristics that work better in some conditions than
others. Typical polymers are:
Guar Gum for top-hole use
CMC and PAC for general use
XC (Xanthum Gum) for multi-uses
HEC for very salty fluids or brines common in completions
PHPA – a polymer that encapsulates cuttings, acting to inhibit any reaction
Invert emulsions are made up of water emulsified as tiny droplets. These water droplets
act to help thicken or viscosify the mud.

Common Viscosifiers
Guar Gum Anco Vis Anchor
Guar Gum BW Spud Mud BW Mud
CMC Anco CMC HV Anchor
CMC Cellex Baroid
Xanthum Gum Duovis M-I
Xanthum Gum Barazan D Plus Baroid
PAC Mil PAC BHI
PAC ID PAC Dowell
PAC BW Rheopac BW Mud
CMC BW Rheopol HV BW Mud
Filtration Agents
Filtration agents or fluid loss reducers work to decrease the loss of the liquid portion of
the mud into the formation. The products that help to give viscosity are also effective
filtration agents.
Bentonite and polymers are the main kinds of fluid loss reducer. The polymers used tend
to be the low viscosity (LV) variety, giving better fluid loss control than viscosity.
Common Filtration Agents

CMC Anco CMC LV Anchor
Bentonite see viscosity section for names
Oil Mud Chemical Carbo-Trol Baker Hughes Inteq
CMC Cellex Baroid
Starch Dextrid Baroid
PAC Drispac Drill Spec
Oil Mud Duratone Baroid
PAC ID PAC Dowell
PAC PAC-L M-I

Inhibitors
These chemicals are part of the mud that minimise reaction between mud and formation.
Salts and polymers are common inhibitors. Reaction between shale formations and the
mud are the most common. Most inhibitors are classed as Shale-Control Agents.
Common Inhibitors
Glycol ANCO-101 Anchor
Polymer ANCO-PHPA Anchor
Glycol Aqua-Col BHI
Polymer Baracat Baroid
Polymer BW RHEOCAP BW Mud
Polymer EZ-Mud DP Baroid
Glycol GEM2000 Baroid
Polymer ID BOND Dowell
Polymer ID CAP Dowell
Sodium Chloride General Usage
Calcium Chloride General Usage
Potassium Chloride General Usage
Weighting Agents
Barite, lead compounds, iron oxides, calcium carbonate and heavier salts are used
because they have a high specific gravity.
Common Weighting Agents

Salt ANCO HI K Anchor
Barite ANCO BAR Anchor
Iron Oxide ANCO HIWEIGHT Anchor
Iron Carbonate BARA WEIGHT Baroid
Barite Baroid Baroid
Hematite Barodense Baroid
Calcium Carbonate BW Carb BW Mud
Potassium Salt ID Salt FK Dowell
Barite Mil-Bar BHI
Sodium Bromide Snowdrill B Anchor

Thinners
Thinners are chemicals used to reduce the viscosity of the mud. In most cases, viscosity
can be reduced by improved solid control or dilution with base fluid. They disperse the
solids by attaching to the positive (+) charges on the clay particles. This helps separate
the solids, preventing flocculation. Commonly used to prevent salt flocculation of
Bentonite and to help reduce effects of high temperature gelation of muds contain clays.
Common Thinners
Chrome Lignite Anco Lig C Anchor
Thinner/Degellant Anco Vert T Anchor
Lignosulfonate BW Chrome Free BW Mud
Chrome Lignite BW Rheolig BW Mud
Dispersent Idsperse XT Dowell
Polymer Anti-Gellant Idthin 500 Dowell
Thinners for Synthetic
Muds Novathin M-I
Lignosulfonate Spersene M-I
Lignosulfonate Q-Broxin Baroid
Miscellaneous
There are hundreds of different chemicals that carry out specific tasks. Some of the most
common are listed here.
Chemical Function
Soda Ash Remove calcium
Bicarbonate Counteract cement contamination
Lime Source of Calcium, helps emulsifiers to work
Caustic Soda pH control
Black Magic Oil spotting fluid
Pipe Lax Freeing stuck pipe
Baracar 44 Sulphide scavenger
Anco Cide Bactericide
Defoamer Reduce foaming effects
Lubricants Reduce torque and drag
Rheology Enhancers Improve hole cleaning at slower pump rates

Conclusion
This section is an introduction to the function, properties and products of today’s mud
systems. It should provide a point of reference for further discussion with the Mud
Engineer. He or she is an expert and can assist with improving knowledge in this area.
Mud is a critical part of the drilling operation. A further, more in-depth understanding of
how it works is essential to anyone wishing to progress in the career path.

Section 2: Clay Chemistry

Introduction to Clay Chemistry
Clays can be a problem while drilling because they are reactive. They react with water
as well as a number of contaminants. Limiting these reactions presents the mud
engineer with one of his most difficult problems. Thus understanding the principles of
clay chemistry is critical to the running and supervising of operations using water bsed
muds. While it is not essential to retain a detailed knowledge of clay chemistry, it is
important to retain the broad outlines.
Clay chemistry also plays an important part in diagnosing mud problems and in obtaining
optimum performance from mud additives. In fact, clays such as Bentonite are
themselves used as additives to the mud.
Clay and Mud Problems
Shale sections can be found in virtually every well drilled. Shale is composed of clay
mixtures. The differences between types of shale result from the differing proportions of
the various clays present. Formation clays cause three main problems during drilling.
Problems with Formation Clays

No Problem
Cuttings containing clays can easily react with the mud, initially becoming
soft and sticky and blocking solids removal equipment. Further reaction
causes the clays to disperse in the mud, forming very fine colloidal size
A particles which cannot be removed by conventional means. If no further
action is taken, excessively high viscosities develop. The mud becomes
heavier as a result of extra solids and mud control becomes increasingly
difficult.
Clays in the formation also react with the mud, becoming soft and sticky,
and swelling as they react to give tight hole and overpull on trips. The
B combination of sticky hole and sticky cuttings may result in gumbo rings
blocking the flowline and necessitating shutdown of drilling and loss of rig
time.
Mud filtrate can react with clays in the matrix of producing formations,
either swelling the clays and restricting pore spaces, or dispersing them
C
and plugging pore spaces with fine solids. In either case the result is
permanent formation damage.
The reactions between clays and water are ionic reactions, which cannot be easily
controlled. They are best understood by reference to the chemical structures of the clays
themselves.

Structure of Clays
Clays are made up of a mixture of silica or Silicon Oxide (SiO2), and alumina or
Aluminum Oxide (Al2O3). They have a layer structure built up of alumina sheets and
silica sheets (figure 1).
Figure 1: Structure of Clays
The layer structure is like mica (which is chemically similar), and is formed as the sheets
combine to share Oxygen atoms. Various combinations of sheets are in theory possible
and occur in nature.
Figure 2: Layer Structures
Clays combine in different ways to form various layer structures. Figure 2 shows a
typical three sheet layer with two silica sheets “sandwiching” one alumina sheet.
To understand the implications of clay chemistry, it is not necessary to memorise the
individual chemical structure of every clay type. It is sufficient to consider the types of

clay as “sandwiches” of alumina and silica. These sandwiches can be made up in

varying ways. Figure 3 shows the arrangements for the four most common types of clay.
Most clays have this layer structure. In the spaces between the layers, there is interstitial
water. The structure can be split along the layers to form plates.

Charges on Clays
Reverting to the chemical structures of the clays, the Aluminum atoms in the alumina
effectively carry positive charges, as do the Silicon atoms in the silica. These positive
charges are balanced by an equal number of negative charges on the Oxygen atoms to
form a stable configuration. In layman’s terms, this effectively means that both alumina
and silica are stable chemical compounds which do not react easily with other
chemicals. To extend this argument, it could be anticipated that the same would be true
of clays, which consist of a combination of these two compounds. However this is not
always the case.
If clays were 100% pure laboratory chemicals, then the theory would be correct and they
would not be very reactive. However clays are natural products, and as such contain
some impurities. It is the presence of these impurities that upset the balance of positive
and negative charges, which results in the clays being reactive.
In illite clays the impurities give rise to strong negative charges, which can form strong
ionic bonds that are difficult to break; this means that illite clays are not particularly
reactive. In the same regard, smectite clays are not reactive; impurities give rise to weak
negative charges which are easily broken. These are the clays which are present in
significant quantities in formations such as gumbo shales. Bentonite is also a smectite
clay which will readily react with freshwater to produce a viscous mud.
Smectite clays are most abundant in younger formations. Under the influence of
temperature and pressure, smectities convert to illite clays, which are less reactive. It is
unusual to find high percentages of smectites in shales which are older than tertiary age,
and the percentage decreases with the age of the formation.
Clay Reactions
In general clays are negatively charged. Impurities in clays give rise to negative charges.
When the clay comes into contact with water, these charges attract positive ions in the
water, along with water which also carries a positive charge. Most reactions of clays
result from this effect. The reactions are largely ionic and cause problems only when
water comes into contact with the clays. Reactions between oil and clays are
insignificant.
Reaction types will be considered with reference to smectites, which are the most
common reactive clays. Although similar types of reaction can occur with other clays,
they occur less readily and are more simply controlled.
When clay comes in contact with water there can be a reaction between the positive ions
in the water and the negative ions in the clay. This reaction of ions (electrically charged
particles) is called an ionic reaction.

Looking at these reactive clays in more detail it can be seen that between each plate is a
cushion of water (fig. 4). This interstitial water is normally salty. Salt or sodium (Na+) has
a positive (+ve) charge and is attracted to the negative (-ve) charge on the face of the
clay plate. This attraction or bond is quite weak and the bond can be easily broken to
allow reaction with other positive charges as they become available.
Figure 4: Clay Formation
The type of substance which may displace the sodium ion from the clay has already
been defined, in that it must carry positive charge. Substances present in the mud
carrying positive charge split into two categories.
Substances Carrying Positive Charge

Category Source
Positive ions, or cations, are present as a result of ignoranic salts
dissolving in the mud. The most common cations which may be present in
1 any quantity are sodium (Na+), potassium (K+), calcium (Ca++), and
magnesium (Mg++). Cations from the mud may exchange with cations on
the clay plates (fig. 6). This phenomenon is known as Cation Exchange.
Water is the second source of positive charges in the mud. Water
molecules carry partial positive and partial negative charges (fig. 5). The
positive parts of these water molecules are attracted to the clay surfaces,
displacing cations on the negative sites. This phenomenon is known as
2 Hydration. This hydration creates most of the problems encountered
in drilling reactive clays. As water enters. The clay structure, it causes
the structure to expand and become softer (from the increase in water
content). The results of hydration manifest themselves as sticky cuttings,
swelling formations and tight hole.

Figure 5: Water Molecule
Based on these two categories, there are also two types of reactions that take place
when water comes into contact with reactive clays – Cation Exchange and Hydration.
Both reactions involve the supply of positive charges which react with the negative
charges on the clay faces. Since there are only a finite number of negative charges on
the clay, the two reactions are in competition for the negative sites. It is impossible to
stop either reaction taking place because the potential for reaction is a function of the
clay. All that can be achieved is some measure of control.
The most damaging reaction is hydration since this causes the clay to expand and
become softer. It is impossible to prevent some hydration taking place. However the
degree of hydration can be limited by promoting cation exchange to compete with it and
by taking preventative measure to disrupt hydration as it occurs.
Controlling Cation Exchange

Cations from the mud will always exchange with cations on the clay surfaces to a greater
or lesser extent. This does not necessarily present a problem, depending on the cations
involved. Unlike hydration, cation exchange does not cause the clay to take up water
and expand. The first stage in controlling mud/clay reactions is to promote cation
exchange, at the same time ensuring that the exchanges that do take place are
beneficial. Preferred options are potassium (K+) or Calcium (Ca++).

Figure 6: Cation Exchange
The ease with which cations will exchange onto the clays is a function of the size of the
cation and its exchange potential. Figure 6 represents a Bentonite clay with cations of
sodium (Na), potassium (K), calcium (Ca) and magnesium (Mg) to give an indication of
relative size. In the left half of the figure, no hydration has occurred and the clay layers
are relatively close together. Only sodium and potassium cations are small enough to fit
between the layers. In the right half of the figure, some hydration has occurred, opening
up the layers. In this condition it is possible for calcium cations to enter the clay
structure.
Cations with more than one +ve charge tend to exchange for cations with a single
charge; these are said to have a higher exchange potential. They have the additional
benefit that they are able to attach to more than one –ve site, thus binding the clay
structure together.
There are only two methods of controlling cation exchange used regularly in the field;
one uses potassium, the other calcium.
Potassium
The K+ ion is small and fits compactly into the clay structure. However, it does not have
a high exchange potential and does not easily exchange onto the clay surfaces. In
typical potassium muds, potassium chloride (KCL) is dissolved in the water phase to
provide a source of K+. To overcome the problem of having a low exchange potential, a
high concentration of K+ is run (+/-50 gm/l) to increase the statistical chances of
exchanges taking place, and to compete more effectively with hydration.

Calcium
The Ca++ ion is too large to fit into the clay structure until some hydration has taken
place. However, once it is possible for it to fit, the Ca++ ion with its multiple charge is
extremely effective at binding the clay layers together. The exchange potential is high.
Thus exchanges readily take place even at low Ca++ concentrations, and the cation
competes effectively with hydration. In typical calcium muds, either lime or gypsum are
dissolved in the water phase to provide a source of Ca++, at concentrations in the range
5-10 gm/l.
Controlling Hydration
Water is attracted to the clay surfaces in the same way as cations. The +ve charge on
the hydrogen atoms of the water molecule attaches itself to the -ve sites on the clay
surfaces by hydrogen bonding. An orientated layer of water forms across the clay
surface, with the –ve charged oxygen atoms facing out. This in turn attracts a second
layer of water and so on (fig. 7). If hydration is allowed to continue unchecked, the clay
expands and small particles of clay break off from the structure. Each of these particles
is surrounded by a “water cushion” which prevents the particles from associating with
each other.
As the clay particles become dispersed in the mud, some of the water is used up in the
water cushion. With less free water available, the mud becomes more viscous. At the
same time, the clay remaining in the formation becomes progressively softer as its water
content increases.
Figure 7: Schematic Hydration
To develop a strategy to control hydration, it is necessary first to understand the charge

structure in the vicinity of the clay surface. Figure 8 is a schematic showing the variation

of charge with distance from the surface of the clay. The bound layer immediately
adjacent to the clay surface represents the first layer of water molecules absorbed onto
the clay. The charge structure is highly ordered.
In the bulk mud, the charges are carried on ions, which result from salts being dissolved
in the water phase of the mud. These ions move randomly and thus the charge
distribution is also random.
In the diffuse layer, the charge distribution is well ordered close to the clay surface and
becomes increasingly disordered with distance from the surface until it becomes entirely
random and indistinguishable from the bulk mud. The diffuse layer is composed of the
layers of water molecules which make up the water cushion.
Figure 8: Charge Distribution at Clay Surface
It is not possible to stop to stop all hydration taking place; in most instances a bound
layer of water molecules will form. However, effective control of cation exchange will
compete. The critical control measure for hydration is to reduce the thickness of the
diffuse layer (i.e. “compress” the water cushion). The thickness of this layer is governed
by the quantity of ions in the bulk mud, and by the number of charges on those ions. The
higher the concentration of ions in the bulk mud, the more compressed the diffuse layer
will become. If the ions in the bulk mud carry multiple charges, then the compression will
be greater.
In practise, the Mud Engineer uses this information for control purposes and either
dissolves high concentrations of sodium chloride (NaCl) or potassium chloride (Kcl) in
the mud to give high concentrations of single charge ions, or adds products such as lime
or gypsum which will give a lower concentration of multiple charge ions.

Clay Particles in the Mud

Despite efforts to control reactions between clays and water based muds, some clay
particles inevitably become incorporated in the mud. The behaviour of clay particles in
the mud depends in part on the charges on the face of clay layers as discussed above.
When pieces of clay break away form the formation, the charges on the edge of the clay
particles must also be considered. These charges may be +ve or -ve (fig. 9), and the
relative quantities depend on factors such as the alkalinity of the mud.
Figure 9: Charge Distribution on Clay Plate
There are three basic configurations for clay particles in the mud (fig. 10). They come
together as a result of interactions between –ve face charges and +ve edge charges.
They move apart when hydration occurs and a water cushion is formed.
Dispersed clays
Flocculated clays
Aggregated clays
Clay Particle Configurations

Visual Description
Dispersed Clays: The clay is present as individual platelets, each
one carrying a thick water cushion as a result of hydration. This
holds the platelets apart and gives the mud viscosity since large
amounts of water are bound to the plates and there is less free
water available.
Muds containing dispersed clays appear smooth and shiny since
the particle size is extremely small (1-2 micron). In addition to
providing viscosity, the clays also assist in filtration control by
forming a compact, relatively impermeable filter cake.
Clay Particle Configurations, continued

Visual Description
Flocculated Clays: If salts are added to a mud containing
dispersed clays, the water cushion will be compressed as
discussed above. The clay platelets are no longer held apart and
the +ve edge charges can attract the –ve face charges, causing
flocculation.
Flocculation can cause extremely high viscosities when the clay
content is high, since all the clay particles are attracting each
other. The flocs formed can be large and the mud appears dull
and “grainy”. Although viscosities can be high, they are not easily
controlled and flocculation causes a severe deterioration in
filtration control since the flocs form a highly permeable filter cake.
Aggregated Clays: Aggregated clay particles are associated in a
face to face configuration, very similar to their original layer
structure in the formation. This may be as a result of ions in the
water phase of the mud which prevent the clays from hydrating.
Muds containing aggregated clays appear smooth and shiny in the
same way as with dispersed clays. The mud develops some
viscosity as a result of solids, and from the small quantities of
water associated with the aggregates. The particles will also
provide assistance in filtration control, forming a relatively compact
impermeable filter cake.
Mud tests can differentiate between dispersion, flocculation and aggregation. The
concept for the three configurations for clay particles provides an important diagnostic
tool in mud analysis.
Using Clay Chemistry

Clay chemistry is used in two different ways:
Inhibiting reaction between the formation and the mud
Obtaining optimum performance from clay mud additives
Inhibiting Reaction Between the Formation and the Mud
Cation exchange and hydration are used for inhibition. The most common inhibitive mud
types based on these techniques are Kcl (potassium chloride), lime, gyp (gypsum) and
saturated salt. Other experimental muds such as cationic polymer muds and calcium
chloride muds are occasionally run, but should be classed as experimental. The
chemical principles employed are essentially the same as those discussed.
Obtaining Optimum Performance from Clay Mud Additives

The most common clay mud additive is bentonite which is used to provide viscosity and
filtration control For good filtration control and reasonable viscosity, the bentonite is used
in the dispersed condition. For maximum viscosity, the bentonite can be flocculated,
however the resultant mud is not easily controllable and provides very poor filtration
control.
To disperse bentonite, freshwater is added and the clay is allowed to hydrate. This must
be done using good quality fresh water, with a minimum of ions present.
To prepare flocculated bentonite, the clay is first dispersed and then the water cushion is
compressed by adding lime (for example), which will act as a source of calcium. With no
water cushion to keep them apart, the clay particles will flocculate giving very high
viscosities.
If larger quantities of lime are added, the mud will initially flocculate, but the clay particles
will tend to reorient themselves to ultimately become aggregated. thus a high initial
viscosity will be obtained, but this will be broken down as the bentonite becomes
aggregated to give very low viscosities. Figure 11 gives an indication of the effect of
dispersion, flocculation and aggregation on viscosity, showing how the viscosity changes
with increasing concentrations of lime, Kcl, etc.
Figure 11: Viscosity Changes Based on Increasing Concentration of Elements

Viscosity in Inhibitive Muds

Inhibitive muds are mixed to prevent bentonite (or any other clay) from hydrating.
Sufficient Kcl or lime or gyp is mixed to ensure that any clays will remain aggregated. If
bentonite is used as a viscosifier, then the conditions must be right to allow the bentonite
to hydrate. It should be clear from the above that good inhibition and good performance
from bentonite cannot be achieved in the same mud. Inhibition will prevent the bentonite
from hydrating. If the conditions are right to allow bentonite to hydrate, then by definition
there is no inhibition.
Conclusion
Formations such as shale, claystone, mudstone, marl, etc. comprise mostly of clay
particles. Other rocks, such as sandstone and limestone, can comprise a varying
percentage of clays. In fact, just about all rocks that are drilled have some clay in them.
The problem with clay is that it reacts with water. This causes the clay particles to soak
up water (hydrate), leading to swelling and softening. The types of problems this creates
are noted at the beginning of this lesson.
The reactions that take place are called ionic reactions, meaning that the clay particles
(which are negatively charged) attract positive ions in the water (either salts or water
molecules).
If a water based mud is used, a situation is created where these reactions will occur. The
development of oil based mud reduced the problem enormously; now, with increasing
environmental pressures, water based muds are making a comeback.
Hydration must be minimised to prevent the formation clays from swelling. This is done
by making salts in the water compete with the water itself. Salts, such as Na, Ca, K,
want to attach themselves to the clay particle; water molecules want to do the same.
There are a finite number of negative sites on a clay particle that will attract a positive
ion. If a water molecule attaches itself, then hydration can take place. If a salt ion (Ca,
Na or K) attaches itself, then hydration will not take place. Therefore, the greater the
concentrations of salts in the water, the less chance water molecules have of attaching
themselves to the clay. This obviously reduces the amount of hydration; this reduction in
hydration is called inhibition. Higher levels of salt concentration produce greater
inhibition.
Common inhibitive muds are lime muds (Ca) and potassium muds (Kcl).
These salts are used to prevent hydration. Based on the amount of salts concentration in
the mud, the clays will react differently.

Salts Concentration in the Muds

Concentration Reaction
Any clays coming in contact with the mud will experience a minimum
High of hydration. The clays will form aggregates and viscosities will be
relatively low.
Any clays coming in contact with the mud will generally be dispersed,
Low giving good viscosities and filtration control. A bentonite mud is an
example.
In between the high and low, there can be a whole range of reactions
taking place. Increasing concentrations of salts will cause the
Medium dispersed clays to become flocculated. This causes high viscosities
and poor filtration control. Adding more slats may eventually allow
aggregation to occur and have the advantage of inhibition.
Using these three basic configurations (dispersed, flocculated and aggregated), it is

easy to see how lack of mud maintenance or contamination can affect the mud
properties.
Clay chemistry is a very complex subject. Drilling mud is probably the most important
tool used in drilling the well. A basic understanding of clay chemistry, hydration and
inhibition will help members of the drill crew recognise when problems are in the early
stages. In the case of drilling mud, an ounce of prevention is definitely worth a pound of
cure.
Lesson Q & A
Questions and Answers
Q/A Details
If you pre-hydrated bentonite, which one of the three basic
Question
configurations would the clay be in?
So long as the mix water was fresh, the bentonite clay particles
Answer
would be dispersed.
Flocculated bentonite mud gives the highest viscosities, although
Question fluid loss control is poor. If you required flocculated bentonite, how
would it be made?
First produce pre-hydrated bentonite (dispersed), then throw in a
Answer contaminant like Ca+++ (lime). This will flocculate the bentonite clay
particles to produce good “sweep” mud.

Q/A Details
Question If dry bentonite was added to a Kcl brine, what would happen?
Not much - as the Kcl brine is inhibitive, it will suppress any reactions
Answer
that cause hydration. The bentonite will not hydrate.
If you take a pre-hydrated bentonite and add increasing amounts of
Question
Kcl, what will happen?
The pre-hydrated bentonite (dispersed) will at first flocculate and
cause increased viscosity. As the concentration of Kcl increases, the
clay particles will aggregate and cause viscosity to drop. This would
Answer
not be an inhibited mud – so long as Kcl concentration was kept in
excess. The same principle applies to using calcium as the inhibitor
(see below).
FLOCCULATED
DISPERSED AGGREGATED
VISCOSITY
INCREASED Ca or KCl CONTENT
Questions and Answers, continued

Q/A Details
Question How can you have an inhibitive bentonite mud?
In fact, you cannot have an inhibited bentonite mud. The “inhibitor”
prevents the bentonite clay from working; so effectively, the
bentonite is of no use. Some inhibited polymer muds are mixed with
Answer
small amounts of bentonite at first (5 ppb) to give a little initial body
and filtration control, but usually the level of bentonite is not
maintained as drilled continues.

Q/A Details
Question What is the reason for asking these questions?
To illustrate through reasoning that if inhibition is the objective,
bentonite is not the viscosifier needed. Bentonite and inhibition are
Answer mutually exclusive. Inhibited water based muds use polymers for
viscosity. Inhibition is there primarily to prevent formation clays and
drilled cuttings from reacting with the water phase.

Section 3: Polymers
Introduction
Clay chemistry is detailed in the previous lesson, explaining how clay in the formation
reacts with the mud and how clays purposely added to the mud (such as bentonite) react
with the liquid phase of the mud. The key reaction is hydration, clays absorbing water,
which can affect hole stability and change mud viscosity.
Mud viscosity is a desirable property that was originally achieved by the use of bentonite
clay. Hydration is the element that makes bentonite produce viscosity. It is this same
process that can affect hole stability and damage the formation. To minimise hydration of
the formation, various muds have been developed that inhibit this reaction. The problem
with these muds is that the property which gives inhibition will prevent the bentonite form
developing viscosity. This problem is solved by the use of polymers that can create
viscosity in an inhibited environment.
This training lesson looks at polymers, how they react, how they can be used, their
advantages and disadvantages. To fully appreciate viscosity, inhibition, polymers and
clay reactions, this lesson should be read in conjunction with the next segment – Step
Down Charts for Vertical, Directional and Multiple String Wells.
What Are Polymers?

Many of the chemicals used in making mud are derived from naturally available plant
materials. Usually these materials are altered chemically to improve or alter their
performance. The most common products are modified starches and modified cellulose.
These products are generally referred to as polymers. Their main uses are to provide
viscosity and filtration control. Synthetic polymers are also used and are tailor-made for
other duties:
Emulsification
Oil-wetting
Dispersing solids
Encapsulation
And so on…
Polymer Advantage Over Clay-Based Products

No Advantage
1 Tend to be less variable in quality.
Smaller quantities are required to impart a particular property to the
2
mud.

For example, in a given mud system that requires the addition of 25-30 pounds/barrel
(ppb) of bentonite, only 2-3 ppb of a certain polymer may be required to give the same
change in mud properties.
A polymer consists of a number of individual molecules, joined together to form a chain.
The individual molecules are called monomers and the chain is a polymer.
Polymers behave in different ways depending on how the monomers are joined together
for form chains. Two variables affecting polymer behavior are the length of the chain and
the shape of the chain. Polymers can be “long-chain” or “short-chain”. The different
shapes include:
Straight
Branched
Spiral
Cross-linked
Figure 1: Basic Polymer Chain Configurations
Chemical reactions also affect the behavior of polymers. These reactions depend on
whether the polymer carries a positive or negative charge, as well as the type of mud in
which they are used. A mud carrying its own charge may change the shape and
characteristics of the polymer due to the attraction/repulsion forces. Muds of different
alkalinity/acidity (pH) may affect the charge of the chemical group attached to the
polymer and chemical reactions it may undergo.

Factors Affecting Polymer Behavior

Critical Factors Affecting Polymer Behavior
No Factor
1 Chain length
2 Chain shape
3 Type and number of chemical groups attached to the polymer
4 Type of mud in which the polymer is used
Polymer Chain Length
For any specific polymer, there can be both long-chain and short-chain variants. Long-
chain polymer molecules will tend to tangle up with each other in the mud. This is
especially the case when there is a great deal of branching. The tangled polymers make
the mud more difficult to pump, or more viscous.
Ideally, for a polymer to do a particular job, all the polymer molecules need to be the
same length. Uniformity of chain length will produce a polymer that consistently gives the
desired property. In practice, this is not the case, as there may be a considerable
variation in the chain lengths present in one additive. This variation in chain length is an
indication of the quality of the product. The higher quality polymers have a narrow band
of chain lengths close to the ideal, while lower quality products have a bigger spread of
chain lengths. These tend to be less effective.
Since the polymer molecule is heavier as it gets longer, manufacturers normally quote
chain length of a product as molecular weight (MW). The figures quoted are average
values for the product.
Figure 2 shows the different molecular weight distribution of two polymer products. Both
products may be given the same molecular weight because their average chain length is
the same, but product “A” would be of better quality since its chain lengths vary less than
product “B”.
Product A
Narrow Distribution
Number of Molecules
Product B
Broad Distribution
Molecular Weight
MW
Different Molecular Weight Distribution Curve

Polymer Chain Shape

Monomer units may attach to form a straight chain polymer. Alternatively, they may
produce branched chains or spirals and, under some circumstances, cross-linking can
occur. Examples of these chain shapes are shown in figure 1.
Two polymer molecules of similar MW, one straight-chained and the other branched, will
occupy very different amounts of space in the mud. Their performance in the mud will
therefore be different. In addition, because of the tightly coiled structure of spiral shaped
polymers, they act more like short chain polymers and are not good viscosifiers. They
are used for fluid loss control by blocking pores in the formation, leading to thinner,
tighter filter cake.
Type and Nature of Chemical Groups Attached
The chemical reactivity of a polymer is mainly dependent on the type and number of
chemical groups attached to the molecule. The chemical groups that can be attached
onto the polymer can be divided into three types:
1. Non-ionic
2. Anionic or negatively charged
3. Cationic or positively charged
Polymers with negatively charged or positively charged groups attached will behave in
different ways depending on the environment in which they are used. For example, if a
polymer has negatively charged groups attached, they can react with any positive ions in
the mud and formation.
Some charged polymers carry more charged groups than others. This influences
behavior since more charge will increase the reactivity of the polymer. Polymers that
carry no charge are unaffected by any charges in their environment. They act purely
mechanically by plugging the pores in a filter cake to provide filtration control, or by
tangling with themselves to increase viscosity. Thus, their behavior is the same in all
types of mud.
Type of Mud in Which Polymer is Used
The behavior of polymers can be altered substantially by the environment in which they
are used (ie. the type of mud in which they are used).
A change in alkalinity or acidity of the environment can sometimes alter the charge on
the chemical groups in the polymer. This can vary the repulsion and attraction forces
within the molecule and change its shape or it can change the chemical reactivity of the
polymer. In both cases, the polymer will behave in a different way.
In freshwater, where there are few charged particles (ions), the shape of a polymer chain
is to some extent controlled by the charged groups on the polymer repelling each other.
In muds where there are high concentrations of ions (e.g. salt saturated mud), there are

many more attractions and repulsion forces to consider. As a result the repulsion
between the charged groups on the polymer becomes less significant and the shape of
the chain becomes more tightly coiled and compact (fig. 3). This would affect the
polymer’s viscosifying properties as discussed earlier.
Figure 3: Ionic Concentration and Chain Shape
If there are large numbers of multiple charge positive ions in the mud (e.g. calcium, Ca++,
magnesium, Mg++), they will react with negative charge groups on the polymer and may
distort the shape of the chain, making it less effective. Alternatively, they may act as
bridging agents by attracting two negatively charged groups from different polymer
chains and cross-linking them (fig. 1).
Polymers and Mud Properties – Their Function in Drilling Fluids

A mud must possess certain physical properties in order to fulfill its functions.
Density
Viscosity
Gel Strength
Filtration control
The mud must also have the correct chemical balance to avoid or control reactions
between the mud and the formation. Polymer additives cannot be used to provide
density, but are regularly used to provide viscosity, gel strength and filtration control. In
addition, some polymers can encapsulate clays, making reaction more difficult and
assisting with mud chemistry.

Viscosity
Polymer viscosifiers can contribute to viscosity by interactions between the polymer and
water, the polymer and solids, or by the polymer chains interacting with each other.
The longer the chain, the more interactions and tangling that occur, thus the higher
viscosity. For useful interactions to occur between polymer/water and polymer/solids,
there must be some charged groups on the polymer chain to cause attractions.
Polymers with no charge develop viscosity simply by mechanical means (i.e. purely by
physical polymer/polymer interaction and no chemical reactions).
The interaction forces which give rise to viscosity can be disrupted by supplying energy
or “shear”. This occurs when fluids are forced through pumps or bit nozzles. Fluids that
become less viscous or thinner as shear rate (flow rate) increases are called shear
thinning fluids. Shear thinning is a desirable property in drilling fluids since a mud with
good shear thinning properties will have a low viscosity at the bit nozzles where shear
rate is high. This allows for higher flow rates inside the drill string without excessive
pressure build up, and better viscosity properties in the annulus where shear (flow) rate
is low. The action improves transport of cuttings to the surface. Some polymers form
higher shear thinning fluids than others. This is a factor to be considered in polymer
selection. Polymer viscosifiers typically give a more shear thinning fluid than clay
viscosifiers.
With constant shearing through mud pumps and bit nozzles, polymers can be broken
into a shorter chain length, causing a decrease in viscosity. High temperatures, high
alkalinity and aeration of mud will speed up chemical degradation of a polymer, also
affecting viscosity.
As discussed earlier, high salt concentrations cause charged polymers to contract,
making them less effective (fig 3). Polymers with a lot of charge and highly-branched
polymers are least affected and are better in such muds.
Gel Strength
Gel strength is required to suspend solids in the mud when it is not being circulated. The
gel strength of a mud is a result of the various charged particles in the mud interacting.
Compared with clays, polymers generally carry much less charge. They therefore
produce muds with lower gen strengths. In some cases, this can be a problem. Polymers
with no charge produce no gel strength, which severely limits their use. The best gel
strengths are produced by polymers carrying the most charge.
Filtration Control
The way in which a polymer can assist with filtration control depends on the individual
polymer. In general, polymers can help to reduce the fluid loss in one of three ways.

Polymers Reduce Fluid Loss

No Method
Polymers provide small colloidal particles that can compress and deform
1
to plug the pores in the filter cake.
Polymers that act as deflocculants break up flocculated clays into
smaller particles by attaching themselves to the positive edges of the
2
clay plates (fig. 4). When these plates are deposited in the filter cake,
they give a more impermeable filter cake.
By providing a more viscous liquid phase which is being forced through
3
the filter cake, the fluid loss will be lower.
Figure 4: Deflocculation by Short Chain Polymer
Encapsulation
Encapsulation is the term given to the process of attachment of a negatively charged
long-chain polymer to a number of clay plates. The negative charged group on the
polymer attach themselves to positive charges on the edges of the clay platelets, pulling
them together to form aggregates. This effectively is reversing the process of hydration
and leaves the clays un-reactive to water. Hydration can cause clay related problems
such as hole swelling and clay contamination of the mud. The aggregates formed can
become large enough to be separated from the mud at surface using solids separation
techniques (e.g. shakers, desander).

Figure 5: Encapsulation by Long Chain Polymer
In an encapsulator, the primary role of the polymer is to prevent undesirable reactions

between the formation and water in the mud.
The polymer not only reacts with clays in the mud, but also with the clay formations
downhole. The polymer chains attach themselves to the walls of the hole, forming a
layer which makes it more difficult for reactions to take place between the formation and
the mud elements, thereby reducing the possibility of hole swelling. Longer chain
polymers are used and work in conjunction with other chemical inhibitors such as Kcl,
Lime or gypsum.
Natural Polymers
The largest groups of polymers used in the oilfield are the natural polymers based on
sugar molecules extracted from plants. These include starches and guar gum, which are
used in near natural form, together with celluloses and xanthum gum, which are slightly
modified during production. The basic structure of these polymers is similar, though
differences due to chain shape and charged or uncharged groups attached to the chains
result in considerable variations in individual properties.
Starches
Starch occurs in many plants and is cheaply and easily extracted. Most commercial
European starch comes from potatoes; in other parts of the world, it may be extracted
from corn, rice, etc.
Starch has a tightly coiled structure and carries no charged groups. Because of its
shape, it will not work as a viscosifer since it is physically difficult for the coils to become
entangled with each other. Starches, and modified starches, are used in the oilfield for
filtration control. Since there are no charge groups in starch, filtration does not occur by

chemical reaction; instead starch provides small colloidal particles to block the pores in
the filter cake.
The resistance to chemical reaction of starch, due to no charge, means it is not affected
by the type of mud in which it is used. Starch works equally well in most mud types.
Starch is degraded by heat and agitation. With continued circulation in a hole at 2000F
(930C) and above, starch breaks down rapidly. This can severely limit the starches.
Because of this, the vast majority of starches used in the oilfield are chemically modified
to reduce their rate of degradation.
Cellulose Derivatives
Cellulose itself is not used in mud since it will not dissolve in water. Modifications to
cellulose during production enable the utilization of its straight open chain which in many
ways is more useful than the tightly coiled starch chain. Since cellulose is cheap and
abundant, a number of modified cellulose products are used. These include CMC
(Carboxyl Methyl Cellulose) and PAC (Polyanionic Cellulose) which are very similar
polymers. They both carry negative charges; the difference between them is that PAC
has more negative groups than CMC.
Both CMC and PAC are used in long and short chain forms. The long chain varieties are
used as viscosifiers, as the chains of these polymers can interact with water and solids
particles, as well as with themselves. Short chain CMC and PAC polymers are used for
filtration control by deflocculating clays.
Although both will give some encapsulation with clay solids, PAC has greater ability to
attach onto the positive sites of clay particles because it carries more negative charge.
This makes PAC a more effective inhibitor than CMC. For the same reason, PAC gives
higher gel strengths than CMC.
Because both products are charged, they are sensitive to the types of mud in which they
are used. They work less well in salt saturated muds (i.e. muds with high salt content),
although PAC with its greater charge is affected less in salt solutions than CMC. They
are alos sensitive to the presence of calcium (Ca++) in muds in which case CMC is less
affected because it has fewer charged groups.
HEC (Hydroxy Ethyl Cellulose) is another modified cellulose polymer. It has no charged
groups and it is used in long chain form as a viscosifier, relying on interactions between
the polymer chains only. Having no charge, it is not able to encapsulate clays in the
same way as CMC or PAC, nor does it develop any gel strength. These properties must
come from other additives. The lack of charge also means HEC is not affected by the
type of mud, allowing it to be used as a viscosifier in muds where CMC or PAC will not
work satisfactorily.

Having no charge does present a major problem, as well as an advantage when working
with HEC as a viscosifier. The problem is that it does not develop any gel strength. This
means that it is not practical on its own in normal drilling operations. HEC use is
restricted to workover and completion fluids where there are often high salt and calcium
concentrations. The advantage is that it will not become encapsulated onto clays
associated with the reservoir, thus minimising damage to the formation.
Xanthum Gum
Supplied under trade names including “XC Polymer” and “XCD Polymer”, Xanthum is a
high molecular weight polymer (i.e. it is very long chain). It has a highly branched
structure and carries large quantities of negative charge.
Because of its chain length, xanthum is an extremely effective viscosifier. Of all the
commonly used polymers, ti has the best shear thinning characteristics and provides the
best gel strengths. Although xanthum is a charged polymer, it can cope well with high
salt and high calcium concentrations because its structure is very rigid. However this
structure prevents it from encapsulating effectively. This provides an advantage in
completion fluids where it is used as a supplement to HEC to contribute gel strength.
Guar Gum
Guar gum is a cheap natural polymer obtained form the guar bean. It has a branched
structure with no charge. Guar gum is an effective viscosifier for fresh water or salty
muds, lowering filtration rates. Because guar gum degrades rapidly at temperatures in
excess of 1500F, its use is limited to shallow wells. Commonly, it is used as a viscosifier
in top hole sections.
Synthetic Polymers
Oxygen in the polymer chain is one of the weaknesses of the natural polymers. This link
is usually the first to be broken by degradation at elevated temperatures or by bacterial
attack. It is possible to engineer synthetic polymers with a stronger backbone (e.g. a
carbon chain). By process control, the molecular weight, or the chain length, can be
varied. Polymers can also be produced which leave different chemical groups attached.
Polyacrylics
The acrylamide/acrylate family of polymers is the most widely used in the oilfield. These
polymers are typically manufactured form acrylamide and sodium acrylate monomers,
giving charged or uncharged polymers.
Properties of these polymers are governed by molecular weight. Polyacrylic polymers
with low molecular weight (i.e. short chain) are used as flocculants. For encapsulation to
inhibit hydration of clays, polymers with a high molecular weight are most effective. For
viscosity and fluid loss control at high temperatures, polymers with a more medium
molecular weight are used.

Other Synthetic Polymers

Other synthetic polymers in use include co-polymers – one polymer chain made up of
two different polymers. Long chain varieties of these polymers are used as “bentonite
extenders” which enhance the thickening properties of bentonite and improve hole
cleaning. Short chain varieties of these polymers are used as high temperature
deflocculants, reducing viscosity and gel strengths of the mud.
Typical Polymer Mud Make-Up
Mud Type – KCl Polymer

Ingredients Amount Function
Fresh Water .95 bbls/bbl ------------
KCl 10 - 35 ppb Inhibition
XC Polymer .75 – 1.5 ppb Viscosity and Gels
PAC Low Viscosity 1 – 3 ppb Filtration
PHPA .3 – 1.5 ppb Encapsulation
Caustic Soda .25 – 1.0 ppb pH
Soda Ash .25 – 1.0 ppg Removing Calcium
Barite As Required Weight
This shows the approximate quantities of chemicals required for a KCl Polymer. Note
that three kinds of polymer are used, each having a different property.
Conclusion
Polymers are mainly used to give viscosity and filtration control. They are much more
effective than bentonite in inhibited mud systems and require much smaller quantities to
give the same viscosity. The different types of polymers available make them a highly
versatile mud additive.

QUIZ - Polymers
1. What is a typical ppb addition for polymers?
2. Spiral shaped polymers are best used for what function?
3. What are the three main ways that polymers interact to give viscosity?
4. What is meant by “shear thinning”?
5. What is meant by “encapsulation”?
6. What is the main problem with starch?
7. What is the main difference between CMC and PAC?
8. Which one of the following gives the least gel strength: XC Polymer, CMC, PAC,
HEC?
9. Why is XC Polymer considered to be the all around viscosifier?
10. When is guar gum normally used and what is its limitation?
QUIZ Answers- Polymers

1. 2 – 3 ppb
2. Filtration control
3. Polymer to polymer, polymer to water, polymer to solids
4. Mud becomes thinner as it is pumped faster
5. Polymer attaches to a clay particle to help flocculation and reduce hydration
6. Degrades with heat and agitation
7. PAC carries more negative charge and is a more effective inhibitor. CMC is less
sensitive to calcium contamination
8. HEC
9. Long chain, highly branched and carries a lot of negative charge
10. Top hole, degrades rapidly

Matrix
Place a tick (3) where you think the polymer matches the function. Note: no answers
are given for this exercise. Discuss possible solutions to this matrix with Rig Mud
Engineer.
Function Viscosity Filtration Gels Inhibitors Top High Salt High

Control Hole Contents Ca++
Polymer Content
Guar
Gum
Starch
CMC LV
CMC HV
PAC LV
PAC HV
XC
HEC
PHPA


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WDI Toolpusher Reference Manual Hydraulics

Chapter 1: Drilling Fluids…………………..…………………..…………… 1-1

Rev.1 Dec-09 © 2008 Weatherford International. 1- 1

Chapter 1: Drilling Fluids

Rev.1 Dec-09 © 2008 Weatherford International. 1- 2

Section 1: Functions, Properties and Products of Mud

Rev.1 Dec-09 © 2008 Weatherford International. 1- 3

MUD HYDROSTATIC PREVENTS FORMATION FLUIDS ENTERING

Rev.1 Dec-09 © 2008 Weatherford International. 1- 4

2. Carry Cuttings to Surface

MUD STREAM UP THE

SPEED (Annular Velocity) &

Cuttings Carried to the Surface

• NEED TO HOLD CUTTINGS IN

Rev.1 Dec-09 © 2008 Weatherford International. 1- 5

4. Release Cuttings at Surface

Cuttings Released at the Surface

CARRY INFORMATION FROM

Information Carried from Downhole

Rev.1 Dec-09 © 2008 Weatherford International. 1- 6

Stabilisation of the Wellbore

7. Seal off Permeable Formations

Rev.1 Dec-09 © 2008 Weatherford International. 1- 7

SEAL OFF PERMEABLE SEAL OFF PERMEABLE

OVERBALANCE LIQUID INVASION LIQUID INVASION

Mud Function in Sealing Off Permeable Formations

OIL OR GAS IS UNABLE

Formation Damage Control

Rev.1 Dec-09 © 2008 Weatherford International. 1- 8

9. Cool and Lubricate the Bit and Drill String

10. Transmit Power to the Bit and Downhole Tools

POWER FOR JETTING

POWER FOR MOTORS

Power to the Bottom Hole Assembly

Rev.1 Dec-09 © 2008 Weatherford International. 1- 9

In addition to the ability to recognise mud properties, it is critical to know which

Rev.1 Dec-09 © 2008 Weatherford International. 1-10

Mud Properties Related to Mud Functions

Rev.1 Dec-09 © 2008 Weatherford International. 1-11

Rev.1 Dec-09 © 2008 Weatherford International. 1-12

Rev.1 Dec-09 © 2008 Weatherford International. 1-13

Common Filtration Agents

Rev.1 Dec-09 © 2008 Weatherford International. 1-14

Common Weighting Agents

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Rev.1 Dec-09 © 2008 Weatherford International. 1-16

Rev.1 Dec-09 © 2008 Weatherford International. 1-17

Section 2: Clay Chemistry

Problems with Formation Clays

Rev.1 Dec-09 © 2008 Weatherford International. 1-18

Figure 1: Structure of Clays

Figure 2: Layer Structures

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clay as “sandwiches” of alumina and silica. These sandwiches can be made up in

Rev.1 Dec-09 © 2008 Weatherford International. 1-20

Rev.1 Dec-09 © 2008 Weatherford International. 1-21

Figure 4: Clay Formation

Substances Carrying Positive Charge

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Figure 5: Water Molecule

Controlling Cation Exchange

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Figure 6: Cation Exchange