Aesth Plast Surg (2020) 44:1803–1810
https://doi.org/10.1007/s00266-020-01791-2
REVIEW
A Systematic Literature Review of the Middle Temporal Vein
Anatomy: ‘Venous Danger Zone’ in Temporal Fossa for Filler
Injections
Krishan Mohan Kapoor1,2,3 • Dario Bertossi4 • Chris Qiong Li5 • Deasy Indra Saputra6 •
Izolda Heydenrych7,8 • Reha Yavuzer9
Received: 23 January 2020 / Accepted: 13 May 2020 / Published online: 29 May 2020
Ó Springer Science+Business Media, LLC, part of Springer Nature and International Society of Aesthetic Plastic Surgery 2020
Abstract
Background Treatment of a sunken appearance of the
temporal region using injectable fillers is a popular pro-
cedure. The temporal fossa has very complex anatomy due
to multiple vessels running in the different tissue layers. A
severe complication in the form of non-thrombotic pul-
monary embolism (NTPE) can occur as a result of an
inadvertent injection in the middle temporal vein (MTV)
while performing temporal fossa filler procedures. There-
fore, in-depth knowledge and understanding of the MTV
anatomy are essential for successful and safer
injectable procedures of the temporal fossa.
Objectives While there have been many studies to describe
the arteries in this region, there is limited information about
the location and course of the middle temporal vein. This
& Krishan Mohan Kapoor
kmkapoor@gmail.com
1
Anticlock Clinic, #1508, Sector 33 D, Chandigarh 160022,
India
2
Department of Plastic Surgery, Fortis Hospital, Mohali, India
3
University of London, St George’s, London, UK
4
Maxillofacial Plastic Surgery Unit, Policlinico G.B. Rossi,
University of Verona, Piazzale L.A. Scuro, 1037134 Verona,
Italy
5
Angel Swan Clinic, Shanghai, China
6
BMDerma Clinic, Jakarta, Indonesia
7
Cape Town Cosmetic Dermatology Centre, Central Park on
Esplanade, Century City, Cape Town, South Africa
8
Division of Dermatology, Faculty of Medicine and Health
Sciences, Stellenbosch University, Stellenbosch, South
Africa
9
Rene Clinic, Istanbul, Turkey
NON-SURGICAL AESTHETIC
literature review is aimed at providing detailed information
about the course, depth, and size of the MTV to help
aesthetic practitioners in performing safer temporal fossa
filler injections. This information is imperative to delineate
the ‘venous danger zone’ in the temple region.
Methods The preferred reporting items for systematic
reviews and meta-analyses guidelines were used for this
review. A literature search was performed to find the
articles providing details about the MTV anatomy and the
measurements related to its course and size.
Results A review of the literature showed that the MTV
displays a consistent course and depth in the temporal
region, with high variability in its diameter. The middle
temporal vein width varied between 0.5 and 9.1 mm in
various studies. The middle temporal vein receives many
subfascial tributaries from the surface of the temporalis
muscle, and for most of its course runs in the fat pad
enclosed between superficial and deep layers of the deep
temporal fascia. A ‘venous danger zone,’ in the interfascial
planes of the temporal fossa, which contain the main part
of the MTV and its tributaries, has been proposed in this
paper.
Conclusions The temporal fossa filler procedures need
great caution, and knowledge of the depth and course of the
MTV is essential for avoiding NTPE.
Level of Evidence III This journal requires that authors
assign a level of evidence to each article. For a full
description of these Evidence-Based Medicine ratings,
please refer to the Table of Contents or the online
Instructions to Authors www.springer.com/00266.
Keywords Middle temporal vein
Filler injection

Pulmonary embolism
Filler complications
Temporal
fossa injection
Temporal fossa fillers
Temporal fossa
anatomy
Temple filler injection
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1804 Aesth Plast Surg (2020) 44:1803–1810

Abbreviations necessitates a detailed study of the middle temporal vein,

MTV Middle temporal vein the largest vein in the temporal region.
MTA Middle temporal artery The middle temporal vein (MTV) is a relatively lesser-
IFV Interfascial vein known blood vessel, receiving many tributaries, including
TFP Temporal fat pad the sentinel vein, and travels in the temporal fossa just
STF Superficial temporal fascia superficial to the deep layer of the deep temporal fascia.
DTF Deep temporal fascia Just at, or below the level of the zygomatic arch, it joins the
NTPE Nonthrombotic pulmonary embolism superficial temporal vein. Due to its large size and location,
PRISMA Preferred reporting items for systematic the MTV poses a risk for an accidental puncture during
reviews and meta-analyses temporal filling. Accidental injection in the MTV could
lead to bruising, hematoma, and more severe sequelae in
the form of non-thrombotic pulmonary embolism (NTPE).
Introduction
This paper aims to review the anatomy of this important
vessel in order to facilitate adequate precautions while
Age-related changes in the temporal region include thin-
performing temporal fossa filler injections.
ning of the temporalis muscle, loss of fat in the temporal
fat pads, and increasing concavity of the temporal bone
secondary to bone loss. Due to these changes, the tem-
Materials and Methods
poral area loses its youthful convex shape, and the bony
margins of the zygomatic arch and the lateral orbital rim
A systematic review of the published medical literature
become more prominent, causing a gaunt and wasted look
was performed to ascertain the anatomical details of the
[1]. For the correction of temporal hollowing, most pop-
middle temporal vein. The Preferred Reporting Items for
ular treatments include the use of various filler substances
Systematic Reviews and Meta-analyses, PRISMA, guide-
like autologous fat, hyaluronic acid, or poly L lactic acid
lines (Fig. 1) were used in this review. The articles selected
[2].
for this study included original articles, case reports, or
Although the arterial anatomy of the face and cutaneous
case series and experts’ opinions, published between Jan-
territory of each artery has been described in detail [3],
uary 1980 and December 2019, that investigated or dis-
there have been very few reports detailing the facial venous
cussed the anatomy of the MTV. Articles excluded from
anatomy [4, 5]. The arterial anatomy of the temporal fossa,
this study included non-English language papers, duplicate
for the avoidance of complications such as skin necrosis
papers, posters/abstracts, studies on animal models, and
[6, 7] and vision loss [8, 9] associated with accidental
papers without the MTV anatomy description. Articles
intraarterial injection, has been discussed in detail in the
with a description of the MTV but without any measure-
literature. Likewise, the need to avoid severe complications
ment related to the MTV were also excluded.
[10, 11] associated with inadvertent intravenous injection

Table 1 Comparison of various studies, describing middle temporal vein related measurements
References Year Specimen No. D (Min) (mm) D (Max) (mm) D (Avg) Point where MTV was measured

Longmore et al. [8] 1981 Cadaver 11 3.0 10.0 NA NA

Hassen et al. [9] 1986 Cadaver 30 1.0 3.5 1.9 mm At junction with STV
Beheiry et al. [10] 2007 Cadaver ? SB 44 0.5 1.0 NA NA
Yano et al. [11] 2012 Surgical case 12 0.9 2.5 1.93 mm Just before junction with STV
Yano et al. [12] 2014 Cadaver 60 0.6 4.0 1.88 mm Just before junction with STV
Jung et al. [13] 2014 Cadaver 18 2.0 9.1 5.1 mm Point where caliber is largest
Jiang et al. [7] 2015 Cadaver 20 2.66 3.42 3.02 mm At palpebral fissure level
Jiang et al. [7] 2015 Cadaver 20 1.66 2.34 2.06 mm At lateral orbital level
The data in the table show that the minimum diameter of the MTV was found to be 0.5 mm in a study that included stillborn also as specimen,
while in another study, the maximum diameter was found to be 10 mm
No. the number of the middle temporal vein samples studied, D (Min) minimum diameter of the middle temporal vein, D (Max) maximum
diameter of the middle temporal vein, D (Avg) average diameter of the middle temporal vein, SB stillbirths specimen, NA not available, MTV
middle temporal vein, STV superficial temporal vein

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Aesth Plast Surg (2020) 44:1803–1810
Fig. 1 Dissection showing the middle temporal vein (MTV) and its
tributaries from the superficial and deep planes. The dissection also
shows the relationship of the middle temporal vein with the adjoining
bony landmarks, i.e., zygomatic arch, lateral orbital rim (LOR),
temporal crest (TC) and their junction point (name proposed as
‘K point’). The middle temporal vein joins the superficial temporal
vein (STV), which is further joined by the maxillary vein to form the
retromandibular Vein (RMV). The superficial temporal artery (STA),
dissected from the temporoparietal fascia, is also seen along with the
facial artery (FA) and the facial vein (FV) (original, previously
unpublished picture of cadaver dissection, contributed by Krishan
Mohan Kapoor and Chris Qiong Li with permission for publication)
Literature Search and Data Sources
PubMed and Google Scholar were searched for articles
reporting on the topics of venous drainage and venous
anatomy of the temporal fossa. The search was conducted
using the following keywords: ‘‘middle temporal vein,’’
‘‘temporal fossa veins,’’ ‘‘venous drainage of the temporal
fossa,’’ and ‘‘middle temporal vein anatomy’’ with a pub-
lication time range of April 1980 to December 2019. The
abstract and purpose of the articles found in the literature
search were reviewed. Articles describing the details of the
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MTV anatomy and at least one measurement related to the
MTV were selected for full-text review.
Screening
Titles and abstracts of the search results were screened, and
full-text manuscripts of the selected articles were down-
loaded. Relevant information about the anatomy of the
MTV was extracted from all selected articles.
Data Extraction and Analysis
The relevant data were extracted from selected full-text
articles by two authors (KMK and RY) independently
using data abstraction sheets. The data points were tabu-
lated after reading the full text of each selected article. Due
to a small number of selected articles, the findings were
presented in the form of tables and narrative summaries.
Results
An initial literature search for the anatomy of the middle
temporal vein yielded 793 entries, published from 1980 to
December 2019. After using the initial exclusion criteria,
16 articles describing the middle temporal vein anatomy
were selected. A further nine articles detailing middle
temporal vein anatomy without measurements were
excluded. Finally, seven articles [11–17] with details of the
middle temporal vein anatomy and with at least one mea-
surement related to it, were selected for this study. In total,
seven articles selected for review provided data from 195
MTV dissections (Table 1). The size and location estimates
from these studies provide the basis for proposing a ‘ve-
nous danger zone’ in the temporal fossa. Cadaver dissec-
tion images, contributed by authors, were also used in the
study to demonstrate various details of the middle temporal
vein anatomy and its relations to surrounding structures.
Anatomy of the Middle Temporal Vein
The MTV arises from multiple smaller periorbital veins,
and it pierces the superficial and deep temporal fascia near
the upper end of the lateral orbital rim to run between the
two layers of the deep temporal fascia. The MTV receives
the superciliary vein and the lacrimal vein via the sentinel
vein. Two to four venous tributaries from the superficial
surface of the temporalis muscle, running parallel to its
muscle fibers, pass downward toward the main stem of the
middle temporal vein. The number and pattern of the
tributaries may vary, but the position of the main trunk and
the tributaries draining into it is quite similar [12].
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1806
The MTV has been described as a venous sinus found
constantly wrapped by the deep temporal fat pad between
the layers of the deep temporal fascia. It is formed by the
joining of multiple intramuscular veins from the temporalis
muscle at the level of the temporal process of the zygo-
matic bone, after which it pierces the deep layer of the deep
temporal fascia to lie within the intermediate temporal fat
pad. This sinus pierces the superficial layer of the deep
temporal fascia, the loose areolar fascia, and the superficial
temporal fascia to join the superficial temporal fascial
venous plexus about 1 cm anterior and 2.5 cm above the
tragus [14].
As the MTV passes laterally, it pierces and runs for
several millimeters on the surface of the superficial layer of
the deep temporal fascia. The MTV joins the STV about
1 cm below the upper border of the zygomatic root [15].
The STV, along with the maxillary vein draining the
pterygoid venous plexus, forms the posterior facial or
retromandibular vein (Fig. 1).
Relationship to Adjoining Structures
The average distance between the upper margin of the
zygomatic arch and the point where the MTV joins the
STV was found to be 12.7 ± 6.6 mm (range - 2–25 mm)
by Yano et al. [16]. In another study, the MTV was found
at 23.5 mm (15.7–33.6 mm) and 18.5 mm (12.5–23.5 mm)
above the zygomatic arch at the jugale and the zygion,
respectively [17]. During its oblique course, the main trunk
of the MTV was found to be 52.0 ± 6.5 mm (range
42–65 mm) from the bony lateral canthus and
12.0 ± 4.6 mm (range 5–22 mm) from the external audi-
tory meatus [16].
Diameter and Length
The mean caliber of the MTV was found to be
2.06 ± 0.17 mm at the point of origin and
3.02 ± 0.23 mm at the palpebral fissure plane by Jiang
et al. [11]. The main trunk of the MTV can become
3.15 ± 0.13 mm at the level of the palpebral fissure [11].
The diameter of the MTV was found to be 1.0–3.5 mm,
with a mean of 1.9 mm in another study [13]. The MTV
has also been described as a venous sinus with its length
varying between 2.5 and 4 cm, while the width was vary-
ing between 0.5 and 1 cm [14]. While assessing the use-
fulness of the MTV as a recipient vessel during free flap
surgery, the diameter of the MTV was found to be
2.01 ± 0.40 (1.2–2.5 cm) [15]. The average caliber of the
middle temporal vein in another series of microvascular
surgery cases was found to be 1.81 ± 0.56 mm (range,
0.7–2.5 mm) [16]. The average diameter of the MTV at its
maximal point was found to be 5.1 mm (range,
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Aesth Plast Surg (2020) 44:1803–1810
2.0–9.1 mm), in an article by Jung et al. [17]. The above
data demonstrate that size of the MTV could vary from 0.5
to 9.1 mm. The average length of the MTV was found to be
24 mm (range 10–60 mm) [13].
Branching Pattern
Four different distribution patterns of the MTV have been
found: Type 1 had only one major trunk; Type 2 had two
larger, parallel running major trunks that joined one major
trunk; Type 3 had one major trunk with one small
descending branch joining the main trunk, and Type 4 had
one major trunk with two smaller descending branches
joining it [16]. A splitting and reuniting pattern of the
course of the MTV was also seen in 28% of cases [17].
Discussion
The use of filler injections for facial contour correction can
lead to rare but serious complications such as vision loss,
cerebral embolism, and NTPE [9, 11]. As very few cases of
non-thrombotic pulmonary embolism after filler injection
have been reported in the literature, there is minimal
information about the risk factors for this complication. In
an article, three cases of pulmonary embolism with one
fatality have been reported after fat graft injection in the
temporal fossa [11].
During corrective treatment of the temporal hollow,
there is an absolute risk of a severe complication in the
form of a pulmonary embolism due to the presence of
large-caliber veins. In the case of accidental intravenous
filler injection in the temporal region, the right ventricle
can pump bloodborne filler emboli to the branches of the
pulmonary artery, causing post-procedural non-thrombotic
pulmonary embolism [18, 19]. The patient may subse-
quently present with acute respiratory failure, petechiae,
neurological features, or even coma [18]. Many cases of
pulmonary embolism have been reported after the acci-
dental injection of hyaluronic acid products in the venous
circulation [20, 21]. Thorough knowledge of facial anat-
omy is a prerequisite for safe outcomes after filler injec-
tions. An awareness of topographically important blood
vessels and their relation to adjacent structures can help in
avoiding vascular complications associated with filler
treatments [22, 23]. Knowledge of critical venous struc-
tures in treatment areas is essential to avoid the dreaded
complication of NTPE.
The MTV courses along the outer surface of the deep
layer of the deep temporal fascia (DTF) in a region lying
between the eyebrow and the ear. The MTV usually begins
at the level of the lateral eyebrow, just lateral to the orbital
margin and superficial to the lateral orbital thickening. The
Aesth Plast Surg (2020) 44:1803–1810
Fig. 2 Proposed ‘venous danger zone’ in the temporal fossa, marked
between the upper border of the zygomatic arch and an imaginary
horizontal line drawn from the junction point (the proposed name ‘K
Point’) between the lateral orbital rim and the temporal crest (original,
previously unpublished picture of cadaver dissection, contributed by
Krishan Mohan Kapoor and Chris Qiong Li with permission for
publication)
sentinel vein, which is present just lateral to the zygo-
maticofrontal suture, can be seen deeper to the superficial
temporal fascia (STF), near the temporal branch of the
facial nerve [24]. The sentinel vein drains into the middle
temporal vein after piercing the superficial layer of deep
temporal fascia. The MTV runs in the temporal fat pad
(TFP), which is enclosed between the two layers of deep
temporal fascia [25, 26] (Fig. 2).
The tributaries of the MTV include the lacrimal vein, the
superciliary vein (from the eyebrow and the upper lid
region), the sentinel vein, veins accompanying the frontal
branch of the superficial temporal artery, the
Fig. 3 Dissection of the middle temporal vein after giving incision at
the upper border of the zygomatic arch. After reflecting the
temporoparietal fascia, the superficial layer of deep temporal fascia
was identified and incised. After this incision, the interfascial space
was identified where the main trunk of the middle temporal vein along
with the interfascial fat pad was found resting on the deep layer of
deep temporal fascia (original, previously unpublished picture of
cadaver dissection, contributed by Krishan Mohan Kapoor with
permission for publication)
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zygomaticotemporal vein (draining mainly the temporal
area above the zygomatic arch), and the zygomaticofacial
vein (draining the area around the lower lid–cheek junc-
tion). All of these veins join together as a venous web, thus
forming the MTV. Multiple veins emerging on the surface
of the temporalis muscle join the MTV, forming a venous
plexus with the MTV in the TFP [25].
The middle temporal vein is also described in the lit-
erature as the interfascial vein (IFV). It is found to be
always located in the interfascial space between the
superficial and deep layer of the deep temporal fascia
(Fig. 3). This location serves as an excellent anatomical
landmark to perform an interfascial dissection in the cor-
rect plane during certain neurosurgical procedures, thus
avoiding the temporal branch of the facial nerve [27, 28].
The interfascial space was found to be present in the
anterior fourth of the outer surface of the temporal muscle
and extended from the superior temporal line to the
zygomatic arch. As reported in one study, if the interfascial
space is divided into three parts (from the superior tem-
poral line superiorly to the zygomatic arch inferiorly), the
MTV was found in the middle third in all cases.
The MTV was found running parallel and approximately
one finger width caudal to the frontal branch of the
superficial temporal artery but in a deeper plane in one
study [25], it was found superior and parallel to the
zygomatic arch in another [29].
Regarding the vascular supply of the temporalis muscle,
the veins and venules were found to run generally along-
side, and pair with the corresponding arteries and arteri-
oles. A double vein indicative of two branches of the MTV
Fig. 4 Showing anterior and posterior deep temporal veins on the
undersurface of the temporalis muscle. The temporalis muscle has
dual venous drainage. The superficial part of muscle drains through
various large tributaries, which run parallel to muscle fibers, into the
middle temporal vein. The deep part is drained by much smaller veins
accompanying anterior and posterior deep temporal arteries (branches
of the maxillary artery) on the undersurface of the temporalis muscle
(original, previously unpublished picture of cadaver dissection,
contributed by Krishan Mohan Kapoor with permission for
publication)
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1808
was commonly seen pairing with a single middle temporal
artery (MTA) [30]. The anterior and posterior deep tem-
poral veins accompany corresponding arteries and drain the
deep part of the temporalis muscle (Fig. 4).
The pretragal point remains a suitable landmark for
locating the reliable position of the MTV draining from the
temple into the superficial temporal vein. As the pretragal
point relates to clear clinical landmarks and its location is
far from the injection area in the temple, pressure exerted
by an assistant at this point does not cause interference
during the injection procedure [31]. The pressure at the
pretragal vascular confluence point has been suggested as a
preventive measure against venous complications during
the temporal injection but does not eliminate the risk of
complications.
Chances of ocular complications after accidental injec-
tion in the MTV can be regarded as minimal. The results of
retrograde venous injection have revealed that the threat of
ocular complications after injection is low [25]. The pres-
ence of functional venous valves may be an important
factor in preventing retrograde blood flow from the middle
temporal vein toward the ophthalmic circulation [16, 17].
The factors associated with the complication of NTPE after
injection of the temporal fossa could be large volume
injections in severe temporal hollowing, an improper
technique of injection in the ‘middle plane’ of the temporal
fossa, a large MTV associated with temporalis hypertrophy
after masseter botulinum toxin treatment [25], and a middle
temporal vein with several large tributaries.
Due to the large size along with its splitting variation
and branching patterns, the MTV occupies significant
space in the temporal fossa. The presence of such an
extensive venous plexus in the temporal fossa superficial to
the temporal muscle may be hazardous for both surgical
and non-surgical procedures in this area. The oblique
course of the MTV also ensures that finding a safer zone in
the temporal fossa, without encountering this vessel, could
be difficult.
The middle temporal vein starts from the subcutaneous
layer of the lateral canthal region and pierces the superfi-
cial layer of the deep temporal fascia to run in the temporal
fat pad. The MTV also provides venous drainage for the
outer surface of the temporal muscle via multiple branches.
The MTV thus provides a connection between the venous
return from the superficial and the deep layer of the tem-
poral region. The distribution of the MTV over multiple
layers in the temporal area suggests that apart from
draining the middle layers, it also acts as a bridging vein
between the superficial layer (subcutaneous layer) and the
deep layer (temporal muscle) [16]. The MTV is also con-
nected to the cavernous sinus through its connection with
the supratrochlear vein [11].
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Aesth Plast Surg (2020) 44:1803–1810
The inferior part of the tributaries and the main trunk of
the MTV lie in the non-hair-bearing part of the temporal
fossa, where filler injections are performed for the aug-
mentation of volume loss in the temple. For the safe
injection of temporal fillers, the extensive venous plexus in
the temporal region should be taken into account in order to
reduce the possibility of vascular complications [32].
While one of the studies mentions that the MTV is
usually in a collapsed state throughout its course [25],
another mentions that the walls of the MTV are maintained
in a dilated, and non-collapsed state as the vein’s stem is
embedded in the superficial temporal fat pad—the dense
connective tissue present between the superficial and deep
layers of the deep temporal fascia. It consequently does not
collapse during injection like other veins, thus increasing
the risk of intravenous injection [11].
The inability to see the deeper structures during filler
injections can be a risk factor in cases of inadequate
knowledge of the surface anatomy of important structures.
The MTV is not a very well-known vessel among clini-
cians. However, awareness of the existence of the MTV is
essential in order to mitigate undue vascular complications
during cosmetic procedures in the temporal region.
Our study suggests that the location of the middle
temporal vein can be identified in relation to the superior
border of the zygomatic arch. This location can be easily
palpated with a fingertip, and the zone of the MTV can be
marked above the zygomatic arch. Based on our analysis of
the course of the MTV, we propose that the area of the
temporal fossa, at least 34 mm (25 mm ? 9 mm) above
the zygomatic arch, is not safe for temporal injection due to
the variable position (- 2–25 mm from the upper border of
the zygomatic arch), oblique course and large size
(0.5–9.1 mm) of this vessel. The earlier suggested ‘safest
area’ for filler injection during temporal fossa augmenta-
tion at one finger width above the zygomatic arch [17] was
found to be unsafe in the current literature review. As the
large muscle branches draining into the middle temporal
vein are present even at a level higher than this proposed
34 mm zone, injection in the ‘middle depth plane’ may
also be risky.
The information in this review article can facilitate the
accurate localization of the ‘venous danger zone’ in rela-
tion to the middle temporal vein during pre-procedure
marking and during the filler injection. The ‘venous danger
zone’ can be marked by two lines, one lying at the upper
border of the zygomatic arch. The junction between the
lateral orbital rim and the beginning of the temporal crest
has been proposed as ‘K Point.’ The second line may be
drawn from ‘K point,’ parallel to the line drawn from the
upper border of the zygomatic arch. This danger zone is
much bigger than a similar venous danger zone previously
described in the literature as—‘at the temporal depression
Aesth Plast Surg (2020) 44:1803–1810
posterior to the lateral orbital rim, between the levels of the
lateral canthus and the lateral eyebrow’ [25].
The current review paper recommends that suprape-
riosteal injection in the superomedial part of the temporal
fossa is the safest area of injection [33] in order to avoid
the MTV and its branches. A single point injection, about
1 cm above and lateral to the ‘K Point’ (the junction of the
lateral orbital rim and beginning of the temporal crest), is
ideally suited for supraperiosteal filler injection in the
temporal region.
Limitations
This systematic review of the MTV anatomy has some
limitations. The size of this sample is limited, as a small
number of articles have been published about the middle
temporal vein anatomy and its measurements. Also, there
has been some lack of uniformity in the description of
various measurements. Certain variables were not reported
in all the selected articles.
Conclusion
This study aims to provide details of the MTV in the hope
that accurate anatomical knowledge may assist injectors in
avoiding accidental intravenous injection during temporal
fossa filler injections. It provides information about size,
course, and anatomy of the middle temporal vein and its
relations to important adjoining anatomical landmarks.
This review provides anatomical support for defining a
‘venous danger zone’ in relation to filler injections in the
temporal region. The comprehensive anatomical details of
the middle temporal vein may help injectors perform safer
injection procedures in this territory, with avoidance of the
dreaded vascular complication of NTPE.
Funding No financial disclosure with respect to this paper from all
the authors as no financial support/Grant received by any author for
writing and publishing this review paper.
Compliance with Ethical Standards
Conflict of interest The authors declare that they have no conflicts of
interest to disclose with regard to this review paper. No funding or
grant has been received by any author for this paper.
Human and Animal Rights This article does not contain any studies
with human participants or animals performed by any of the authors.
Informed Consent For this type of study, informed consent is not
required.
1809
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