Unit-II PPT CPN

BE 8255 -BASIC ELECTRICAL, ELECTRONICS AND
MEASUREMENT ENGINEERING
Semester-II
BE Computer Science and Engineering/AML/ADS
UNIT II ELECTRICAL MACHINES
DC and AC ROTATING MACHINES: Types, Construction, principle,

emf and torque equation, application, Speed Control - Basics of
Stepper Motor – Brushless DC motors- Transformers-
Introduction- types and construction, working principle of Ideal
transformer-emf equation- All day efficiency calculation.
Introduction
• Machine- simplify work
• Machine energised by electricity- electrical machine

Electrical machine
DC AC Special
machine machine Machine
• Generator (Mechanical energy to electrical energy) • Synchronous machine • Brushless DC motor
• Motor (Electrical energy to mechanical energy) • Induction motor • Stepper motor
3
ELECTRICAL MACHINE
➢ An electrical machine deals with the energy transfer either

from mechanical to electrical form or from electrical to
mechanical form. This process is called electromechanical
Energy Conversion
➢ Electrical machine which converts mechanical energy in to
electrical energy is called an electric generator.
➢ Electrical machine which Converts Electrical Energy in to
mechanical energy is called motor.
➢ Electrical machines are broadly classified as,
➢ AC machines
➢ DC machines
Construction of DC Machine
Parts of Construction of DC Machine
1 Yoke
a) Functions :
➢ Outermost cover of the DC machine which protects the
machine from harmful atmospheric elements like moisture,
dust and various gases like SO2, acidic fumes etc.
➢ It provides mechanical support to the poles.
➢ It forms a part of the magnetic circuit and provides a path of
low reluctance for magnetic flux.
• b) Choice of Material : Cast iron, rolled steel, cast steel, silicon
steel are used which provides high permeability i.e. low reluctance
and gives good mechanical strength.
2 Poles
• Pole is divided into two parts namely, i) Pole core and ii) Pole shoe
a) Functions of pole core and pole shoe:

• Pole core carries field winding which is necessary to produce the flux. It
directs the flux produced through air gap to armature core.
• Pole shoe enlarges the area of armature core for maximizing the flux in
the airgap, which is necessary to produce large induced emf.
• b) Choice of Material : It is made up of magnetic material like cast iron
or cast steel. As it requires a definite shape and size, laminated
construction is used. The laminations of required size and shape are
stamped together to get a pole which is then bolted to the yoke.
3 Field Winding (F1-F2)
The field winding is wound on the pole core with a definite direction.
a) Functions :
➢ To carry current due to which pole core, on which the field winding is
placed, behaves as an electromagnet, producing necessary flux.
➢ it is called Field winding or Exciting winding.
b) Choice of material : Aluminium or copper is the choice. But field coils are
required to take any type of shape and bend about pole core and copper has good
pliability i.e. it can bend easily. So copper is the proper choice.
4 Armature
It is divided into two parts namely,
➢ Armature core and
➢ Armature winding
• i) Armature core : Armature core is cylindrical in shape
mounted on the shaft. It consists of slots on its periphery and
the air ducts to permit the air flow through armature for
cooling.
a) Functions :
– Armature core provides house for armature winding i.e. armature
conductors.
– To provide a path of low reluctance to the magnetic flux produced by
the field winding.
b) Choice of Material :
As it has to provide a low reluctance path to the flux, it is made
up of magnetic material like cast iron or cast steel. It is made
up of laminated construction to keep eddy current loss as low
as possible.
• ii) Armature winding :
– The interconnection of the armature conductors, placed in the slots provided on the armature
core periphery.
– When the armature is rotated, in case of generator, magnetic flux gets cut by armature
conductors and e.m.f. gets induced in them.
• a) Functions :
– Generation of e.m.f takes place in the armature winding in case of generators.
– To carry the current supplied in case of d.c. motors.
– To do the useful work in the external circuit.
• b) Choice of material : it has to be made up of conducting material, carries
large current. Made of copper. Armature winding is generally former wound.
The conductors are placed in the armature slots which are lined with tough
insulating material.
Principle of Operation of a DC machine as
Generator
Faraday’s law of Electromagnetic Induction:
➢ Whenever the flux linking with a conductor or a coil changes, an
electromotive force is set up in that conductor.
➢ The change in flux can exist only when there is a relative motion
between the conductor and the flux.
➢ The relative motion can be achieved by rotating the conductor
w.r.t flux or by rotating flux w.r.t conductor.
➢ Voltage gets generated in a conductor as long as there exist a
relative motion between the conductor and flux.
Fleming’s Right Hand Rule
• If three fingers of right hand, namely thumb, index finger and middle finger are
outstretched so that everyone of them is at right angles with the remaining
two.
• If index finger is made to point in the direction of lines of flux, thumb in the
direction of the relative motion of the conductor then middle finger gives the
direction of emf induced in the conductor.
• Magnitude of emf is ,
E=Blv
Types of DC Generator
Separately Excited DC Generator
If the field winding is excited by separate DC supply, then the generator is
called separately excited DC generator.
Armature current Ia = Load current IL

Terminal Voltage ,V = Eg –Ia Ra –V brush
Generated Voltage Eg = V+IaRa+Vbrush
Electric Power developed =Eg*Ia
Power Delivered to load = VIa
Types of DC Generator
Self Excited DC Generator

• Field winding is supplied from the armature of the generator itself.
• Residual flux is present in the poles.
• When armature is rotated, a small emf is produced in the
armature winding because of residual flux. This emf produces a
small current in the field winding and hence flux pole increases.
• Increased flux increases the induced emf, which further increases
the flux.
• Process is cumulative and generator reaches its rated voltage
Self excited generators can be classified as,
• Series Generator
• Shunt Generators
• Compound Generator :
– Long shunt Compound Generator
– Short shunt Compound Generator
Series Generator
Fig.
Shunt Generator
Fig.
Long shunt Compound motor
.
Short Shunt Compound motor
Fig.
Characteristics-Separately Excited DC Generator
Fig.
Open Circuit Characteristics Internal (Eg Vs Ia)&

External Characteristics (V Vs IL)
DC shunt Generator Characteristics
.
.
.
.
DC MOTORS
DC MOTOR- Principle of Operation
➢ Converts Electrical Energy in to mechanical energy.

➢ When a current carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic
field, it experiences a mechanical force.
➢ Field winding produces the required magnetic field and
armature conductor plays a role of current carrying conductor.
➢ As the conductors are placed in the periphery of the
armature, Individual force experienced by the conductor acts
as a twisting and turning force on the armature , called
torque.
➢ Torque is a product of force and the radius at which the force
acts . So armature experiences a torque and starts rotating.
DC Motor- Principle of Operation Contd.
Right Hand Thumb Rule & Cork Screw Rule
DC Motor- Principle of Operation Contd.
Magnitude of Force &Direction of Rotation
of Motor
➢ Magnitude of force experienced by the conductor is,

F=BIL Newton
Where,
B-Flux Density
L-Active Length
I-Magnitude of current passing
➢ Direction of rotation can be obtained by Flemings Left
Hand Rule
Fleming’s Left Hand Rule
Back EMF
• When the armature of a d.c motor rotates under the

influence of the driving torque, the armature conductors
move through the magnetic field and hence an e.m.f. is
induced in them.
• The induced e.m.f. acts in opposite direction to the
applied voltage V(Lenz’s law) and is known as back or
counter e.m.f. Eb.
• Eb = (ΦZN/60)(P/A)
Voltage Equation of a DC Motor
• In a d.c. motor, Let,

V = applied voltage
Eb = back e.m.f.
Ra = armature resistance
Ia = armature current
Since back e.m.f. Eb acts in opposition to the applied voltage V,
the net voltage across the armature circuit is V- Eb. The
armature current Ia is given by,
This is known as voltage equation of the d.c. motor

V = Eb + IaRa
Power Equation of a Motor
Voltage Equation of a motor is,

V = Eb + IaRa
Multiplying by Ia on both sides,
V Ia = Eb Ia + Ia2 Ra
V Ia : Net Electrical Power input
Eb Ia : Electrical Equivalent of gross mech. power
Ia2 Ra :Power loss due to armature resistance.
Torque Equation of a DC motor
• Torque is the twisting or turning force about

an axis and is measured by the product of
force (F) and radius (R) at right angle to which
the force acts
T=F*R
Torque Equation of a DC motor Contd.
Consider a wheel of radius ‘R’ meters acted up on by a circumferential force
F Newton. The wheel is rotated at a speed of N-rpm
Angular speed, ω =2πN/60 rad/sec
Work done in one revolution is ,
W=F*Distance travelled in one revolution =F*2πR
Power developed, P= Work Done/Time
=(F*2πR)/time for one revolution
=(F*2πR)/ (60/N) =(F*R)*( 2πN/60 )
P = T* ω ; where T-Torque in N-m
• Let Ta be the armature torque and the gross mechanical power developed
in the armature is Eb Ia. If the speed of the motor is N rpm, then Power in
armature = Armature toque * ω
Eb Ia = Ta *(2πN/60 )
Ia (ΦZNP)/60A = Ta *(2πN/60 )
Ta = 0.159* IaΦZP /A Nm
Problem
• A 4 pole dc motor takes 50A armature current.

The armature has lap connected conductors.
The flux per pole is 20mWb. Calculate the
gross torque developed by the armature of
the motor.
P=4,A=P=4, Z=480
Φ = 20mWb, Ia =50A
Ta = 0.159* IaΦZP /A Nm
=0.159*50*20*10-3 *4*480/4 =76.394Nm.
EE8353 Electrical Drives and
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• A 4 pole dc motor takes 50A armature current.
The armature has lap connected conductors.
The flux per pole is 20mWb. Calculate the
gross torque developed by the armature of
the motor.

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Types of DC motor
• Separately Excited motor

• Self Excited DC motor
– Series motor
– Shunt motor
– Compound motor
• Long shunt compound motor
• Short shunt compound motor

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Separately Excited DC motor
➢Field winding and armature windings are

physically separated.
➢Field winding is excited by a separate DC
source
➢V = Eb + Ia Ra + Vbrush
➢Eb = V - Ia Ra – Vbrush

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DC Shunt Motor
• In a shunt wound motor the field winding is connected in
parallel with armature and this combination is connected across
the supply.
• Field winding should have more number of turns with less cross
sectional area. Ra<<Rsh
• Flux produced by the field winding is proportional to the current
passing through Rsh.
Φ αel Ish
• Total Current Drawn from the supply is,
IL = Ia + Ish
Ish = V/ Rsh
V = Eb + Ia Ra + Vbrush
V = Ish Rsh
DC Series Motor
• In series wound motor the field winding is connected
in series with the armature.
• Field winding should have less number of turns of
thick wire.
• Resistance of series winding will be small.
• Flux produced by the field winding is proportional to
the current passing through Rse
Φ αel Ise
IL = Ise = Ia
V = Eb + Ia (Ra + Rse )+ Vbrush
• The entire armature current
flows through series field winding .
Hence, flux Φ αel Ise αel Ia
DC compound Motor-Long Shunt
• When the shunt winding is so connected that

it shunts the series combination of armature
and series field, it is called long-shunt
connection.
IL= Ise + Ish
Ise = Ia
Ish = V/ Rsh
V = Eb + Ia Ra + Ia Rse +Vbrush
V = Ish Rsh
DC compound Motor-Short Shunt
• When the shunt field winding is connected across the

armature terminals and series field winding is connected in
series with this combination, it is called short-shunt
connection.
IL= Ise
IL = Ia + Ish
V = Eb + Ia Ra + Ise Rse +Vbrush
Ish = (V - Ise Rse )/ Rsh
= (Eb + Ia Ra +Vbrush)/ Rsh
Compound Motor -Classification
• Compound motors can be classified in to two types
based on the winding construction,
– Cumulative Compound motor
– Differential compound motor
• Cumulative Compound motor
– In this type of motor, the two winding fluxes aids each other
– Flux due to the series field winding strengthens the flux due
to the shunt field winding.

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• Differential Compound motor
– In this type of motor, the two winding fluxes aids each other
– Flux due to the series field winding strengthens the flux due
to the shunt field winding.

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• A 4 pole 250V series motor has a wave
connected armature with 1254 conductors.
The flux per pole is 22mWb. The motor takes
an armature current of 50A. Armature and
field resistances are 0.2 ohm and 0.2 ohm
respectively. Calculate its speed.

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• A 4 pole 250V series motor has a wave connected
armature with 1254 conductors. The flux per pole is
22mWb. The motor takes an armature current of 50A.
Armature and field resistances are 0.2 ohm and 0.2
ohm respectively. Calculate its speed.
• P=4, V-250V,Z=1254 , flux per pole is 22mWb, Ia=50A,
Ra =0.2 ohm, Rse =0.2, Wave connected, A=2
• V = Eb + Ia (Ra + Rse )+ Vbrush
Eb =250- 50(0.2+0.2)= 250-20=230
Eb = (ΦZN/60)(P/A)
N= (230*60*2)/(22*10 -3 *4*1254) =250 rpm

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• A 10KW, 250V DC shunt machine has an
armature and field resistances of 0.2 ohm and
125 ohms respectively. Calculate the total
armature power developed when running as a
motor taking 10KW input.
• The back emf of a shunt motor is 230V, the field
resistance is 160ohm, and field current is 1.5A. If
the line current is 37A, find the armature
resistance. Also find the armature current when
the motor is stationary.
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Characteristics of DC motor
Various characteristics of a motor are,
– Speed –Armature current characteristics (N/Ia)
– Torque-armature current characteristics (Ta/Ia) or
(Electrical characteristics)
– Speed-torque characteristics (N/Ta) or (Mechanical
characteristics)
• We know that,
Ta = 0.159* IaΦ Z P /A Nm
Therefore, 𝑻𝒂 ∝ 𝝋𝑰𝑨
𝜑𝑍𝑁 𝑃
𝐸𝑏 = ∗
60 𝐴
𝑬𝒃
Therefore, 𝑵∝
𝝋
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Characteristics of DC shunt motor
• Field winding is connected across the armature as well as the supply
voltage ,
• Since the supply voltage is constant,
the field current and hence the flux is
constant. Hence they are called the
constant flux motors.
a) Speed –Armature current characteristics
𝜑𝑍𝑁 𝑃
𝐸𝑏 = ∗ = k𝜑𝑁
60 𝐴
𝑍 𝑃
where, k = ∗ (Z, N,P and A are constant)
60 𝐴
𝐕−𝐈 𝐑
𝑁 = k( 𝐚 𝐚 ) since Eb = V - Ia Ra
𝛗
Since 𝐈𝒔𝒉 and 𝛗 are constant, N=K(V- 𝐈𝒂 𝐑 𝒂 ) This implies that, the speed is
nearly constant except for a small drop.
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Characteristics of DC shunt motor contd.
• Due to this characteristics, DC shunt motor acts as a constant
speed motor.
Applications:
• Machine tools, lathes, wood working machines
• In general, for applications where constant speed is required.

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b) Torque-armature current characteristics (T/Ia) or

(Electrical characteristics)
• The DC shunt motor is torque is directly proportional to flux
and armature current
𝑻𝒂 ∝ 𝝋𝑰𝒂
Here, flux is constant, hence,
𝑻𝒂 ∝ 𝑰𝒂
So, when armature current increases, the torque also increases.
The dotted line indicates shaft torque.

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c) Speed-torque characteristics (N/Ta)

• It is also called mechanical characteristics.
• It is obtained from the Speed –Armature current
characteristics and Torque-armature current characteristics
• When the load torque increases, the speed slightly decreases.

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DC series motor characteristics
• Field winding is connected in series with the armature winding
IL = Ise = Ia
V = Eb + Ia (Ra + Rse ) (Vbrush is neglected)
a) Speed-Armature current Characteristics
𝜑𝑍𝑁 𝑃
𝐸𝑏 = ∗
60 𝐴
𝐸𝑏
𝑁 = K( )
𝛗
𝐸𝑏
N∞ (Flux proportional to 𝐈𝐚 )
𝐈𝐚
From this equation, we can
conclude that, speed decreases by
by increasing the current.
This is the reason why, dc series motor should never start on no-
load. Otherwise, the speed will rise to dangerously high value and
getEE8353
damaged.
Electrical Drives and
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b) Torque-armature current characteristics (N/Ia) –series motor
𝑻𝒂 ∝ 𝝋𝑰𝒂
In dc series motor, flux is directly proportional to armature
current.
𝝋 ∝ 𝑰𝒂
𝑻𝒂 ∝ 𝑰𝒂 𝟐 before saturation
𝑻𝒂 ∝ 𝑰𝒂 after saturation
At light load, armature current 𝑰𝒂 and flux 𝝋 is small. But as 𝑰𝒂

increases, 𝑻𝒂 increases as square of the current. Hence this
characteristics is a parabola.
After saturation the flux is constant and is independent of 𝑰𝒂 .
Hence, 𝑻𝒂 ∝ 𝑰𝒂 .
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c) Speed-torque characteristics:
• It is also called mechanical characteristics.
• It is obtained from the Speed –Armature current
characteristics and Torque-armature current
characteristics
• In DC series motor, when the speed is high, torque
is low and vice-versa.

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Compound Motor characteristics
• Characteristics of compound motor depend on whether the
series and shunt field are assisting each other or opposing each
other.
• In the cumulative connections, the characteristics will be
between those of shunt and series motor.
• In the differentially compound motor the characteristics will
tend towards those of the series motor.
• Curve (2) is cumulative and Curve (3) differential connections

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Types of Losses in motor
➢ Copper Loss :
– Armature Copper loss
– Field copper loss(Shunt field and series field)
– Brush contact resistance.
➢ Magnetic Losses:
– Hysteresis Loss and Eddy Current losses
➢ Mechanical Losses : Frictional Loss and windage loss
➢ Mechanical Loss+ Magnetic Loss : Stray losses
➢ The efficiency of a dc motor is the ratio of output power to the
input power
STEPPER MOTORS
• A stepper motor is a brushless DC motor whose rotor

rotates in a discrete angular displacements when its stator
windings are energized in a programmed manner.
• Rotation occurs due to the rotor poles and poles of
sequentially energized stator winding. Rotor has no
electrical winding but has salient and magnetized poles.
• Stepper motor is a digital actuator whose input is in the
form of discrete angular rotation.
Applications:
Printers, graph plotters, disk drives, Robotics, X-Y recorders,
electric watches etc.
Classification of Stepper Motors
1. Without permanent magnet

– Variable Reluctance motor
• Single stack
• Multi stack
2.With permanent magnet
– Claw pole motor
– Hybrid motor
What is a Stepper Motor?
• It is a brushless electromechanical device which

converts the train of electric pulses applied at their
excitation windings into precisely defined step-by-step
mechanical shaft rotation.
• The shaft of the motor rotates through a fixed angle for
each discrete pulse. This rotation can be linear or
angular. It gets one step movement for a single pulse
input.
Applications
• Application of stepper motor in diverse areas ranging
from a small wrist watch to artificial satellites.
• Power range 1W to 2.5KW
• Torque range 1µN to 40 Nm
Stepper Motor
Working Principle
• A magnetic interaction takes place between
the rotor and the stator, which make rotor
move.
Construction
• The stator has windings
• The rotor is of salient structure without any
windings, and it may or may not have
permanent magnets
Step Angle
• The angle through which the motor shaft rotates

for each command pulse is called step angle.
• Step Angle β= 360/mNr
• Step Angle β=
(Ns-Nr/NsNr)*360
• m= No of phases
• Nr= No of rotor teeth
• Ns= No of stator poles
Resolution
• Resolution of stepper motor is defined as the

number of steps needed to complete one
revolution of the rotor shaft.
• Resolution = Number of steps/Number of revolution of the rotor
• Resolution = 360/ β
Stepping Rate
• The number of steps per second is known as
stepping rate
Types of Stepper Motor
• Variable Reluctance stepper motor

– Single stack
– Multi stack
• Permanent magnet stepper motor
• Hybrid stepper motor
Variable reluctance stepper motor
• Variable reluctance stepper motor works on the

principle that a magnetic material placed in
magnetic field experience a force to align
minimum reluctance path
Single stack variable reluctance stepper motor
Construction
Stator
• The stator made up of silicon steel stampings.
• It has projecting poles, usually even no of poles.
• The pole carry concentric windings
Rotor
• Usually made up of silicon steel.
• Solid silicon steel also used for core of rotor.
• The rotor has projecting teeth on its outer
periphery
The no of rotor teeth and stator pole should not be equal. This
make motor self starting
4-phase, 8-poles variable reluctance motor

• Step Angle β= (Ns-Nr/NsNr)*360
β=15°
Modes of excitation
• Single phase ON mode or full step ON mode

• Two phase ON mode
• Half step mode
• Micro step mode
Single phases or full step ON mode

Construction
Stator
Rotor
periphery
Single Stack Variable Reluctance Stepper Motor
• There is no permanent magnet either on stator or rotor.

• Stator is made up of silicon steel stampings with inward
projected poles or teeth.
• Each and every pole carries a field coil or exciting coil.
• Exciting coils of opposite poles are connected in series such that
their mmf gets added. The combination of two coils is known as
phase winding.
• Rotor is also made up of silicon steel stampings with outward
projected poles and doesn’t have any electrical windings.
• Number of rotor poles should be different from that of stator in
order to have self starting capability and bidirectional rotation.
• Stator and rotor materials should have high permeability and
should be capable of allowing magnetic flux to pass through them
even if a low magneto motive force is applied.
Single Stack Variable Reluctance Stepper Motor-
Electrical Connection
• Phase ‘a’ consists of coil A and coil A’

• Phase ‘b’ consists of coil B and coil B’
• Phase ‘c’ consists of coil C and coil C’
Principle of Operation-Mode-I
Mode 1: 1-phase ON or Full-step Operation
• One phase is energized at a time
• If a current is applied to coils of phase ‘a’ , phase ‘a’ gets excited,
the reluctance torque causes the rotor to turn until it aligns with
the axis of ‘a’.
• The axis of rotor poles 1 and 3 are in alignment with the axis of
stator poles A and A’. That is ∟𝜃 =0
• The magnetic reluctance is minimized and this state provides a
rest or equilibrium position to the rotor and rotor cannot move
until phase ‘a’ is de –energized.
• Phase ‘b’ is energized by turning ON the semiconductor switch
S2 and phase ‘a’ is de-energized by turning OFF the switch S1
• Then the rotor poles 1,3 an d 2,4 experience torque in opposite
direction. When the stator and rotor teeth are not aligned in the
excited phase, the magnetic reluctance is large.
• Torque experienced in 1 and 3 are in clock wise direction
and 2,4 are in anti clockwise direction. Later is more than
the former.
• As a result, the rotor makes an angular displacement of
30⁰ in counter clockwise direction so that B,B’ and 2,4 are
in alignment.
• Phases are excited in sequence a, b, c . The rotor turns with
a step of 30⁰ in counter clockwise direction.
• The direction of rotation can be reversed by reversing the
switching sequence of the phases. ie . The direction of
rotation depends on the sequence in which phase windings
energized and is independent of the direction of currents
through the phase windings.

Construction
Stator
Rotor
periphery

β=15°
Modes of excitation

• Half step mode
• Micro step mode

Construction
Stator
Rotor
periphery
• There is no permanent magnet either on stator or rotor.

• Stator is made up of silicon steel stampings with inward
projected poles or teeth.
• Each and every pole carries a field coil or exciting coil.
• Exciting coils of opposite poles are connected in series such that
their mmf gets added. The combination of two coils is known as
phase winding.
• Rotor is also made up of silicon steel stampings with outward
projected poles and doesn’t have any electrical windings.
• Number of rotor poles should be different from that of stator in
order to have self starting capability and bidirectional rotation.
• Stator and rotor materials should have high permeability and
should be capable of allowing magnetic flux to pass through them
even if a low magneto motive force is applied.
Principle of Operation-Mode-I
Mode 1: 1-phase ON or Full-step Operation
• One phase is energized at a time
• If a current is applied to coils of phase ‘a’ , phase ‘a’ gets excited,
the reluctance torque causes the rotor to turn until it aligns with
the axis of ‘a’.
• The axis of rotor poles 1 and 3 are in alignment with the axis of
stator poles A and A’. That is ∟𝜃 =0
• The magnetic reluctance is minimized and this state provides a
rest or equilibrium position to the rotor and rotor cannot move
until phase ‘a’ is de –energized.
• Phase ‘b’ is energized by turning ON the semiconductor switch
S2 and phase ‘a’ is de-energized by turning OFF the switch S1
• Then the rotor poles 1,3 an d 2,4 experience torque in opposite
direction. When the stator and rotor teeth are not aligned in the
excited phase, the magnetic reluctance is large.
• Torque experienced in 1 and 3 are in clock wise direction
and 2,4 are in anti clockwise direction. Later is more than
the former.
• As a result, the rotor makes an angular displacement of
30⁰ in counter clockwise direction so that B,B’ and 2,4 are
in alignment.
• Phases are excited in sequence a, b, c . The rotor turns with
a step of 30⁰ in counter clockwise direction.
• The direction of rotation can be reversed by reversing the
switching sequence of the phases. ie . The direction of
rotation depends on the sequence in which phase windings
energized and is independent of the direction of currents
through the phase windings.

Construction
Stator
Rotor
periphery

β=15°
Modes of excitation

• Half step mode
• Micro step mode
Two phase ON mode
Phase S1 S2 S3 S4 Angle
(Deg)
AB 1 1 0 0 7.5
BC 0 1 1 0 22.5
CD 0 0 1 1 37.5
DA 1 0 0 1 52.5
AB 1 1 0 0 67.5
One phase ON Vs Two phase ON
Phas S1 S2 S3 S4 Angl
e e(De
g)
AB 1 1 0 0 7.5
BC 0 1 1 0 22.5
CD 0 0 1 1 37.5
DA 1 0 0 1 52.5
Half step mode
• This mode operating on alternating one phase ON and

two phase ON mode.
• This method is also known as wave excitation.
• The rotor can rotate each step angle half of the full step
angle. Hence the name half step mode.
Phase S1 S2 S3 S4 Angle
A 1 0 0 0 0
AB 1 1 0 0 7.5
B 0 1 0 0 15
BC 0 1 1 0 22.5
C 0 0 1 0 30
CD 0 0 1 1 37.5
D 0 0 0 1 45
DA 1 0 0 1 52.5
Types of Motors
World of Motors
Pneumatic Motors Electric Motors Hydraulic Motors
Servo Motors DC Motors AC Motors Stepper
Brush DC Universal Single Phase
Poly-Phase
Brushless DC
(3 phase)
Linear
Brushless DC Motor
• Many of the limitations of the classic permanent magnet "brushed"

DC motor are caused by the brushes pressing against the rotating
commutator creating friction
– As the motor speed is increased, brushes may not remain in
contact with the rotating commutator
– At higher speeds, brushes have increasing difficulty in
maintaining contact
– Sparks and electric noise may be created as the brushes
encounter flaws in the commutator surface or as the commutator
is moving away from the just energized rotor segment
– Brushes eventually wear out and require replacement, and the
commutator itself is subject to wear and maintenance
• Brushless DC motors avoid these problems with a modified design,
but require a more complex control system
Features Conventional DC motor PMBLDC Motor
Maintenance High Low
Commutation method Mechanical contact Electronic switching using

between brushes & power semiconductor
commutator. devices ie,
transistor,MOSFET
Detecting method Automatically detected by Rotor position can be

brushes detected by using sensor ie,
Hall sensor, optical sensor
Control Speed controllable is Speed can be easily

difficult controllable, so that it is
possible to have very high
speed
PMBLDC Motor
Construction of PMBLDC motor
• Rotor accommodates PM
• The rotor shaft carries a rotor position sensor.
• Sensor provides information about the position
of the shaft.
• This shaft position signal send to electronic
commutator.
Applications
• Automotive and aircraft auxiliaries.

• Textile and industries.
• Computer and robotics.
• Small appliances such as fans, mixers etc
PMBLDC
Construction and working of PMBLDC
• Stator: Made up of Silicon steel stampings with slots to accommodate
either closed or opened distributed armature winding. This winding is
connected to DC supply through a power electronic switching circuitry.
• Rotor: Made up of Forged steel. Rotor accommodate permanent
magnet. Rotor shaft carries a position sensor, which provides
information about the position of the shaft position at any instant to
the controller. Controller sends suitable signals to the electronic
commutator.
Commutation in DC motors
• Mechanical Commutator
• Electronic Commutator
Mechanical Commutator
• Commutator is made up of specially designed

commutator segments, made of copper.
• These segments are insulated from each other
by a thin layer of mica.
• It forms a cylindrical shape.
Mechanical Commutator
• It consists of 2 pole machine with 12
commutator segments.
• Carbon brush A contacts with CS 1 and brush
B contacts with CS 7.
• When a dc supply is connected across A & B, a
dc current passes through A-CS1-tapping1-
tapping 7-CS 7 and through B.
• The current has 2 parallel path in the armature
winding.
• Parallel path 1= 1-2-3-4-5-6-7
• Parallel path 2=1-12-11-10-9-8-7
• The current crossing through the armature
conductor setup an mmf along the axis A and B.
• The commutator rotates along the counter
clockwise direction, now the brush A makes
contact with CS2 and brush B with CS 8.
• Now there are two parallel path 1 is 2-8 & parallel
path 2 is 2-1-12-11-10-9-8.
• Function of commutator and bush arrangement is
to setup an armature mmf whose axis is always in
quadrature with the main field mmf irrespective
of the speed of rotation of the motor.
Electronic Commutator
Switching Circuits of Electronic Commutator
• S1 & S1’ are closed.other switches are open
• current has 2 parallel path in armature
winding.
• Parallel path 1 =1-2-3-4-5-6-7
• Parallel path 2 =1-12-11-10-9-8-7
• These current setup in the armature mmf.
• S1 & S1’ are opened,S2 & S2’ are closed
• Now the current passes through tapping 2-8.
• Thus operating switches in the sequential
manner, we are getting a revolving magnetic
field.
• For normal electronic commutator , 6
switching devices are employed.
• Here the windings may be connected either
star or delta connection.
• Therefore the winding should have 3 tappings.
Mechanical Commutator Electronic Commutator
Commutator is made up of commutator Power electronics switching devices are
segments and mica insulation. brushes are used in the commutator.
made up of carbon.
Shaft position sensing is inherent in the It requires a separate rotor position sensor.
arrangements.
Commutator arrangement is located in the Commutator arrangement is located in the
rotor stator.
Sliding contact between commutator and No sliding contacts.
brushes.
Sparking takes place. There is no sparking
It requires a regular maintenance It requires less maintenance.
Number of commutator segments are very Number of switching devices is limited to
high. 6.
Difficult to control the voltage available Voltage available across armature tappings
across tapping can be controlled by PWM techniques.
Highly reliable Reliability depends on the switching
devices.
Working Principle
• A brushless DC motor uses electronic sensors to detect the position

of the rotor without using a metallic contact
• Using the sensor's signals, the polarity of the electromagnets’ is

switched by the motor control drive circuitry
• The motor can be easily synchronized to a clock signal, providing

precise speed control
• Brushless DC motors may have:

– An external PM rotor and internal electromagnet stator
– An internal PM rotor and external electromagnet stator
6/2/2022 Special Electrical Machines 121

Example Brushless DC Motor
Operation
• This example brushless DC motor has:
– An internal, permanent magnet rotor

Operation
– An external, electromagnet stator

Operation
– An external, electromagnet stator, with magnetic
field sensors

Brushless DC Motor Construction
A
com com
A
a
a
c b
b c
c com b
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C B
B C
com

Brushless DC Motor Operation
A
com com
A
a
1
a
c b
b c
c com b
a
C B
B C
com

A
com com
A
a
a
c b
b c
c com b
a
C B
B C
com 2

A
com com
A
a
a
c b
b c
c com b
a
C B
B C
com 3

A
com com
A
a
a
c b
b c
c com b
a
C B
B C
com 5

A
com com
A
a
6
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c b
b c
c com b
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C B
B C
com

A
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a
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a
c b
b c
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B C
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Merits BLDC
• No field winding . Therefore, no field copper loss

• Length of motor is less as there is no mechanical commutator
• Size of the motor become less
• Better ventilation as armature is accommodated in the stator
• Motor can be designed for higher voltage subjected to the
constraints posed by the power semiconductor device
• It is possible to have very high speed
• Motor can be operated in hazardous atmospheric conditions
• Efficiency is better
• It is a self starting motor and speed can be controlled
• Regenerative braking is possible
Demerits- BLDC
• Field cannot be controlled

• Power rating is restricted because of the
maximum available size of permanent magnet
• Rotor position sensor is required
• Power electronics switching circuitry is
required
Construction of three phase Induction
motor
• The Induction motor has two main parts.-

– Stator
– Rotor

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Stator:
– Made up of a number of stampings with alternate
slots and tooth.
– Stampings are insulated from each other
– Stampings are 0.4-0.5mm thick.
– Number of stampings are stamped together to
build the stator core. Stator core is then fitted in a
casted or fabricated steel frame.
– Slots houses the three phase winding called stator
winding (connected either in star or delta)

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Rotor:
There are two types of rotors.
– Squirrel cage type
– Slip ring type
Squirrel cage type:

– Made up of a cylindrical laminated core with slots to carry the rotor
conductors.
– Rotor conductors are heavy bars of copper or Aluminum, short
circuited at both ends by end rings. Hence this rotor is called a short
circuited rotor.
– The entire rotor resistance is very small and external resistance
cannot be added in the rotor circuit.
– Majority of IM are squirrel cage type
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Slip Ring or Wound rotor
– Rotor winding are similar
to stator winding.
– The windings are either
star or delta connected,
distributed winding, wound for as many number of poles as
stator is wound for.
– Three phases are brought out and connected to slip rings.
– Variable external resistance can be connected in the rotor circuit
with the help of brushes and slip ring arrangement.
– By varying the external resistance in the rotor circuit, the motor
speed and torque can be controlled.

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Types and Principle of operation –Three
phase IM
• There are two types of three phase induction motor.
– Squirrel cage Induction motor
– Wound rotor or slip ring induction motor.
• Principle of operation:
– Three phase supply is given to the stator winding, and due
to this a current called the stator current flows through the
stator winding.
– It produces a rotating magnetic field in space between stator
and rotor and this magnetic field rotates at a synchronous
speed given by,
120𝑓
𝑁𝑠 =
𝑃
Where, 𝑁𝑠 is the synchronous speed, f-frequency and P-no of
poles
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• Since the rotor conductors cuts the rotating magnetic field, an emf is induced
in the rotor.
• If the rotor winding are shorted (Cage rotor they are already shorted, and in
slip ring motor, they have to be externally shorted), then the induced emf
produces current. This current produces a rotor field (rotor mmf)
• The interaction of rotor field and stator field develops torque.
• Thus the rotor conductor rotates in the same direction as the rotating
magnetic field.
• When the rotor is at standstill, the frequency of rotor emf is equal to the
supply frequency.
• Rotors tries to catch up with the rotating magnetic field. However, it cannot
catch up and rotate at synchronous speed. In case if it does so, the relative
speed would become zero and then there is no rotor emf, no current and
hence no torque . Hence rotor runs at a speed slightly less than the
synchronous speed.
• Since the rotor speed is always less than synchronous speed, IM are called
asynchronous motors.

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• The difference between synchronous speed and rotor speed is called slip speed.
Slip speed = 𝑵𝒔 -N
𝑵 N
Slip, s = 𝒔−
𝑵 𝒔
N= 𝑵𝒔 (1-S)
𝑵 N
%slip = 𝒔− *100
𝑵𝒔
– At no-load, the difference between synchronous speed and rotor
speed is only about 1%
– At loaded condition, the rotor slows down, emf induced in the rotor
and hence rotor current increases. Hence torque increases,
– The variation of speed from no-load to full load is very small. Thus
three phase induction motor is called constant speed motor.
– Variation of load is possible, but efficiency reduces.

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• Frequency of Rotor Current or emf
– When the rotor is stationary, the relative speed between the rotor
winding and rotating magnetic field is 𝑵𝒔 .Hence, the frequency of
𝑷𝑵𝒔
emf induced and the resultant current is (same as supply
𝟏𝟐𝟎
frequency)
– As the rotor speeds up, the relative speed is (𝑵𝒔 -N) and hence,
𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑟𝑝𝑚 (𝑵𝒔 −N)
rotor frequency = 120Τ - 120Τ [1]
𝑃 𝑃
𝑵𝒔− N
– Since slip , s =
𝑵𝒔
120𝑓
– (𝑵𝒔 -N) =s𝑵𝒔 =s*
𝑃
120𝑓 𝑃
– Substituting 𝑵𝒔− N in [1], Rotor frequency, 𝒇𝒓 = s* *
𝑃 120
– 𝒇𝒓 = sf .
– Thus, the frequency of rotor induced emf in an IM is equal to the
product of slip and supply frequency (Slip frequency)

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Single phase Induction motor
• Single-phase induction motors are usually two-pole or four-
pole, rated at 2 hp or less, while larger motor can be
manufactured for special purposes.
• They are widely used in domestic appliances and for a very
large number of low power drives in industry.
• The single phase induction motor resembles, three-phase,
squirrel-cage motor except that, single phase induction motor
has no starting torque and some special arrangement have to
be made to make it self starting.
• They are simple in construction.

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Construction of Single phase Induction
motor
• Consists of stator and rotor and Construction is similar to that of three
phase squirrel cage IM
• Rotor is same as three phase squirrel cage IM, but the stator has only
a single phase distributed windings.
• Airgap between stator and rotor is uniform.
• Single phase induction motor has no self starting torque .
• It can be explained using the following two theory:
– Double Field revolving theory
– Cross field theory

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Double field revolving theory
• Any Alternating quantity can be resolved in to two
components, which rotate in opposite directions and have
half of the maximum magnitude.
• Therefore, the alternating flux 𝜑1𝑚 produced in the single
phase Induction motor can be represented by two revolving
fluxes, each equal to half the value of the alternating flux
𝜑1𝑚 120𝑓
( ) each rotating synchronously (𝑁𝑠 = ) in opposite
2 𝑃
directions.
• Let 𝜑𝑓 is the component rotating in anticlockwise direction
and 𝜑𝑏 be the component rotating in clockwise direction.
• The resultant of these two components gives the
instantaneous value of the stator flux at that instant.
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• At start, both forward and backward component is shown opposite
to each other. Thus the resultant fux, 𝜑𝑅 =0 (Instantaneous flux at
start).
• After 90 degrees, the two components rotates in such a way that
both are pointing in the same direction. Hence 𝜑𝑅 is the algebraic
sum of the magnitude of two components 𝜑𝑓 & 𝜑𝑏
𝜑1𝑚 𝜑1𝑚
• Therefore, 𝜑𝑅 = + = 𝜑1𝑚 ( Instantaneous value of flux at
2 2
90degree.

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• Both the components are rotating and hence cut by the
rotor conductors. Due to cutting of flux, emf gets induced in
the rotor , which circulates the rotor current, which
produces the rotor flux.
• This flux interact with the forward component 𝜑𝑓 produces a
torque in a direction say anti clockwise direction.
• Rotor flux interacts with the backward component
𝜑𝑏 produces a torque in clockwise direction.
• If torque in anticlockwise direction is positive and clockwise
direction is taken as negative.
• At start, these two torques are equal in magnitude but
opposite in direction and hence the net torque experienced
by the conductor is zero. Hence single phase motors are not
self starting.
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Operation of Single phase Induction motor
• The stator winding of a single phase IM is connected to single
phase ac supply.
• Magnetic field is developed in the stator whose axis is always
along the axis of stator winding. With alternating current in the
fixed stator coil the mmf wave pulsates in magnitude and varies
sinusoidally with time.
• Due to the transformer action, currents are induced in the rotor
conductors, and rotor flux is produced.
• Interaction of stator flux and rotor flux, torque is produced.
• In the single phase IM the initial torque angle is zero and no
starting torque is developed in the motor.
• If rotor given a starting torque, the motor will pick up the speed
and continue to rotate in the same direction.
• Thus single phase IM is not a self starting motor.
• Starting torque can be produced by external means.
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Starting of Single phase Induction motor.
• An auxiliary winding is provided in addition to the main winding.
• Induction motor works as a two phase motor.
• The main winding axis and auxiliary winding axis are displaced by
90 electrical degrees.
• The impedance of the windings differ and currents in the main
an auxiliary windings are phase shifted from each other. As a
result of this a rotating magnetic field is produced.

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Starting winding
• When the motor speed is about 75% of synchronous speed,

the auxiliary winding is disconnected from the circuit. This is
done by connecting a centrifugal switch in the winding, which
is used for starting purpose only. That is why its called
starting winding.
• Under running condition, a single phase IM can develop
torque only with main winding. That is why its called running
winding.

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Types of Single-Phase Motors
Types of Single-Phase Motors are,

(i)Resistance start or split-phase type induction
motor
(ii) capacitor start induction motor
(iii) capacitor start capacitor run type induction
motor
(iv) shaded-pole type induction motor

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Resistance start or split-phase type
induction motor
• Consists of running /main winding and auxiliary winding or
starting winding.
• The auxiliary winding has high resistance and low reactance and
main winding has low resistance and high reactance.
• Ir is the current in running winding and Is is the current through
starting winding.

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• As the main winding is inductive, current Ir lags the voltage by a
large angle Ө𝑟 while Is lags the voltage by a small angle Ө𝑠 since
it is highly resistive.
• Thus there exists a phase difference of α between the two
currents and hence between the two fluxes produced by the two
currents.
• The resultant of these two flux is a rotating a magnetic field, due
to which the starting torque, which acts in only one direction is
produced.

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Centrifugal switch
• The auxiliary winding has a centrifugal switch in series
with it.
• When the motor gathers the speed of about 75-80% of
the synchronous speed, this switch gets opened and
running winding gets disconnected.
• After that motor runs only with the main winding.
• Therefore, the auxiliary winding is designed for short
term use, while the main winding is designed for
continuous use.
• Since the currents, Is and Ir are splitted by each other by an
angle ‘α ‘ at start, the motor is also called as split phase motor.
• Torque speed characteristics is shown below.
• The starting torque, Tst is proportional to the split angle ‘α ‘

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• Split phase motor give a starting torque of 125%-
150% full load torque.
• The direction of rotation can be reversed by
reversing the terminal of either main or auxiliary
winding.
Applications:
• Since they have low starting current and moderate
starting torque, they are used in easily started loads
like
– Fans, blowers, grinders, centrifugal pumps, washing
machines etc.
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Capacitor start Induction motor
• Construction is similar to the split phase machine.

• A capacitor is connected in series with the auxiliary
winding.
• Since capacitive circuit draws a leading current,
capacitor is used to increase the split phase angle ‘α’
between the two currents Im and Is.
• Depending on whether the capacitor remains in the
circuit permanently or not, these motors can be
classified in to two types.
– Capacitor start motor
– Capacitor start and run motor.
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Capacitor Start Induction motor
• Construction is as shown below.
• The current Ir lags the voltage by and angle Ө𝑚 , while due to the
capacitor current Ist leads the voltage by an angle Ө𝑠𝑡 .
• Hence there exists a large phase difference between the two
currents, which is almost 90⁰ (ideal case)
• Starting torque is proportional to α and hence such motor
produce very high starting torque.
• When speed approaches to 75%-80% of the synchronous speed,
the starting winding gets disconnected, and hence the capacitor
remains in the circuit only at starting.

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Capacitor Start Capacitor Run Induction
motor
• No centrifugal switch and Capacitor remains permanently in the

circuit. Hence, Power factor is improved.
• Performance at start as well as during running condition
depends on the capacitor, hence the value of C is to be designed
so as to compromise between starting and best running
condition.
• Starting torque available in such motors are about 50-100% of
full load torque.

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Shaded pole Induction motor
• They have squirrel cage rotor and stator consists of salient poles.
• The poles are shaded. Each pole carries a copper band on one of its
unequally divided part called shading band.
• When single phase ac is given to the stator winding, due to the
shading provided to the poles, a rotating magnetic field is
generated.
• The current carried by the stator winding is alternating and
produces alternating flux.
• The distribution of this flux in the pole is greatly influenced by the
copper shading band.

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• Consider three instants t1,t2 and t3 during first half cycle of the
flux.
• At t1, rate of rise of current , flux is very high. Due to the
transformer action, large emf gets induced in the copper shading
band. This circulates current through the shading band as it is
short circuited, produces its own flux.
• According to Lenz’s law, the direction of this current is so as to
oppose the rise in current. Hence shading flux opposes the main
flux.
• Hence crowding of flux in non-shaded part while weakening of
flux in the shaded part. Overall the
magnetic axis shifts in the
non-shaded part.

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• At the instant t2, rate of rise of current, and hence rate of change
of flux is almost zero, since flux almost reaches its maxium value.
𝑑𝜑
• So =0. Hence there is very little induced emf in the shading
𝑑𝑡
ring , hence shading ring flux is negligible, hardly effecting the
distribution of main flux. Hence main flux distribution is uniform
and magnetic axis lies at the center of the pole face.

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• At t3,current and flux is decreasing, crowding of flux near the
shading band, hence strengthen the flux at the shaded portion.
Flux will be weak at the unshaded portion.
• Torque speed characteristics of shaded pole motor is as shown

below.

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Disadvantages
• Lack of starting torque
• Reduced power factor
• Low efficiency.
Comparison between Brushless DC motor & Induction
motor drives
• In the same frame, with the same cooling, the brushless PM
motor will have better efficiency and power factor, and therefore
a greater output power.
• The power electronic converter required with the brushless
motor is similar in topology to the PWM inverters used in
induction motor drives. The device ratings maybe lower if only a
'constant torque' characteristic is required.
• Induction motor can be inexpensively controlled with Triacs or
d.c. system in efficiency, stability, response, and controlled speed
range.
• To obtain comparable performance in the control sense, the
induction motor must be fed from a PWM inverter, which is
arguably more complex than the brushless PM motor drive.

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BE 8255 -BASIC ELECTRICAL, ELECTRONICS AND

DC and AC ROTATING MACHINES: Types, Construction, principle,

• Machine energised by electricity- electrical machine

➢ An electrical machine deals with the energy transfer either

a) Functions of pole core and pole shoe:

Armature current Ia = Load current IL

Self Excited DC Generator

Open Circuit Characteristics Internal (Eg Vs Ia)&

➢ Converts Electrical Energy in to mechanical energy.

➢ Magnitude of force experienced by the conductor is,

• When the armature of a d.c motor rotates under the

• In a d.c. motor, Let,

This is known as voltage equation of the d.c. motor

Voltage Equation of a motor is,

• Torque is the twisting or turning force about

• A 4 pole dc motor takes 50A armature current.

EE8353 Electrical Drives and

• Separately Excited motor

EE8353 Electrical Drives and

➢Field winding and armature windings are

EE8353 Electrical Drives and

• When the shunt winding is so connected that

• When the shunt field winding is connected across the

EE8353 Electrical Drives and

EE8353 Electrical Drives and

EE8353 Electrical Drives and

EE8353 Electrical Drives and

EE8353 Electrical Drives and

b) Torque-armature current characteristics (T/Ia) or

EE8353 Electrical Drives and

c) Speed-torque characteristics (N/Ta)

EE8353 Electrical Drives and

At light load, armature current 𝑰𝒂 and flux 𝝋 is small. But as 𝑰𝒂

EE8353 Electrical Drives and

EE8353 Electrical Drives and

• A stepper motor is a brushless DC motor whose rotor

1. Without permanent magnet

• It is a brushless electromechanical device which

• The angle through which the motor shaft rotates

• Resolution of stepper motor is defined as the

• Variable Reluctance stepper motor

• Variable reluctance stepper motor works on the

• Step Angle β= 360/mNr

• Single phase ON mode or full step ON mode

• Variable reluctance stepper motor works on the

• There is no permanent magnet either on stator or rotor.

• Phase ‘a’ consists of coil A and coil A’

• Variable reluctance stepper motor works on the

• Step Angle β= 360/mNr

• Single phase ON mode or full step ON mode

• Variable reluctance stepper motor works on the

• There is no permanent magnet either on stator or rotor.

• Variable reluctance stepper motor works on the

• Step Angle β= 360/mNr

• Single phase ON mode or full step ON mode

• This mode operating on alternating one phase ON and

Pneumatic Motors Electric Motors Hydraulic Motors

Servo Motors DC Motors AC Motors Stepper

Brush DC Universal Single Phase

• Many of the limitations of the classic permanent magnet "brushed"

Maintenance High Low

Commutation method Mechanical contact Electronic switching using

Detecting method Automatically detected by Rotor position can be

Control Speed controllable is Speed can be easily