Fy Geo Eng.1

GEOGRAPHY
FIRST YEAR
REVISION NOTES AND CHAPTER WISE

PREVIOUS QUESTIONS
PREPARED & EDITED BY

DR. SANTHOSH KUMAR.V
NVT IN GEOGRAPHY
KNMVHSS, VATANAPPALLY
MOB:9947009047
EMAIL: drsanthoshkumarv@gmail.com
CHAPTER-1 GEOGRAPHY AS A DISCIPLINE
The term geography was first coined by Eratosthenese - Greek scholar (276-194 BC.). The word
has been derived from two roots from Greek language geo (earth) and graphos (description). Put
together, they mean description of the earth.
The major approaches to study geography have been (i) Systematic and (ii) Regional.
The systematic geography - This approach was introduced by Alexander Von Humboldt, a German
geographer (1769-1859). In systematic approach , a phenomenon is studied world over as a whole,
and then the identification of typologies or spatial patterns is done.
Regional geography approach was developed by another German geographer Karl Ritter (1779-
1859). In the regional approach, the world is divided into regions at different hierarchical levels and
then all the geographical phenomena in a particular region are studied.
BRANCHES OF GEOGRAPHY (BASED ON SYSTEMATIC APPROACH )
1. Physical Geography
(i) Geomorphology - the study of landforms, their evolution and related processes.
(ii) Climatology - the study of structure of atmosphere and elements of weather and climates and
climatic types and regions.
(iii) Hydrology - studies the realm of water over the surface of the earth including oceans, lakes,
rivers and other water bodies
(iv) Soil Geography - study the processes of soil formation, soil types, their fertility status,
distribution and use.
2. Human Geography
(i) Social/Cultural Geography - the study of society and its spatial dynamics as well as the cultural
elements contributed by the society.
(ii) Population and Settlement Geography – Population geography studies population growth,
distribution, density, sex ratio, migration and occupational structure etc. Settlement geography
studies the characteristics of rural and urban settlements.
(iii) Economic Geography - studies economic activities of the people
(iv) Historical Geography - studies the historical processes through which the space gets organised.
(v) Political Geography - looks at the space from the angle of political events .
3. Biogeography
The interface between physical geography and human geography has lead to the development of
Biogeography which includes:
(i) Plant Geography - which studies the spatial pattern of natural vegetation in their habitats.
(ii) Zoo Geography - which studies the spatial patterns and geographic characteristics of animals
and their habitats.
(iii) Ecology /Ecosystem - deals with the scientific study of the habitats characteristic of species.
(iv) Environmental Geography - concerns world over leading to the realisation of environmental
problems .
BRANCHES OF GEOGRAPHY (BASED ON REGIONAL APPROACH )
1. Regional Studies/Area Studies - Comprising Macro, Meso and Micro Regional Studies
2. Regional Planning - Comprising Country/Rural and Town/ Urban Planning
3. Regional Development
4. Regional Analysis
What is the importance of Physical Geography?
Physical geography includes study of Lithosphere, Atmosphere, Hydrosphere & Biosphere- each
element is very important for human beings. Landforms provide base for agriculture, industries,
transport and communication, and settlements. Mountains provide water to rivers, forests- center for
tourist spots. Climate influences on the cropping pattern, livestock, food and clothes of the people.
climate and precipitation influence the type of forests. Oceans provide food, water transport, and
influence the climate; they are the source of hydrological cycle.
What is Geography? - some other definitions
Geography is concerned with the description and explanation of the areal differentiation of
the earth’s surface. - Richard Hartshorne
Geography studies the differences of phenomena usually related in different parts of the earth’s
surface. - Hettner
Part I. Chapter 1
GEOGRAPHY AS A DISCIPLINE
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CHAPTER-2 THE ORIGIN AND EVOLUTION OF THE EARTH
Nebular hypothesis: The nebular hypothesis was first proposed in 1734 by Immanuel Kant. He
argued that gaseous clouds nebulae which slowly rotate, gradually collapse and flatten due to
gravity and eventually form stars and planets.
Binary theories : In 1900, Chamberlain and Moulton considered that a wandering star approached
the sun. As a result, a cigar-shaped extension of material was separated from the solar surface. As
the passing star moved away, the material separated from the solar surface continued to revolve
around the sun and it slowly condensed into planets.
Origin of the universe –Big bang theory
The Big Bang Theory, also called as expand universe hypothesis was formulated by Edwin Hubble
in 1920.
Stages of Big Bang theory

i. In the beginning, all matter was in the form of tiny ball(singular atom) with unimaginable small
volume , infinite temperature and infinite density
ii. About 13.7 billion years ago the tiny ball exploded violently.
iii. After 300000 years the temperature dropped down to 4,500 K and gave rise to atomic matter
and he universe became transparent.
Steady State Theory
Steady State theory is a model developed in 1948 by Fred Hoyle and others as an alternative to the
Big Bang theory . It considered the universe to be roughly the same at any point of time. However,
with greater evidence becoming available about the expanding universe, scientific community at
present favours argument of expanding universe.
The star formation:
A galaxy starts to form by accumulation of hydrogen gas in the form of a very large cloud called
nebula. Eventually, growing nebula develops localised clumps of gas. These clumps continue to
grow into even denser gaseous bodies, giving rise to formation of stars.
The distance between the start is measured with light years. One light year is equal to the distance
covered by the light in one year when it travels at the speed of 3 lakh km/hour
Our Solar system:
1. Our solar system consists of eight planets

2. The nebula of our solar system started collapsing around 5-5.6 b. y. a
3. The planets were formed about 4.6 b. y .a
4. Our solar system consists of 8 planets, 63 moons, millions of asteroids comets, huge
quantity of gas and dust.
5. There are two types of planets inner planets and outer planets.
THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN INNER PLANETS AND OUTER PLANETS
INNER PLANETS OUTER PLANETS
1. Mercury, Venus, Earth & Mars Are 1. Jupiter Saturn Uranus Neptune & Pluto Are
Called Inner Planets Called Outer Planets
2. They Are Found Between Belt of 2. They Are Found After The Belt Of Asteroids
Asteroids And The Sun
3. They Are Also Called Terrestrial 3. They Are Called Jovian Planets
Planets
4. Smaller In Size 4. Larger In Size
5. High Density 5 Low Density
6. Solid Rocky State 6. Gaseous State
7. They Are Warm 7. They Are Cold
THE MOON
In 1838, Sir George Darwin suggested that initially the earth and the moon formed a single rapidly
rotating body. The whole mass became a dumb-bell shaped body and eventually it broke. The
material separated from the earth was formed as Moon and the place became the pacific ocean. A
large size body of Mars collided with the earth and that portion was separated from the earth. This
giant impact is described as “the big splat”.
EVOLUTION OF THE EARTH: Earth formed around 4.54 billion years ago by accretion from the
solar nebula.
1. The Earth was initially barren rocky and hot Object
2. Hydrogen and Helium were present
3. Lighter layer is formed at the outer surface
4. Density increase to wards inside the core
EVOLUTION OF LITHOSPHERE
1. There was volatile state during its primordial stage
2. The material started separating depending on their density Light material came out side
and heavy material went inside the earth
3. It cooled and condensed into solid which is called lithosphere
THERE ARE THREE STAGES OF THE FORMATION OF THE ATMOSPHERE

I. IN THE FIRST STAGE: The early atmosphere consist of hydrogen and helium. Loss of
primordial atmosphere due to solar winds
II. IN THE SECOND STAGE: Gases were released from the earth’s interior such as Water
vapor and other gases. The process of outpouring the gases from the interior of
the earth is called degassing.
III. IN THIRD STAGE: Living organisms changed the composition of the atmosphere due to
photosynthesis
IV. The last phase of the earth relates to the origin and evolution of life.
Part I. Chapter 2
ORIGIN AND EVOLUTION OF THE EARTH
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CHAPTER-3 INTERIOR OF THE EARTH
Sources of Information about the Earth’s Interior:
The knowledge about interior of the earth is obtained through direct sources and indirect sources.
Direct Sources: Mining, drilling and volcanic eruption are examples of direct sources.
Indirect Sources: Seismic waves, gravitational field, magnetic field, falling meteors etc are
example of indirect sources.
EARTH QUAKE
An Earthquake is a sudden violent shaking of the ground, typically causing great destruction,
as a result of movements within the earth's crust or volcanic action. It is caused due to release of
energy, which generates waves that travel in all directions. The point where energy releases is called
focus/hypocenter Above the focus point on the surface it is called epicenter
EARTHQUAKE WAVES
When earthquake occurs, three types of wave are produced called as seismic waves.
These are:
a. P or Primary Wave,
b. S or Secondary Wave, and
c. L or Long or Surface Wave.
P and S waves are combinely called as ‘Body Wave' as they move inside the body of the
earth.
1. P or Primary Wave: P-waves move faster and are the first to arrive at the surface. These
are also called ‘primary waves’. The P-waves are similar to sound waves. They travel
through gaseous, liquid and solid materials.
2. S or Secondary Wave: S-waves arrive at the surface with some time lag. These are called
secondary waves. An important fact about S-waves is that they can travel only through
solid materials. This characteristic of the S-waves is quite important.
3. L or Long or Surface Wave : L wave is the slowest wave. It moves on the earth surface.
It causes maximum destruction on the earth surface.
Measuring Earthquakes
The earthquake events are scaled either according to the magnitude or intensity of the shock. The
magnitude scale is known as the Richter scale. The magnitude relates to the energy released during
the quake. The magnitude is expressed in numbers, 0-10.
The intensity scale is named after Mercalli, an Italian seismologist. The intensity scale
takes into account the visible damage caused by the event.
Types of Earthquakes :
i. The tectonic earthquakes - generated due to sliding of rocks along a fault plane.
ii. Volcanic earthquake - these are confined to areas of active volcanoes.
iii. Collapse earthquakes. - In the areas of intense mining activity, sometimes the roofs of
underground minescollapse causing minor earthquakes
iv. Explosion earthquakes. - Ground shaking may also occur due to the explosion of chemical or
nuclear devices.
v. Reservoir induced earthquakes - occur in the areas of large reservoirs
Effects of Earthquake: The effects of an earthquake can be devastating - they can destroy
settlements, change landscapes, and cause many deaths.
a. Ground shaking
b. Damage to dams and reservoirs
c. Fire accidents
d. Destruction to houses and buildings
e. Land slide and tsunami
f. Soil liquefaction [solid soil becomes liquid]
g. Destruction to transport and communication lines.
Constructive Effects:
1. Sometimes the earthquakes cause formation of hot springs which are very useful to people.
2. Sometimes, the earthquakes cause emergence of costs and bring fertile shore out of water
to give chance to develop crop production.
3. Submergence of coastal land may result in formation of bays and gulfs which are favourable sites
for the development of ports harbours.
4. The earthquakes sometimes cause submergence in coastal land, and result in formation of inlets,
bays and gulfs which help to develop of fishing and shipping etc.
5. Earthquake may sometimes create new coastal plains, by the emergence of a portion of
ocean floor.
6. Earthquakes result in the formation of hot springs and geyser beneficial for medicinal
purposes
Shadow Zones .
In some specific areas the earthquake waves are not reported. Such a zone is called the ‘shadow
zone’. This zone is from 105 0 to 145 0 from the focus.
EARTH STRUCTURE
The crust
1. The Outer most solid part
2. The thickness of the crust varies under the oceanic and continental areas.
3. Oceanic crust (sima) is thinner as compared to the continental crust (sial)
4. The mean thickness of oceanic crust is 5 km whereas that of the continental is around 30 km.
The mantle
1. Second layer from the top of the earth
2. The upper portion of the mantle is called ASTHENOSPHERE
3. It is the source of magma
4. It extends from Moho-discontinuity to a depth of 2900 km.
6. Crust and upper most part of the mantle is called Lithosphere. Its thickness is 10 -200km
7. Lower mantle is in solid state
The core :
1. It extends from 2900 km to 6300 km depth
2. Outer core is liquid while inner core is solid
3. made of heavy metals such as Nickel and Iron
4. it is also called as Nife
VOLCANOES AND VOLCANIC LANDFORMS
A volcano is a rupture in the crust , that allows hot lava, volcanic ash, and gases to escape from a
magma chamber below the surface.
The Differences between Active, Dormant and Extinct volcanoes :
Active Volcano: An active volcano is a volcano that has had at least one eruption during the
past 10,000 years.
Dormant volcano: Dormant volcanos are the volcanoes that are quiet, but might possibly erupt
again.
Extinct: An extinct volcano has not had an eruption for at least 10,000 years and is not
expected to erupt again in a comparable time scale of the future.
Classification of volcanoes
SHIELD VOLCANO: A shield volcano is a type of volcano usually built almost

entirely of fluid lava flows. 1. Largest of volcanoes, 2. Lava is very fluid , 3. They are not steep
COMPOSITE VOLCANOES:
These volcanoes are characterised by eruptions of cooler and more viscous lavas than basalt.
These volcanoes often result in explosive eruptions.
CALDERA: These are the most explosive of the earth’s volcanoes. They are usually so
explosive that when they erupt they tend to collapse on themselves rather than building any
tall structure. The collapsed depressions are called calderas.
FLOOD BASALT PROVINCES

These volcanoes out pour highly fluid lava that flows for long distances.
MID OCEANIC RIDGES VOLCANOES

These volcanoes occur in the oceanic areas. There is a system of mid-ocean ridges more than
70,000 km long that stretches through all the ocean basins. The central portion of this ridge
experiences frequent eruptions.
INTRUSIVE VOLCANIC LANDFORMS
BATHOLITH: These are large rock masses formed due to cooling down and solidification of
hot magma inside the earth.
LACCOLITHS: A laccolith is a sheet intrusion (or concordant pluton) that has been injected
between two layers of sedimentary rock , giving the laccolith a dome or
mushroom-like form .
LAPOLITHS: A lopolith is a large igneous intrusion which is lenticular in shape with a

depressed central region.
SILL: A sill is a tabular sheet intrusion , forming horizontal sheet of lava
DYKES: A dyke is a type of later vertical rock between older layers of rock.
Part I. Chapter 3
INTERIOR OF THE EARTH
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CHAPTER-4 DISTRIBUTION OF OCEANS AND CONTINENT
CONTINENTAL DRIFT:
Alfred Wegener a German meteorologist put forth the Continental drift theory. According to him,
All continents formed a single continental mass called PANGAEA.
All oceans formed a single universal ocean called PANTHALASSA
Around 200 mya the pangaea began to split into two large masses called Laurasia and Gondwana
land
By further splitting, Laurasia formed northern continents such as Eurasia and North America.
Gondwana land formed southern continents such as South America, Africa, Australia and Indian
subcontinent.
EVIDENCES TO SUPPORT THE CONTINENTAL DRIFT
1. The matching of continents (jig-saw fit)

The shorelines of S. America and Africa have remarkable match.
2. Rocks of same age across the oceans: Wegener discovered that identical rocks could be found on
both sides of the Atlantic Ocean.These rocks were the same type and the same age.
3. Tillite: It is the sedimentary rock formed out of deposits of glaciers.

1. Sediments from India have similar counter parts at Africa, Falklands, Madagascar, Antarctica and
Australia
4. Placer deposits: Formation of placer deposits of gold in Ghana coast are similar to gold bearing
veins of rocks found in Brazil
4. Distribution of fossils: Identical species of animals and plants are found along the Atlantic coastal
regions of the different continents .
FORCES FOR DRIFTING THE CONTINENTS
Wegner suggested that the movement responsible for the drifting of the continents was caused by:
A)Polar fleeing force :The polar-fleeing force relates to the rotation of the
earth. This bulge is due to the rotation of the earth.
B.)Tidal force: The Tidal force is due to the attraction of the moon and the sun that develops tides in
oceanic waters.
Convectional current theory: It was proposed by ARTHUR HOLMES IN 1930 Due to difference in
the temperature currents are formed due to disintegration of radioactive materials inside the earth.
Convection currents in the magma drive plate tectonics.
Ring of fire : Plate tectonics cause earthquakes and volcanoes. The point where two plates meet is
called a plate boundary. Earthquakes and volcanoes are most likely to occur either on or near plate
boundaries. Around the pacific ocean it is called ring of fire.
CONCEPT OF SEA FLOOR SPREADING: Seafloor spreading is a process that occurs at mid-
ocean ridges, where new oceanic crust is formed through volcanic activity. Seafloor spreading
helps explain continental drift in the theory of plate tectonics.
1. It was proposed by Hess in 1961
2. He believed that new lava pushes out the plates from the mid oceanic ridge
3. Along the mid oceanic ridge there is intense volcanic eruption
4. Rocks closer to the mid oceanic ridges are young and normal polarity
PLATE TECTONICS: Plate tectonics is the theory that Earth's outer shell is divided into several
plates. The theory of plate tectonics was introduced by McKenzie, parker and Morgan in 1967.The
plates act like a hard and rigid shell and is called the lithosphere. Plates move horizontally over the
Asthenosphere. Pacific plate is largest oceanic plate where as Eurasian plate is the largest
continental plate.
MAJOR PLATES OF THE EARTH CRUST

1. Antarctica And Surrounding Oceanic Plate
2. North American Plate
3. South American Plate
4. Pacific Plate
5. India-Australia-New Zealand plate
6. African Plate Eurasian Plate
7. Eurasian plate
MINOR PLATES
1. Cocos Plate
2. Nazca Plate
3. Arabian Plate
4. Philippine Plate
5. Caroline Plate
6. Fuji Plate
TYPES OF PLATE BOUNDARIES
I. DIVERGENT BOUNDARIES: In plate tectonics, a divergent boundary or divergent plate

boundary is a linear feature that exists between two tectonic plates that are moving away from each
other.
1. New crust is generated plates move away from each other
2. These are called spreading sites
3. Ex. Mid Atlantic ridge
II. CONVERGENT BOUNDARY: In plate tectonics, a convergent boundary, also known as a
destructive plate boundary.
1. Crust is destroyed
2. Sinking of plate is called ‘subduction zone’
3. There are three ways in which convergence occurs
i. Ocean plate and continent plate ii. Ocean plate and ocean plate iii. continent plate and continent
plates
III TRANSFORM BOUNDARIES:
1. Crust is neither produced nor destroyed, 2. Plates slide horizontally, 3. Perpendicular to the mid
oceanic ridges.
Part I. Chapter 4
DISTRIBUTION OF OCEANS AND CONTINENTS
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CHAPTER-5 MINERALS AND ROCKS
Minerals found in the crust are in solid form where as in interior they are in liquid form 98% of the
crust consist of eight elements
1. oxygen, 2. Aluminium, 3. Sodium, 4. Potassium, 5. Iron, 6. Calcium, 7. Magnesium, 8. Silicon
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF MINERALS
I. EXTERNAL CRYSTAL FORM: determined by internal arrangement of the molecules

II. CLEAVAGE: tendency to break in given directions producing relatively plane surfaces
III. FRACTURE: Fracture — internal molecular arrangement so complex there are no planes of
molecules; the crystal will break in an irregular manner, not along planes of cleavage.
IV. LUSTURE: appearance of a material without regard to colour.
V. COLOUR: some minerals have characteristic colour determined by their molecular structure
VI. STREAK : colour of the ground powder of any mineral.
VII. TRANSPARENCY: Light rays pass through so that objects can be seen plainly
VIII. STRUCTURE: particular arrangement of the individual crystals
IX. HARDNESS: relative resistance being scratched (ten minerals are selected to measure the
degree of hardness from 1-10. They are: 1. talc; 2. gypsum; 3. calcite; 4. fluorite; 5. apatite; 6.
feldspar; 7. quartz; 8. topaz; 9. corundum; 10. diamond.)
X. SPECIFIC GRAVITY: the ratio between the weight of a given object and the weight of an equal
volume of water.
ROCKS
There are many different kinds of rocks which are grouped under three families on the basis of their
mode of formation. They are: (i) Igneous Rocks — solidified from magma and lava; (ii)
Sedimentary Rocks — the result of deposition of fragments of rocks by exogenous processes; (iii)
Metamorphic Rocks — formed out of existing rocks undergoing recrystallisation.
IGNEOUS ROCKS : Igneous rock is formed when magma cools and solidifies.
1. They are primary rocks.
2. formed due to cooling of lava
3. They are two types intrusive & extrusive rocks. Extrusive rocks have small grains because
of sudden cooling intrusive rocks have bigger grains due to slow cooling.
4. No layers
5. Do not contain fossils.
6. They are hard.
7. Do not allow water to percolate through them.
SEDIMENTARY ROCKS: The word ‘sedimentary’ is derived from the Latin word sedimentum,
which means settling. Rocks (igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic) of the earth’s surface are
exposed to denudational agents, and are broken up into various sizes of fragments. In many
sedimentary rocks, the layers of deposits retain their characteristics even after lithification.
1. Formed Due To Sedimentation
2. Consists Of Layers
3. Contain Fossils
4. The Process Of Sedimentary Rock Formation Is Called Lithification
5. They Are Three Types.
1. Mechanically Formed
2. Chemically Formed
3. Organically Formed.
METAMORPHIC ROCKS: A metamorphic rock is a result of a transformation of a pre-existing
rock. The original rock is subjected to very high heat and pressure, which cause obvious physical
and/or chemical changes.
1. Formed Due To Recrystalization – the process known as metamorphism
2. Formed Due To Pressure And Temperature.
3. Very Smooth.
4. Consists of layers some times very precious stones.
There are two types of thermal metamorphism — contact metamorphism and regional
metamorphism.
In contact metamorphism the rocks come in contact with hot intruding magma and lava and the rock
materials recrystallise under high temperatures.
In regional metamorphism, rocks undergo recrystallisation due to deformation caused by tectonic
shearing together with high temperature or pressure or both.
In the process of metamorphism in some rocks grains or minerals get arranged in layers or lines.
Such an arrangement of minerals or grains in metamorphic rocks is called foliation or lineation.
Sometimes minerals or materials of different groups are arranged into alternating thin to thick layers
appearing in light and dark shades. Such a structure in metamorphic rocks is called banding and
rocks displaying banding are called banded rocks.
ROCK CYCLE
Rock cycle is a continuous process through which old rocks are converted into new rocks. Igneous
rocks are changed into metamorphic or sedimentary rocks. Metamorphic rocks a further change into
magma.
Igneous rocks can be changed into metamorphic rocks. The fragments derived out of igneous and
metamorphic rocks form into sedimentary rocks. Sedimentary rocks themselves can turn into
fragments and the fragments can be a source for formation of sedimentary rocks. The igneous,
metamorphic and sedimentary rocks once formed may be carried down into the mantle through
subduction process and the same melt down due to increase in temperature in the interior and turn
into molten magma, the original source for igneous rocks
Part I. Chapter 5
MINERALS AND ROCKS
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CHAPTER-6 GEOMORPHIC PROCESSES
GEOMORPHIC PROCESSES:
Geomorphic processes refer to the chemical and physical interaction between the earth’s surface
and the natural forces acting on it.
Geomorphic processes can be classified into exogenic and endogenic processes.
Endogenic forces are generated in the interior of the earth.

Endogenic processes can be classified into diastrophic and sudden movements.
Diastrophic forces can be classified into epeirogenic and orogenic forces.
Sudden forces comprise of earthquake and volcanic eruptions.
Exogenic forces are the forces generating outside the earth’s surface. These forces can be classified
into o weathering, mass movement, erosion and deposition.
Weathering is the process of breaking down, or the disintegration and decomposition of rocks.
Weathering can further be classified into chemical, physical and biological weathering.
Mass movement involves downhill movement of the weathered rock materials. The movement
includes: creeping, flowing, sliding, slumping, and falling. Mass movements can be slow or rapid.
Erosion is the Displacement of weathered material through different agents of gradation.
Deposition is a geological process by which material is added to a landform or landmass.
ENDOGENIC PROCESS:
1.DIASTROPHISM: Diastrophism, also called tectonism, large-scale deformation of Earth's crust

by natural processes. They are two types :
OROGENIC PROCESSES: An orogen or orogenic belt develops when a continental plate crumples
and is pushed upwards to form one or more mountain ranges collectively called orogenesis.
EPEROGENIC PROCESS: Epeirogenic movement is upheavals or depressions of land .

Orogenic movements are Mountain building movements whereas Epeirogenic movements are
Continent building movements.
2. EARTH QUAKES: An earthquake is the shaking of the surface of the Earth, resulting from the
sudden release of energy in the Earth 's lithosphere that creates seismic waves.
3. VOLCANISM: Volcanism is the phenomenon of eruption of molten rock (magma). Volcanism

includes the movement of molten rock (magma) onto or toward the earth’s surface and also
formation of many intrusive and extrusive volcanic forms.
EXOGENIC PROCESSES:
WEATHERING: Weathering is the disintegration and decomposition of rock.
(I) CHEMICAL (II) PHYSICAL/MECHANICAL (III)BIOLOGICAL WEATHERING
CHEMICAL WEATHERING PROCESSES
Chemical weathering is the weakening and subsequent disintegration of rock by chemical

reactions. These reactions include oxidation, hydrolysis, and carbonation.
SOLUTION: The water /acid with dissolved content is called solution.
CARBONATION: Carbonation is the mixing of water with carbon dioxide to make carbonic acid.
Dissolved carbon dioxide in rainwater or in moist air
forms carbonic acid, and this acid reacts with minerals in rocks.
HYDRATION: Hydrolysis is a chemical reaction caused by water. Minerals take up water and
expand. This expansion increases the volume of material, when this process
continuous for longer time the materials disintegrates.
OXIDATION AND REDUCTION
Oxidation means combination of minerals with oxygen to form oxides and hydroxides.
Oxidation occurs when there is sufficient water and atmosphere.
PHYSICAL WEATHERING PROCESSES

Factors Influencing The Physical Weathering
1. Gravitational Force, Overburden Pressure
2. Expansion Forces Due To Temperature Changes,
3. Water Pressures Controlled By Wetting And Drying Cycles.
TEMPERATURE CHANGES AND EXPANSION: Various minerals found in the rocks expand
at different rates when temperature increases. When temperature falls contraction takes place.
Because of diurnal changes in the temperature Fractures occurs parallel to the surface. Due
continuous expansion and contraction the rock layers become lose and exfoliation takes place.
FREEZING THAWING AND FROST WEDGING:
Frost weathering occurs due to growth of ice within pores and cracks of rocks during
repeated cycles of freezing and melting. This process is most effective at high elevations in
mid-latitudes where freezing and melting is often repeated.
BIOLOGICAL WEATHERING: Burrowing and wedging by organisms like earthworms, termites,
rodents etc., help in exposing the new surfaces to chemical attack and assists in the
penetration of moisture and air. Human beings by disturbing vegetation, ploughing and
cultivating soils, also help in mixing and creating new contacts between air, water and
minerals in the earth materials.
Exfoliation is a result but not a process. Removal of layers from curved surfaces result into rounded
surfaces.it occurs due to expansion and contraction induced by temperature changes.
SIGNIFICANCE OF WEATHERING: Responsible for the formation of soils and erosion and
deposition. Biodiversity is basically depending on depth of weathering.
MASS MOVEMENT: These movements transfer the mass of rock debris down the slopes
under the direct influence of gravity. The movements of mass may range from slow to rapid.
CLASSIFICATION OF MASS MOVEMENTS

The mass movements can be grouped into three types
1. slow movements 2. Rapid movements 3. Land slide
SLOW MOVEMENTS
CREEP: It generally occurs on moderately steep, soil covered slopes. Movement of material is
extremely slow. Types of creep: soil creep, talus creep rock creep rock glacier creep
SOLIFLUCTION: slow down slope flowing soil mass or fine grained rock debris saturated with
water. It is common in moist temperate areas .
RAPID MOVEMENTS
EARTH FLOW: movements of water saturated clayey or silty earth materials down low angle
terraces or hillsides.
MUDFLOW
In the absence of vegetation cover and with heavy rainfall, thick layers of weathered
materials get saturated with water and either slowly or rapidly flow down along definite
channels. it looks like a channels of mud.
DEBRIS AVALANCHES: Found in humid regions with or without vegetation in narrow tracks
of steep slopes. It is much faster than mud flow, it is similar. to snow avalanches.
LANDSLIDES: these are rapid and perceptible movements. dry materials are found. the size
and shape of the materials are depending on the nature of the rock, degree of weathering,
steepness of slope. slipping of one or several units of rock debris with a backward rotation
with respect to the slope over which the movement takes place
DEBRIS SLIDE: rapid rolling or sliding of earth debris without backward rotation of mass is
known as debris slide.
ROCK FALL
Rockslide sliding of individual rock masses down bedding joint or fault surfaces. it generally
occurs at the steep slopes.
EROSION AND DEPOSITION

Erosion involves acquisition and transportation of rock debris. When massive rocks break
into smaller fragments through weathering and any other process, erosional geomorphic
agents like running water, groundwater, glaciers, wind and waves remove and transport it to
other places depending upon the dynamics of each of these agents.
SOIL FORMATION: Soil is the collection natural bodies on the earth’s surface containing
living matter and supporting or capable or supporting plants.
PROCESS OF SOIL FORMATION: weathering is basic process for soil formation. The
weathered material is transported and decomposed due to bacteria lichens and moss. The
dead remains increases the humus of the soil. minor grasses and ferns can grow. Bushes,
trees also grow. plants roots and burrowing animals help the soil formation.
PEDOLOGY: is science of soil formation, PEDOLOGIST: is the scientist of soil formation
SOIL FORMING FACTORS:

1. Parent material, 2. Topography, 3. Climate, 4. Biological activity. 5. time
PARENT MATERIAL: Chemical composition, texture are the characteristics derived from patent
material- rock
TOPOGRAPHY: Steep slopes have less deposition, gentle slopes have thick soils. Plains have thick
and dark coloured soils.
CLIMATE: It is an active factor in soil formation. Climatic elements are (i) moisture (ii)
Temperature . Precipitation increases the biological activity.
BIOLOGICAL ACTIVITY: Plants and animals add organic matter to the soil. also helps in moisture
retention. Dead plants add humus to the soil In humid areas, the bacterial activity is higher
than cold areas
TIME: Important controlling factor of soil formation. Longer the time, thicker the soil layers.
Part I. Chapter 6
GEOMORPHIC PROCESSES
March 2006
March 2009
March 2010
March 2011
October 2011
March 2012
March 2013
September 2013
March 2014
August 2014
March 2015
March 2016
September 2016
March 2017
March 2018
August 2018
CHAPTER-7 LANDFORMS AND THEIR EVOLUTION
After weathering, geomorphic agents operate the landforms to change. Every landform has a
beginning, they change their shape and composition in course of time. Due to changes in climate
and vertical and horizontal movements landforms change their shape. Each landform undergo three
stages called youth, mature and old stages
Geomorphology is the science of landforms. Various geomorphic agents bring the changes to the
landforms such as running water, moving ice, wind glaciers, underground water, waves by erosion
and deposition.
RUNNING WATER
1. In humid regions rainfall is heavy so running water is dominant agent
2. there are two components of running water
A. Overland flow -sheet erosion B. Linear flow -stream erosion :
Most of the erosional features are formed in upper course/youth full stage of the river.
Depositional features are formed in the lower course /old stage of the river. Vertical erosion is more
in the upper course lateral erosion is more in the lower course
Stages of the river

YOUTH
1. valley deepening take place
2. erosional landforms formed
MATURE
1. valley widening take place
2. erosional and depositional landforms formed
OLD
1. erosional activity very less.
2. mostly depositional landforms formed
RUNNING WATER
EROSIONAL LANDFORMS DEPOSITIONAL LANDFORMS
‘V SHAPED VALLEY ALLUVIAL FAN

GORGE BRAIDED CHANNEL
CANYON NATURAL LEEVES
POT HOLES FLOOD PLAIN
PLUNGE POOLS POINT BAR
WATERFALL DELTA
MEANDERS
OX BOW LAKE
RIVER TERRACES
Paired terraces
Unpaired terraces
‘V SHAPED VALLEY – formed where surface layer rock are softer

GORGE - is a deep valley with very steep to straight sides
CANYON - is a deep valley with steep step-like side slopes
POT HOLES - circular depressions formed because of abrasion of rock fragments.
PLUNGE POOLS – large and deep holes at the base of waterfalls
WATERFALL - sudden change in level of river flow
MEANDERS – formed due to lateral erosion of river
OX BOW LAKE - cut-off from meanders due to erosion
RIVER TERRACES
Paired terraces – formed where both sides of the river having similar rock hardness
Unpaired terraces - formed where valley sides of the river having different rock hardness
ALLUVIAL FAN – deposition formed on the foot hills
BRAIDED CHANNEL - formed due to deposition on river bed
NATURAL LEEVES - parallel ridges of coarse deposits found along the banks of large rivers
FLOOD PLAIN - materials deposited over the bed when the waters spill banks during flooding
POINT BAR – found on the concave side of meanders as sediments deposited in a linear fashion
DELTA - silts and clays carried by the rivers dumped and spread near river mouth
KARST TOPOGRAPHY
Any limestone or dolomitic region showing typical landforms produced by the action of
groundwater through the processes of solution and deposition is called Karst topography
UNDER GROUND WATER
SINK HOLE STALACTITES

SWALLOW HOLE STALAGMITES
DOLINE PILLAR
LAPIES
UVALA
LIMESTONE PAVEMENT
CAVES
SINK HOLE- an opening more or less circular at the top and funnel-shapped bottom
SWALLOW HOLE - Small to medium sized round to sub-rounded shallow depressions
DOLINE - a large hole opening into a cave or a void below (also known as collapse sink)
LAPIES - extremely irregular grooves and ridges found on limestone areas
UVALA - sink holes and dolines join together narrow wide trenches called valley sinks or Uvalas
LIMESTONE PAVEMENT - The lapie field may eventually turn into smooth limestone pavements.
CAVES - water percolates down and the limestone dissolves to form wide gaps called caves .
STALACTITES – hangs from the roof of cave
STALAGMITES – grows up from the bottom of cave
PILLAR – formed when stalactite and stalagmite join together
GLACIERS
Masses of ice moving as sheets over the land or as linear flows down the slopes of mountains in
broad trough-like valleys are called glaciers.
GLACIERS
CIRQUE GLACIAL TILL

HORN MORAINES
ARETES Lateral
U SHAPED VALLEY Medial
HANGING VALLEY Ground
FIORDS Terminal
DRUMLINS
ESKERS
OUTWASH PLAIN
CIRQUE - deep, long and wide troughs with very steep vertically dropping high walls
HORN - when three or more cirques meet, sharp pointed and steep sided peaks form
ARETES - saw-shaped wall between two adjacent cirques
U SHAPED VALLEY - flat bottom, steep sided valley
HANGING VALLEY - tributary valleys of U shaped glacial valley
FIORDS - Very deep glacial troughs filled with sea water
GLACIAL TILL - coarse and fine debris dropped by the melting glaciers
MORAINES - long ridges of deposits of glacial till
Lateral - found on either side of glacier
Medial - found between two joining glaciers
Ground – found on the bottom of glacier
Terminal – deposited after melting of ice
DRUMLINS - smooth oval shaped ridge-like features composed mainly of glacial till
ESKERS - rock debris settle in the valley of ice beneath the glacier
OUTWASH PLAIN - deposited by ice melt water in the form of broad flat alluvial fans
COASTAL LAND FORMS

Other than the action of waves, the coastal landforms depend upon :
i. the configuration of land and sea floor;
ii. whether the coast is advancing (emerging) seaward or retreating (submerging) landward.
Assuming sea level to be constant, two types of coasts are considered to explain the concept of
evolution of coastal landforms:
i. high, rocky coasts (submerged coasts);
ii. low, smooth and gently sloping sedimentary coasts (emerged coasts)
SEA WAVES
CLIFF BEACH
WAVE CUT PLATFORM BAR
SEA CAVES SPIT
SEA ARCH LAGOON
STACK
STUMP
CLIFF - Wave-cut cliffs usually found where erosion is the dominant shore process.
WAVE CUT PLATFORM - platforms occurring at elevations above the average height of waves
SEA CAVES - hollows on the cliff get widened and deepened by sea waves to form sea caves.
SEA ARCH - development of cave from both side of cliff projecting to sea - forms sea arch
STACK - formed due to collapse of sea arch
STUMP -shortened stack, visible only during low tide
BEACH- temporary deposit of sand and gravel along the coast
BAR - deposit of sand and gravel formed parallel to the sea shore
SPIT - deposit of sand and gravel formed perpendicular to the sea shore
LAGOON – a shallow sea between bar and coastline
WINDS
Wind is one of the two dominant agents in hot deserts.
Winds cause deflation, abrasion and impact.
Deflation includes lifting and removal of dust and smaller particles from the surface of rocks.
WINDS
PEDIMENT SAND DUNES

PEDEPLAIN Barkans
PLAYA Parabolic dunes
DEFLATION HOLLOW Longitudinal dunes
MUSHROOM ROCK Transverse dunes
MESA Sief dunes
LOESS PLAIN
PEDIMENT- Gently inclined rocky floors close to the mountains at their foot.
PEDEPLAIN - high relief in desert areas is reduced to low featureless plains .
PLAYA - shallow lakes where water is retained only for short duration
DEFLATION HOLLOW - depression formed due to the deflation action of wind
MUSHROOM ROCK - outcome of wind abrasion of rock
MESA - flat topped table land
SAND DUNES – heap of sand deposited by wind
BARKANS – crescent shaped sand dunes facing to direction of wind
PARABOLIC DUNES - reversed barchans with wind direction being the same.
LONGITUDINAL DUNES – dunes parallel to the wind direction
TRANSVERSE DUNES - dunes perpendicular to wind direction
SIEF DUNES – similar to barkans with only one wing
LOESS PLAIN - plains formed by the deposition of wind action
Part I. Chapter 7
LAND FORMS AND THEIR EVOLUTION
March 2006
June 2008
March 2009
March 2010
September 2010
March 2011
October 2011
March 2012
September 2012
March 2013
September 2013
March 2014
August 2014
March 2015
March 2016
September 2016
March 2017

March 2018
August 2018
CHAPTER-8
COMPOSITION AND STRUCTURE OF ATMOSPHERE
Define the Atmosphere
Atmosphere is a mixture of different gases and it envelopes the earth all round. It contains life-
giving gases like oxygen for humans and animals and carbon dioxide for plants.
COMPOSITION OF THE ATMOSPHERE

The atmosphere is composed of gases, water vapour and dust particles.
Constituent Formula Percentage by Volume

Nitrogen 78
Oxygen 21
Others 01
Carbon dioxide is meteorologically a very important gas as it is transparent to the Incoming solar
radiation but opaque to the outgoing terrestrial radiation. It is largely responsible for the green
house effect. The volume of carbon dioxide has been rising in the past few decades mainly because
of the burning of fossil fuels. This has increased the air temperature .
Ozone is another important component of the atmosphere. It filters and absorbs the ultra-violet rays
radiating from the sun and prevents them from reaching the surface of the earth.
Water vapour is also a variable gas in the atmosphere. In the warm and wet tropics, it may
account for four per cent of the air by volume, while in the dry and cold areas of desert and
polar regions, it may be less than one per cent of the air.
Dust particles are generally concentrated in the lower layers of the atmosphere
STRUCTURE OF THE ATMOSPHERE

1. The atmosphere consists of different layers with varying density and temperature.
2. Density is highest near the surface of the earth and decreases with increasing altitude.
3. The column of atmosphere is divided into four different layers depending upon the
temperature condition.
Name the layers of atmosphere

They are: troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, thermosphere
The troposphere
1. It is the lowermost layer of the atmosphere.
2. Thickness of the troposphere is greatest at the equator.
3. Extends roughly to a height of 8 km near the poles and about 18 km at the equator.
4. This layer contains dust particles and water vapour.
5. All changes in climate and weather take place in this layer.
6. Its average height is 13 km
7. The temperature in this layer decreases at the rate of 1 °C for every 165 m of height.
8. The zone separating the troposphere from stratosphere is known as the tropopause.
9. This is the most important layer for all biological activity.
The stratosphere
1. It is found above the tropopause and extends up to a height of 50 km.
2. One important feature of the stratosphere is that it contains the ozone layer.
3. This layer absorbs ultra-violet radiation harmful form of energy.
4. The upper limit of stratosphere is known as the stratopause.
5. Temperature increases with increase in height
The mesosphere
1. It lies above the stratosphere,
2. Which extends up to a height of 80 km.
3. The upper limit of mesosphere is known as the mesopause.
4. In this layer, once again, temperature starts decreasing with the increase in altitude
The Thermosphere
Ionosphere
1. It is located between 80 and 400 km above the mesopause.
2. It contains electrically charged particles known as ions, and hence, it is known as ionosphere.
3. Radio waves transmitted from the earth are reflected back to the earth by this layer.
4. Temperature here starts increasing with height.
Exosphere
1. This is the highest layer but very little is known about it.
3. Whatever contents are there, these are extremely rarefied in this layer, and it gradually
merges with the outer space.
Part I. Chapter 8
COMPOSITION AND STRUCTURE OF ATMOSPHERE
March 2006
June 2008
March 2009
March 2010
September 2010
March 2011
October 2011
March 2012
September 2012
March 2013
September 2013
March 2014
August 2014
August 2014
March 2015

September 2016
March 2017
March 2017
March 2018
August 2018
August 2018
CHAPTER-9
SOLAR RADIATION, HEAT BALANCE AND TEMPERATURE
INSOLATION.
The energy received by the earth is known as incoming solar radiation which in short is termed as
insolation.
FACTORS CONTROLLING INSOLATION
The amount and the intensity of insolation vary during a day, in a season and in a year. The factors
that cause these variations in insolation are:
i. The transparency of the atmosphere: more transparent, more insolation
ii. The rotation of earth on its axis: insolation during day time
iii. The configuration of land : at the same latitude the insolation is more over the continent than
over the oceans.
iv. The angle of inclination of the sun’s rays: insolation decreases with increase in inclination.
v. The length of the day: more daylight, more insolation
HEATING AND COOLING OF ATMOSPHERE
The ways of heating the atmosphere :

i. Convection - The air in contact with the earth rises vertically on heating in the form of currents
and further transmits the heat of the atmosphere.
ii. Advection – transfer of heat through horizontal movement of air
iii. Conduction – The air in contact with the land gets heated slowly and the upper layers in contact
with the lower layers also get heated.
Terrestrial Radiation
1. The insolation received by the earth is in short waves forms and heats up its surface.
2. This energy heats up the atmosphere from below.
3. This process is known as terrestrial radiation.
4. The earth after being heated itself becomes a radiating body and it radiates energy to the
atmosphere in long wave form.
HEAT BUDGET
INSOLATION TERRESTRIAL RADIATION
100 % from sun 51 % from earth

14 % absorbed by atmosphere 34 % absorbed by atmosphere
35 % reflected by clouds & others 17 % reflected back to space
51 % received by earth
ALBEDO
The reflected amount of radiation is called the albedo of the earth.
FACTORS CONTROLLING TEMPERATURE DISTRIBUTION
The temperature of air at any place is influenced by

i. the latitude of the place : low latitude – high temperature; high latitude - low temperature
ii. the altitude of the place: lower level - high temperature ; higher level - low temperature
iii. distance from the sea: temperature increases with increase in distance from sea
iv. the presence of warm and cold ocean currents: warm current - high temperature; cold current -
low temperature
ISOTHERMS
An imaginary line connecting places having equal temperature reduced to sea level.
January
1. Summer in southern hemisphere, and winter in northern hemisphere
2. In northern hemisphere, isotherm over ocean bend poleward
3. In southern hemisphere, isotherm over land bend poleward
July
1. Summer in northern hemisphere, and winter in southern hemisphere
2. In northern hemisphere, isotherm over land bend poleward
3. In southern hemisphere, isotherm over ocean bend poleward
INVERSION OF TEMPERATURE
Normally, temperature decreases with increase in elevation. It is called normal lapse
rate. At times, the situations is reversed and the normal lapse rate is inverted. It is called
Inversion of temperature. Inversion is usually of short duration.
Part I. Chapter 9
SOLAR RADIATION AND HEAT BALANCE AND TEMPERATURE
March 2006
June 2008
March 2009
March 2010
March 2010
September 2010
March 2011
October 2011
March 2012
September 2012
March 2013
September 2013
March 2014
August 2014
March 2015
March 2015

March 2016
March 2016
September 2016
September 2016
March 2017
March 2017
March 2018
March 2018
CHAPTER-10
ATMOSPHERIC CIRCULATION AND WEATHER SYSTEM
ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
The weight of a column of air contained in a unit area from the mean sea level to the top of
the atmosphere is called the atmospheric pressure. The atmospheric pressure is expressed in
units of millibar.
VERTICAL VARIATION OF PRESSURE

In the lower atmosphere the pressure decreases rapidly with height.
HORIZONTAL DISTRIBUTION OF PRESSURE

Horizontal distribution of pressure is studied by drawing isobars at constant levels. Isobars
are lines connecting places having equal pressure reduced to sea level .
WORLD DISTRIBUTION OF SEA LEVEL PRESSURE (PRESSURE BELTS)

1. Near the equator the sea level pressure is low and the area is known as equatorial low (ITCZ).
2. Along 30° N and 30 °S found the high-pressure areas known as the subtropical highs.
3. Further pole wards along 60°N and 60°S, the low-pressure belts are termed as the sub polar lows.
4. Near the poles the pressure is high and it is known as the polar high.
These pressure belts are not permanent in nature.
FORCES AFFECTING THE VELOCITY AND DIRECTION OF WIND
The air is set in motion due to the differences in atmospheric pressure.

The air in motion is called wind. The wind blows from high pressure to low pressure,
addition, rotation of the earth also affects the wind movement.
The force exerted by the rotation of the earth is known as the Coriolis force.
The horizontal winds near the earth surface respond to the combined effect of three forces - the
pressure gradient force, the frictional force and the Coriolis force. In addition, the gravitational
force acts downward.
Pressure Gradient Force - The differences in atmospheric pressure produces a force. The rate of
change of pressure with respect to distance is the pressure gradient.
Frictional Force: It affects the speed of the wind. It is greatest at the surface .
Coriolis force: The rotation of the earth about its axis affects the direction of the wind. This force is
called the Coriolis force . It deflects the wind to the right direction in the northern hemisphere and
to the left in the southern hemisphere. The Coriolis force is maximum at the poles and is absent at
the equator.
GENERAL CIRCULATION OF THE ATMOSPHERE
The pattern of planetary winds largely depends on:

i. The rotation of earth.
ii. Emergence of pressure belts,
iii. Latitudinal variation of atmospheric heating,
iv. The migration of belts following apparent path of the sun,
v. The distribution of continents and oceans.
PLANETARY WINDS
1. Subtropical high pressure to equatorail low – Trade winds

Northern hemisphere – north east trade winds
Southern hemisphere – south east trade winds
2. Subtropical high pressure to sub polar low – Westerlies
3. Polar high pressure to sub polar low – Polar easterlies
Hadley Cell : Trade winds – rises from equatorial low – subsides over sub tropical high – blow
again as trade winds towards equatorial low
Ferrel cell : Westerlies – rises from sub polar low - subsides over sub tropical high – blow again as
westerlies towards sub polar low
Polar front cell : Easterlies – rises from sub polar low - subsides over polar high – blow again as
easterlies towards sub polar low
LOCAL WINDS
Differences in the heating and cooling of earth surfaces and the cycles those develop daily or
annually can create several common, local or regional winds.
LAND AND SEA BREEZES

During the day the land heats up faster and becomes warmer than the sea. Therefore, over the land
the air rises giving rise to a low pressure area, whereas the sea is relatively cool and the pressure
over sea is relatively high. Thus, pressure gradient from sea to land is created and the wind blows
from the sea to the land as the sea breeze.
In the night the reversal of condition takes place. The land loses heat faster and is cooler than the
sea. The pressure gradient is from the land to the sea and hence land breeze results.
MOUNTAIN AND VALLEY BREEZE

Mountain wind : During the night the slopes get cooled and the dense air descends into the valley as
the mountain wind.
Valley breeze : In mountainous regions, during the day the slopes get heated up and air moves
upslope and to fill the resulting gap the air from the valley blows up the valley. This wind is known
as the valley breeze.
AIR MASS
When the homogenous regions can be the vast ocean surface or vast plains. The air with
distinctive characteristics in terms of temperature and humidity is called an air mass.
The air masses are classified according to the source regions. There are 4 major
source regions. These are:
i. Maritime tropical (mT) - ocean regions of tropics
ii. Maritime polar (mP) – ocean regions near poles
iii. Continental tropical (cT) – continental regions of tropics
iv. Continental polar (cP) – continental regions of poles
FRONTS
When two different air masses meet, the boundary zone between them is called a front.
The process of formation of the fronts is known as frontogenesis. There are four types of
fronts:
a. Cold - When the cold air moves towards the warm air mass, its contact zone is called the cold
front
b. Warm - If the warm air mass moves towards the cold air mass, the contact zone is a warm front.
c. Stationary - When the front remains stationary, it is called a stationary front.
d. Occluded - If an air mass is fully lifted above the land surface, it is called the occluded front.
CYCLONES
Cyclones are low pressure systems. On the basis of source region they are classified into tropical
and temperate cyclones.
TROPICAL CYCLONES
1. Formed over tropical oceans
2. Formed over large sea surface with temperature higher than 27°C;
3. Wind speed is high
4. Heavy rainfall
5. Move from east to west.
They are known as Cyclones in the Indian Ocean, Hurricanes in the Atlantic, Typhoons in the
Western Pacific and South China Sea, and Willy-willies in the Western Australia.
TEMPERATE CYCLONES
1. Developed in the mid and high latitude
2. Formed over oceans as well as land
3. Wind speed is low
4. Low rainfall
5. Move from west to east
THUNDERSTONES AND TORNADOES
Other severe local storms are thunderstorms and tornadoes. They are of short duration, occurring
over a small area but are violent.
Thunderstorms are caused by intense convection on moist hot days. A thunderstorm is a well-grown
cumulonimbus cloud producing thunder and lightening.
Tornadoes: From severe thunderstorms sometimes spiralling wind descends like a trunk of an
elephant with great force. Such a phenomenon is called a tornado.
The tornado over the sea is called water sprouts.

Part I. Chapter 10
ATMOSPHERIC CIRCULATION AND WEATHER SYSTEMS
March 2006
March 2006
June 2008
March 2009
March 2010
September 2010
March 2011
October 2011
March 2012
September 2012
March 2013
September 2013
March 2014
March 2014
August 2014
March 2015

September 2016
September 2016
March 2017
March 2018
March 2018
August 2018
CHAPTER-11 WATER IN THE ATMOSPHERE
The moisture in the atmosphere is derived from water bodies through evaporation and from plants
through transpiration. The ability of the air to hold water vapour depends entirely on its
temperature.
The amount of water vapour present in the atmosphere is known as humidity.
The actual amount of the water vapour present in the atmosphere is known as the absolute humidity.
The percentage of moisture present in the atmosphere as compared to its full capacity at a given
temperature is known as the relative humidity.
EVAPORATION AND CONDENSATION :

Evaporation : It is a process by which water is transformed from liquid to gaseous state.
The temperature at which the water starts evaporating is referred to as the latent heat of
vaporization.
Condensation : The transformation of water vapour into water is called condensation.
Condensation takes place:
i. when both the volume and the temperature are reduced,
ii. When the temperature of the air is reduced to dew point .
iii. when moisture is added to the air through evaporation.
FORMS OF CONDENSATION.
Dew : When the moisture is deposited in the form of water droplets on cooler surfaces of solid
objects
Frost : Frost forms on cold surfaces when condensation takes place below freezing point (00C).
Fog and Mist :
The fog is a cloud with its base at or very near to the ground.
Mists are thicker than fog , frequent over mountains
Clouds :
Cloud is a mass of minute water droplets or tiny crystals of ice formed by the condensation of
the water vapour at considerable elevations.
Clouds are grouped under four types:

(i) cirrus; (ii) cumulus; (iii) stratus; (iv) nimbus.
1. Cirrus : They are thin and appear as feathers. They are always white in colour.
2. Cumulus : Its look like cotton wool , They have a flat base.
3. Stratus : These are layered clouds covering large portions of the sky.
4. Nimbus : Nimbus clouds are black or dark gray, These are extremely dense and opaque to the
rays of the sun.
Classification of clouds based on height
High clouds- above 12000 m

cirrus, cirrostratus, cirro cumulus;
Middle clouds – 6000 to 12000 m
Altostratus and altocumulus;
low clouds- below 6000 m
Stratocumulus, nimbostratus and cumulonimbus.
PRECIPITATION :
The process of continuous condensation in free air helps the condensed particles to grow in size.
After the condensation of water vapour, the release of moisture is known as precipitation. This may
take place in liquid or solid form.
Types of precipitation
1. Rainfall: The precipitation in the form of water is called rainfall,
2. Snow fall: When the temperature is lower than the 0 0C, precipitation takes place in the form of
snowfall.
3. Sleet : It is frozen raindrops and refrozen melted snow-water.
4. Hailstorm: Sometimes, drops of rain after being released by the clouds become solidified in to
small rounded solid pieces of ice and which reach the surface of the earth are called hailstones.
Types of Rainfall
On the basis of origin, rainfall may be classified into three main types -
1. the cyclonic or frontal,
2. orographic or relief and
3. the convectional.
Convectional Rain: The, air on being heated, becomes light and rises up in convection currents. As
it rises, it expands and loses heat and consequently, condensation takes place and cumulous clouds
are formed. With thunder and lightening, heavy rainfall takes place but this does not last long.
Cyclonic Rainfall: Cyclonic low pressure system gives heavy rainfall.
Orographic rainfall - When the saturated air mass comes across a mountain, it is forced to ascend
and as it rises, it expands; the temperature falls, and the moisture is condensed. The chief
characteristic of this sort of rain is that the windward slopes receive greater rainfall. This type of
rainfall is known as orographic rainfall.
After giving rain on the windward side, leeward slopes remain rainless and dry. The area situated
on the leeward side, which gets less rainfall is known as the rain-shadow area.
Distribution of Rainfall
1. The equatorial belt, the windward slopes of the mountains along the western coasts in
the cool temperate zone and the coastal areas of the monsoon land receive heavy rainfall
of over 200 cm per annum.
2. Areas lying in the rain shadow zone of the interior of the continents and high latitudes
receive very low rainfall-less than 50 cm per annum.
3. The coastal areas of the continents receive moderate amount of rainfall.
4. Interior continental areas receive moderate rainfall varying from 100 - 200 cm per
annum.
5. The central parts of the tropical land and the eastern and interior parts of the temperate
lands receive rainfall varying between 50 - 100 cm per annum.
Part 1. Chapter 11
WATER IN THE ATMOSPHERE
March 2006
June 2008
June 2008
March 2009
March 2010
September 2010
March 2011
October 2011
September 2012
March 2013
September 2013
March 2014
August 2014
March 2015
March 2016
March 2016
March 2017

March 2018
March 2018
August 2018
CHAPTER-12 WORLD CLIMATE AND CLIMATE CHANGE
Three broad approaches have been adopted for classifying climate. They are empirical, genetic and
applied.
Empirical classification is based on observed data, particularly on temperature and precipitation.
Genetic classification attempts to organize climates according to their causes.

Applied classification is for specific purpose.
Koeppen's Scheme of classification of climate
Group Characteristics
A– Tropical - Average temperature of the coldest month is 18 C or higher

B- Dry - Climates Potential evaporation exceeds precipitation
C- Warm - The average temperature of the coldest month of the (Mid-latitude)
Temperate ctimates years is higher than minus 3oC but below 18oC
D- Cold Snow Forest Climates -
The average temperature of the coldest month is minus 3° C or below
E- Cold Climates - Average temperature for all months is below 10’ C
H- High Land -Cold due to elevation
m - monsoon climate, w- winter dry season and s - summer dry season.

The B- Dry Climates are subdivided using the capital letters S for steppe or semi-arid and W
for deserts.
CLIMATE TYPES
Group Type Letter Characteristics
A -Tropical Tropical wet Af No dry season

Humid Climate Tropical monsoon Am Monsoonal, short dry season
Tropical wet and dry Aw Winter dry season
B-dry climate Subtropical steppe Bsh Low-latitude semi arid or dry

Subtropical desert Bwh Low-latitude arid or dry
Mid-latitude steppe Bsk Mid-latitude semi arid or dry
Mid-laltitude desert Bwk Mid-latitude arid or dry
C-Warm temperate Humid subtropical Cfa No dry season, warm summer

(Mid-latitude) Mediterranean Cs Dry hot summer
Climates Marine west coast Cfb No dry season, warm and cool summer
D- cold snow- Humid continental Df No dry season. Severe winter

forest climate Sub arctic Dw Winter dry and very severe
E – cold climate Tundra ET No true summer

Polar ice cap EF Perennial ice
H- Highland Highland H Highland with snow cover

CLIMATE CHANGE :
Causes of Climate Change:

A. The changes in solar output associated with sunspot activities. Sunspots are dark and cooler
patches on the sun which increase and decrease in a cyclical manner. When the number of sunspots
increase, cooler and wetter weather and greater storminess occur.
B. An another astronomical theory is Millankovitch oscillations, which infer cycles in the variations
in the earth’s orbital characteristics around the sun, the wobbling of the earth and the changes in the
earth’s axial tilt.
C. Decrease in sunspot numbers is associated with warm and drier conditions.
D. Volcanism is considered as another cause for climate change. Volcanic eruption throws up lots of
aerosols into the atmosphere. These aerosols remain in the atmosphere for a considerable period of
time reducing the sun’s radiation reaching the Earth’s surface.
Greenhouse effect
Due to the presence of greenhouse gases, the atmosphere is behaving like a greenhouse, causing
increase in temperature .The gases that absorb long wave radiation are called greenhouse gases. The
processes that warm the atmosphere are often collectively referred to as the greenhouse effect.
The primary green house gases(GHG) of concern today are carbondioxide (C02), and ozone(O3).
Some other gases such as nitric oxide (NO)and carbon monoxide (CO) easily react with GHGs and
affect their concentration in the atmosphere.
Ozone depletion
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) are products of human activity. Ozone occurs in the stratosphere
where ultra-violet rays convert oxygen into ozone. Thus, ultra violet rays do not reach the earth’s
surface. The CFCs which drift into the stratosphere destroy the ozone. Large depletion of ozone
occurs over Antarctica. The depletion of ozone concentration in the stratosphere is called the ozone
hole.
Global warming
The increasing trend in the concentration of GHGs in the atmosphere may, in the long run, warm up
the earth. Rise in the sea level due to melting of glaciers and ice-caps and thermal expansion of the
sea may inundate large parts of the coastal area and islands, leading to social problems. Efforts
have already been initiated to control the emission of GHGs and to arrest the trend towards global
warming.
Kyoto declaration
i. Enhancement of energy efficiency in relevant sectors

ii. Promotion of sustainable forest management practices, afforestation and reforestation:
iii. Promotion of sustainable forms of agriculture in light of climate change
iv. Research on. and promotion, development and increased use of. new and renewable
forms of energy.
v. Encouragement of appropriate reforms in relevant sectors aimed at promoting policies
and measures which limit or reduce emissions of greenhouse gases
vi. Limitation and/or reduction of methane emissions through recovery and use in waste
management, as well as in the production, transport and distribution of energy.
Part I. Chapter 12
WORLD CLIMATE AND CLIMATIC CHANGE
March 2006
June 2008
March 2009
March 2010
September 2010
March 2011
October 2011
March 2012
September 2012
March 2013
March 2014
March 2015
March 2015
March 2016
September 2016
March 2018
August 2018
CHAPTER-13 WATER (OCEANS)
HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE: The hydrological cycle, is the circulation of water within the earth’s
hydrosphere in different forms i.e. the liquid, solid and the gaseous phases. It also refers to the
continuous exchange of water between the oceans.
Water bodies – evaporation – condensation – precipitation – overland flow /percolation – surface

water/ underground water -ocean
RELIEF OF THE OCEAN FLOOR
Divisions of the Ocean Floors :

The ocean floors can be divided into four major divisions:
i. The Continental Shelf;
ii. The Continental Slope;
iii. The Deep Sea Plain;
iv. The Oceanic Deeps.
Besides, these divisions there are also major and minor relief features in the ocean floors like ridges,
hills, sea mounts, guyots, trenches, canyons, etc.
Continental Shelf :
1. The continental shelf is the extended margin of each continent occupied by relatively shallow
seas and gulfs.
2. It is the shallowest part of the ocean showing an average gradient of 1° or even less.
3. The shelf typically ends at a very steep slope.
4. The average width of continental shelves is about 80 km.
5. The continental shelves are covered with variable thicknesses of sediments brought down by
various agents of gradation
6.Massive sedimentary deposits received over a long time by the continental shelves, become the
source of fossil fuels.
Continental Slope :
1. The depth of the slope region varies between 200 and 3,000 m.
2. The continental slope connects the continental shelf and the ocean basins.
3. The gradient of the slope region varies between 2-5°.
4. It begins where the bottom of the continental shelf sharply drops off into a steep slope.
Deep Sea Plain :

1. Deep sea plains are gently sloping areas of the ocean basins.
2. These plains are covered with fine-grained sediments like clay and silt.
3. The depths vary between 3,000 and 6,000 m.
Oceanic Deeps or Trenches :

1. These areas are the deepest parts of the oceans.
2. The trenches are relatively steep sided, narrow basins.
3. They are some 3-5 km deeper than the surrounding ocean floor.
4. They occur at the bases of continental slopes and along island arcs and are associated with active
volcanoes and strong earthquakes.
5. That is why they are very significant in the study of plate movements.
Mid-Oceanic Ridges :
1. A mid-oceanic ridge is composed of two chains of mountains separated by a large depression.
2. The mountain ranges can have peaks as high as 2,500 m and some even reach above the ocean’s
surface.
Seamount :
It is a mountain with pointed summits, rising from the seafloor. Seamounts are volcanic in origin.
Guyots :
It is a flat topped seamount. They show evidences of gradual subsidence through stages to become
flat topped submerged mountains.
Atoll :
These are low islands found in the tropical oceans consisting of coral reefs surrounding a central
depression. It may be a part of the sea (lagoon).
TEMPERATURE OF OCEAN WATERS :
Factors Affecting Temperature Distribution

The factors which affect the distribution of temperature of ocean water are:
i. Latitude: The temperature of surface water decreases from the equator towards the poles
ii. Unequal distribution of land and water: The oceans in the northern hemisphere receive more heat
due to their contact with larger extent of land than the oceans in the
southern hemisphere.
iii. Prevailing wind: The winds blowing from the land towards the oceans drive warm surface water
away form the coast resulting in the upwelling of cold water from below.
iv. Ocean currents: Warm ocean currents raise the temperature in cold areas while the cold currents
decrease the temperature in warm ocean areas.
Vertical Distribution of Temperature:

The temperature structure of oceans over middle and low latitudes can be described as a three-layer
system from surface to the bottom.
The first layer represents the top layer of warm oceanic water and it is about 500m
thick with temperatures ranging between 20° and 25° C.
The second layer called the thermocline layer lies below the first layer and is characterized by rapid
decrease in temperature with increasing depth.
The third layer is very cold and extends up to the deep ocean floor.
SALINITY OF OCEAN WATERS

Salinity is the term used to define the total content of dissolved salts in sea water .
Factors affecting ocean salinity are mentioned below:
i. Higher the evaporation higher the salinity
ii. Higher the precipitation lower the salinity
iii. Fresh water flow from rivers, and in polar regions by the processes of freezing and thawing of
ice salinity is reduced
iv. Wind, also influences salinity of an area by transferring water to other areas.
HORIZONTAL DISTRIBUTION OF SALINITY :

The salinity for normal open ocean ranges between 33 o/oo. and 37 o/oo. In the land
locked Red Sea, it is as high as 41 o/00 while in the estuaries and the Arctic, the salinity
fluctuates from 0 - 35 o/oo, seasonally. In hot and dry regions, where evaporation is
high, the salinity sometimes reaches to 70 o/ oo.
VERTICAL DISTRIBUTION OF SALINITY :
1. Salinity changes with depth, but the way it changes depends upon the location of the sea.
2. Salinity at the surface increases by the loss of water to ice or evaporation, or decreased
by the input of fresh waters, such as from the rivers.
3. Salinity, generally, increases with depth and there is a distinct zone called the halocline,
where salinity increases sharply. Other factors being constant, increasing salinity of sea
water causes its density to increase. High salinity sea water, generally, sinks below the
lower salinity water.
Part I. Chapter 13
WATER (OCEANS)
March 2006
March 2009
March 2009
March 2010
March 2010
September 2010
March 2011
October 2011
March 2012
September 2012
March 2013
September 2013
March 2014
March 2015
March 2015
March 2016
March 2016
July 2017 improvement
March 2018
March 2018
August 2018
August 2018
CHAPTER-14 MOVEMENTS OF OCEAN WATER
WAVES
Waves are actually the energy, not the water as such, which moves across the ocean surface. Wind
causes waves to travel in the ocean and the energy is released on shorelines.
Characteristics of Waves :
Wave crest and trough: The highest and lowest points of a wave are called the crest and trough
respectively.
Wave frequency: It is the number of waves passing a given point during a one second time interval.
Wave amplitude: It is one-half of the wave height.
Wave period: It is merely the time interval between two successive wave crests or troughs as they
pass a fixed point.
Wave height: It is the vertical distance from the bottom of a trough to the top of a crest of a wave.
Wavelength: It is the horizontal distance between two successive crests.
Wave speed: It is the rate at which the wave moves through the water, and is measured in knots.
TIDES :
The periodical rise and fall of the sea level, once or twice a day. Movement of water caused by
meteorological effects are called surges. Surges are not regular like tides.
Tides based on Frequency :
Semi-diurnal tide : The most common tidal pattern, featuring two high tides and two low tides each
day.
Diurnal tide : There is only one high tide and one low tide during each day.
Mixed tide: Tides having variations in height are known as mixed tides.
Tides based on the Sun, Moon and the Earth Positions :
Spring tides: When the sun, the moon and the earth are in a straight line, the height of the tide will
be higher. These are called spring tides and they occur twice a month, one on full moon period and
another during new moon period. High high tide results.
Neap tides: On first and third quarter, the sun and moon are at right angles to each other and the
forces of the sun and moon tend to counteract one another. The Moon’s attraction, though more than
twice as strong as the sun’s, is diminished by the counteracting force of the sun’s gravitational pull.
Low high tide results.
Perigee - when the moon’s orbit is closest to the earth
Apogee - when the moon is farthest from earth

Perihelion - When the earth is closest to the sun - 3rd January
Aphelion - When the earth is farthest from the sun - 4th July
Importance of Tides :
1. Tidal flows are of great importance in navigation.
2. Tides are also helpful in desilting the sediments and in removing polluted water from
river estuaries.
3. Tides are used to generate electrical power
OCEAN CURRENTS
Ocean currents are like river flow in oceans. They represent a regular volume of water in a
definite path and direction.
Ocean currents are influenced by:
1. Heating by solar energy : Heating by solar energy causes the water to expand.
2. Wind : This causes a very slight gradient and water tends to flow down the slope.
3. Gravity : Gravity tends to pull the water down the pile and create gradient variation.
4. Coriolis force : The Coriolis force intervenes and causes the water to move to the right in
the northern hemisphere and to the left in the southern hemisphere.
Characteristics of Ocean Currents :

1. Currents are referred to as “drift”.
2. A current is usually strongest at the surface and decreases in strength (speed) with depth.
3. Differences in water density affect vertical mobility of ocean currents.
4. Water with high salinity is denser than water with low salinity and in the same way cold
water is denser than warm water.
5. Cold-water ocean currents occur when the cold water at the poles sinks and slowly moves
towards the equator.
6. Warm-water currents travel out from the equator along the surface, flowing towards the
poles to replace the sinking cold water.
Types of Ocean Currents

i. surface currents constitute about 10 per cent of all the water in the ocean, these waters
are the upper 400 m of the ocean;
ii. deep water currents make up the other 90 per cent of the ocean water. These waters
move around the ocean basins due to variations in the density and gravity.
Ocean currents can also be classified based on temperature:

i. cold currents bring cold water into warm water areas.
ii. warm currents bring warm water into cold water areas.
1.Major ocean currents are greatly influenced by the stresses exerted by the prevailing winds and
coriolis force.
2. The oceanic circulation pattern roughly corresponds to the earth’s atmospheric circulation
pattern.
3. In regions of pronounced monsoonal flow, the monsoon winds influence the current movements.
4. Due to the coriolis force, the warm currents from low latitudes tend to move to the right
in the northern hemisphere and to their left in the southern hemisphere.
5. The cold waters of the Arctic and Antarctic circles move towards warmer water in
tropical and equatorial regions, while the warm waters of the lower latitudes move pole
wards.
MAJOR OCEAN CURRENTS
1. ATLANTIC OCEAN
COLD CURRENTS WARM CURRENTS

i. Labrador current i. North equatorial current
ii. Canneries current ii. South equatorial current
iii. Falkland current iii. Gulf stream
iv. West wind drift iv. North atlantic drift
v. Benguela current v. Brazilian currents
2. PACIFIC OCEAN

i. Oyashio current i. North equatorial current
ii. California current ii. South equatorial current
iii. West wind drift iii. Kuroshio current
iv. Humbolt current iv. Alaska current
v. North pacific drift
3. INDIAN OCEAN

i. West wind drift i. South equatorial currents
ii.West Australian current ii. Monsoon drift
iii. Agulhas current
Part I. Chapter 14
MOVEMENTS OF OCEAN WATER
March 2006
June 2008
June 2008
March 2009
March 2010
September 2010
March 2011
October 2011
March 2012
September 2012
March 2013
September 2013
August 2014
March 2015

March 2016
September 2016
March 2017
March 2018
August 2018
CHAPTER-15 LIFE ON THE EARTH
LIFE ON THE EARTH :
The biosphere includes all the living components of the earth. It consists of all plants and animals,
including all the micro- organisms that live on the planet earth and their interactions with the
surrounding environment.
The interaction of a particular group of organism with abiotic factors within a particular habitat
resulting in clearly defined energy flows and material cycles on land, water and air, are called
ecological systems.
A system consisting of biotic and abiotic components is known as ecosystem :

Different types of ecosystems exist
Type of Ecosystems :
Ecosystems are of two major types:
1. Terrestrial : Terrestrial ecosystem can be further be classified into ‘biomes’.A biome is a
plant and animal community that covers a large geographical area. The boundaries of different
biomes on land are determined mainly by climate.
2. Aquatic : Aquatic ecosystems can be classified as marine and freshwater ecosystems. Marine
ecosystem includes the oceans, estuaries and coral reefs. Freshwater ecosystem includes lakes,
ponds, streams, marshes etc.
Structure and Functions of Ecosystems :

1. Abiotic factors
2. Biotic factors
3. The primary consumers include herbivorous (plant eating animals), The carnivores (include all
the flesh- eating animals) , top carnivores ( carnivores that feed also on carnivores)
4. Decomposers are those that feed on dead organisms
5. The secondary consumers and tertiary consumers.
6. This sequence of eating and being eaten and the resultant transfer of energy from one level to
another is known as the food-chain.
Transfer of energy that occurs during the process of a food chain from one level to another is known
as flow of energy.
9. This interconnecting network of species is known as food web.
Types of Biomes :
There are five major biomes :
1. Forest, 2. Desert, 3. Grassland, 4. Aquatic and 5. Altitudinal biomes
Biogeochemical Cycles : Balance of the chemical elements is maintained by a cyclic passage

through the tissues of plants and animals. The cycle starts by absorbing the chemical elements by
the organism and is returned to the air, water and soil through decomposition. These cycles are
largely energized by solar insolation. These cyclic movements of chemical elements of the
biosphere between the organism and the environment are referred to as biogeochemical cycles.
Carbon Cycle: Carbon is one of the basic elements of all living organisms. The carbon cycle is
mainly the conversion of carbon dioxide. This conversion is initiated by the fixation of carbon
dioxide from the atmosphere through photosynthesis.
The Oxygen Cycle : Oxygen is the main byproduct of photosynthesis. It is involved in the
oxidation of carbohydrates with the release of energy, carbon dioxide and water.
The Nitrogen Cycle :

Nitrogen is a major constituent of the atmosphere. 90% of fixed nitrogen is biological. The
principal source of free nitrogen is the action of soil micro-organisms and associated plant roots on
atmospheric nitrogen found in pore spaces of the soil. Dead plants and animals, excretion of
nitrogenous wastes are converted into nitrites by the action of bacteria present in the soil. Some
bacteria can even convert nitrites into nitrates that can be used again by green plants.
Ecological Balance
1. Ecological balance is a state of dynamic equilibrium within a community of organisms in a
habitat or ecosystem.
2. It can happen when the diversity of the living organisms remains relatively stable.
3. Gradual changes do take place but that happens only through natural succession.
4. It can also be explained as a stable balance in the numbers of each species in an ecosystem.
5. This occurs through competition and cooperation between different organisms where population
remains stable.
Ecological balance may be disturbed due to

1. the introduction of new species,
2. natural hazards or human causes.
3. Human pressure on the earth’s resources has put a heavy toll on the ecosystem.
4. This has destroyed its originality and has caused adverse effects to the general environment.
Part I. Chapter 15
LIFE ON THE EARTH
March 2006
March 2008
March 2009
September 2010
March 2011
October 2011
March 2012
September 2012
March 2013
September 2013
March 2014
August 2014
March 2017
March 2018
August 2018
CHAPTER-16 BIODIVERSITY AND CONSERVATION
Biodiversity is the number and variety of organisms found within a specified geographic region. It
refers to the varieties of plants, animals and micro-organisms, the genes they contain and the
ecosystems they form.
Biodiversity is not found evenly on the earth. It is consistently richer in the tropics. As one
approaches the polar regions, one finds larger and larger populations of fewer and fewer species.
LEVELS OF BIODIVERSITY :
i. Genetic diversity;
ii. Species diversity;
iii. Ecosystem diversity.
Genetic Diversity:
Genetic biodiversity refers to the variation of genes within species.
Species Diversity:
This refers to the variety of species.
Ecosystem Diversity:
The broad differences between ecosystem types and the diversity of habitats and ecological
processes occurring within each ecosystem type constitute the ecosystem diversity.
Importance of Biodiversity:
1.Biodiversity plays the following roles

i. ecological,
ii. economic
iii. Scientific.
Ecological role of biodiversity:

1. The more diverse an ecosystem, better are the chances for the species to survive through
adversities and attacks, and consequently, is more productive.
2. Species capture and store energy, produce and decompose organic materials, help to cycle water
and nutrients throughout the ecosystem, fix atmospheric gases and help
regulate the climate.
3. Species of many kinds perform some function or the other in an ecosystem. Nothing in an
ecosystem evolves and sustains without any reason.
4. These functions are important for ecosystem function and human survival.
Economic Role of Biodiversity :

1. ‘Crop diversity’, which is also called 'agro-biodiversity'.
2. Biodiversity is seen as a reservoir of resources to be drawn upon for the manufacture of food,
pharmaceutical, and cosmetic products.
3. Some of the important economic commodities that biodiversity supplies to humankind are: food
crops, livestock, forests, fish, medicinal resources, etc.
Scientific Role of Biodiversity :

1. Biodiversity is important because each species can give us some clue as to how life evolved and
will continue to evolve.
2. Biodiversity also helps in understanding how life functions and the role of each species in
sustaining ecosystems of which we are also a species.
3. This fact must be drawn upon every one of us so that we live and let other species also live their
lives.
4. The level of biodiversity is a good indicator of the state of our relationships with other living
species. In fact, the concept of biodiversity is an integral part of many human cultures.
LOSS OF BIODIVERSITY :
Tropical regions which occupy only about one-fourth of the total area of the world, contain about
three fourth of the world human population. Over exploitation of resources and deforestation have
become rampant to full fill the needs of large population. Tropical rain forests contain 50 per cent of
the species on the earth. Destruction of natural vegetation have proved disastrous for the entire
biosphere.
1. Natural calamities such as earthquakes, floods, volcanic eruptions, forest fires, droughts, etc.
cause damage to the flora and fauna of the earth, bringing change the biodiversity of respective
affected regions.
2. Pesticides and other pollutants such as hydrocarbons and toxic heavy metals destroy the weak
and sensitive species.
3. Species which are not the natural inhabitants of the local habitat but are introduced into the
system, are called exotic species.
The International Union of Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) has classified the
threatened species of plants and animals into three categories for the purpose of their conservation.
1.Endangered Species:
It includes those species which are in danger of extinction.
2.Vulnerable Species :
This includes the species which are likely to be in danger of extinction in near future if the
factors threatening to their extinction continue.
3.Rare Species :
Population of these species is very small in the world; they are confined to limited areas or
thinly scattered over a wider area.
CONSERVATION OF BIODIVERSITY :
Biodiversity is important for human existence.
1. All forms of life are so closely interlinked that disturbance in one gives rise to imbalance
in the others.
2. There is an urgent need to educate people to adopt environment-friendly practices and
reorient their activities which are sustainable
3. If species of plants and animals become endangered, they cause degradation in the
environment, which may threaten human being’s own existence.
Earth Summit held at Rio de Janeiro, Brazil in June 1992.
The world conservation strategy has suggested the following steps for biodiversity
conservation:
i. Efforts should be made to preserve the species that are endangered.
ii. Varieties of food crops, forage plants, timber trees, livestock, animals and their wild
relatives should be preserved;
iii. International trade in wild plants and animals be regulated.
iv. Habitats where species feed, breed, rest and nurse their young should be safeguarded
and protected.
v. Each country should identify habitats of wild relatives and ensure their protection.
Part I. Chapter 16
BIO DIVERSITY AND CONSERVATION
June 2008
March 2009
March 2010
September 2010
March 2011
October 2011
March 2012
March 2016
March 2016
September 2016
March 2018
2018 August

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GEOGRAPHY

REVISION NOTES AND CHAPTER WISE

PREPARED & EDITED BY

BRANCHES OF GEOGRAPHY (BASED ON SYSTEMATIC APPROACH )

What is the importance of Physical Geography?

What is Geography? - some other definitions

September 2015 improvement exam

September 2016 improvement exam

July 2017 improvement

Origin of the universe –Big bang theory

Stages of Big Bang theory

Steady State Theory

The star formation:

Our Solar system:

1. Our solar system consists of eight planets

INNER PLANETS OUTER PLANETS

4. Smaller In Size 4. Larger In Size

5. High Density 5 Low Density

6. Solid Rocky State 6. Gaseous State

7. They Are Warm 7. They Are Cold

THERE ARE THREE STAGES OF THE FORMATION OF THE ATMOSPHERE

September 2015 improvement

July 2017 Improvement exam

Sources of Information about the Earth’s Interior:

The Differences between Active, Dormant and Extinct volcanoes :

SHIELD VOLCANO: A shield volcano is a type of volcano usually built almost

FLOOD BASALT PROVINCES

MID OCEANIC RIDGES VOLCANOES

INTRUSIVE VOLCANIC LANDFORMS

LAPOLITHS: A lopolith is a large igneous intrusion which is lenticular in shape with a

September 2015 improvement

September 2015 improvement

July 2017 Improvement exam

EVIDENCES TO SUPPORT THE CONTINENTAL DRIFT

1. The matching of continents (jig-saw fit)

3. Tillite: It is the sedimentary rock formed out of deposits of glaciers.

FORCES FOR DRIFTING THE CONTINENTS

MAJOR PLATES OF THE EARTH CRUST

TYPES OF PLATE BOUNDARIES

I. DIVERGENT BOUNDARIES: In plate tectonics, a divergent boundary or divergent plate

March 2016 improvement

July 2017 Improvement exam

PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF MINERALS

I. EXTERNAL CRYSTAL FORM: determined by internal arrangement of the molecules

September 2015 improvement

July 2017 Improvement exam

Endogenic forces are generated in the interior of the earth.

1.DIASTROPHISM: Diastrophism, also called tectonism, large-scale deformation of Earth's crust

EPEROGENIC PROCESS: Epeirogenic movement is upheavals or depressions of land .

3. VOLCANISM: Volcanism is the phenomenon of eruption of molten rock (magma). Volcanism

WEATHERING: Weathering is the disintegration and decomposition of rock.

(I) CHEMICAL (II) PHYSICAL/MECHANICAL (III)BIOLOGICAL WEATHERING

CHEMICAL WEATHERING PROCESSES

Chemical weathering is the weakening and subsequent disintegration of rock by chemical

PHYSICAL WEATHERING PROCESSES

CLASSIFICATION OF MASS MOVEMENTS

EROSION AND DEPOSITION

PEDOLOGY: is science of soil formation, PEDOLOGIST: is the scientist of soil formation

SOIL FORMING FACTORS:

September 2015 improvement

July 2017 Improvement exam

Stages of the river