Properties of Materials | SCIMATC

Mechanical properties reflect the relationship between the material’s response or deformation and
an applied load or force.

3 principal ways in which a load may be applied:

1. Tension – tensile forces or stretching forces are applied.

2. Compression – compressive or squeezing forces are applied

3. Shear – forces are applied along the plane of the area rather than at right angles to it.

4. Torsion – a variation of pure shear wherein the object is twisted.

2 Types of Deformation

1. Elastic – object returns to its original length when the forces are removed.
2. Inelastic or plastic – object does not recover its original length when the load is removed.

STRESS – deforming force per unit area.

FORCE
STRESS=
AREA

STRAIN – unit deformation

∆L
Tension and compression: STRAIN =
L

Shear: STRAIN =∆ x / L

STRESS AND STRAIN ARE PROPORTIONAL TO EACH OTHER

STRESS=MODULUS × STRAIN

The Modulus is the proportionality constant

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Properties of Materials | SCIMATC

TENSION AND COMPRESSION

STRESS=YOUN G' S MODULUS × STRAIN stress=Y × strain

SHEAR:

STRESS=SHEAR MODULUS × STRAIN stress=S × strain

Important Mechanical Properties:

1. STRENGTH – corresponds to the maximum stress that can be sustained by a material in tension.

2. DUCTILITY – a measure of the degree of plastic deformation that has been sustained at fracture

BRITTLE – material that experience very little or no plastic deformation upon fracture.
3. HARDNESS – a measure off a material’s resistance to localized plastic deformation (e.g. a small
dent or scratch).
4. TOUGHNESS – a measure of the ability of the material to absorb energy up to fracture.

Approximate elastic moduli

Material Young’s Modulus Shear Modulus
Y (× 1010 Pa) S (× 1010 Pa)
Aluminum 7 2.5
Brass 9 3.5
Copper 11 4.4
Glass 6 2.5
Iron 21 7.7
Lead 1.6 0.6
Nickel 21 7.8
Steel 20 7.5

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Properties of Materials | SCIMATC

Approximate Ultimate Strength of Materials

Material Ultimate Strength
(× 1010 Pa)
Aluminum 2.2
Brass 4.7
Glass 10
Iron 3
Bronze 5.6
Steel 5-20

THERMAL PROPERTY – the response of a material to the application of heat

THERMAL ENERGY – the total energy of atoms and molecules due to their movement or vibration.

HEAT – thermal energy that flows from one object to another because of a difference in temperatures.

Symbol: Q
Unit: joule (J) or calorie (cal)

TEMPERATURE – quantity that indicates which way, if any, thermal energy will naturally flow between
two objects.

Scales: Celcius (°C), Farenheit (°F), Kelvin (K)

 An object with a higher temperature will always transfer thermal energy to an object with a
lower temperature.
 If no thermal energy flows when two objects touch, then these objects are in THERMAL
EQUILIBRIUM and their temperatures are the same.

Important thermal properties

1. Heat Capacity
2. Thermal Expansion
3. Thermal Conductivity

HEAT CAPACITY
- a property that is indicative of a material’s ability to absorb heat from the external surroundings.
- represents the amount of energy required to produce a unit temperature rise.
Q
C=
∆T
where C = heat capacity
Q = amount of heat required to produce ΔT
ΔT = change in temperature
J cal
Unit: ∨
°C ° C

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Properties of Materials | SCIMATC

SPECIFIC HEAT – represents the heat capacity per unit mass depends on the material from which the
object is made.

Q
c=
m∆T

where c = specific heat

Q = amount of heat required to produce ΔT
ΔT = change in temperature

J cal
Unit: ∨
kg ° C g ° C

Specific heat of some common materials (cal/g °C)

Water 1
Wood 0.4
Glass 0.215
Aluminu 0.2
m
Iron 0.107
Copper 0.092
Zinc 0.0922
Silver 0.0324
Lead 0.0305

CALORIMETRY

- measurement of quantities of heat exchanged

- uses the law of conservation of energy

When two or more substances are in thermal contact, the heat lost by the cooling objects must equal
the heat gained by the objects being warmed.

HEAT GAINED = HEAT LOST

THERMAL EXPANSION

Linear Expansion – the change in any linear dimension of the solid, such as its length, width, or
thickness.

∆ L=∝∙ L∙ ∆ T

where: ΔL = change in length

α = coefficient of linear expansion
L = original length
ΔT = change in temperature

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Properties of Materials | SCIMATC

Some Average Coefficient of Linear Expansion

Substance α (×10-6 per °C)
Lead 29
Aluminum 23
Brass 19
Copper 17
Steel 11
Glass (ordinary) 9
Glass (pyrex) 3.2

AREA EXPANSION
∆ A=2 α ∙ A ∙ ∆ T
where: ΔA = change in area
α = coefficient of linear expansion
A = original area
ΔT = change in temperature

VOLUME EXPANSION
∆ V =3 α ∙ V ∙ ∆ T
where: ΔV = change in volume
α = coefficient of linear expansion
V = original volume
ΔT = change in temperature

OPTICAL PROPERTY – a material’s response to exposure to electromagnetic radiation and, in particular,

to visible light.
Electromagnetic radiation – a wave consisting of electric and magnetic field components that are
perpendicular to each other and also to the direction of propagation.
Electromagnetic spectrum – spans the wide range from y-rays through radiowaves.

SPEED OF LIGHT IN VACUUM

C = 3 × 108 m/s

LIGHT INTERACTIONS WITH SOLIDS

When light proceeds from one medium into another, the following may happen:
1. Reflection
2. Refraction
3. Transmission
4. Absorption

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Properties of Materials | SCIMATC

REFLECTION
Law of Reflection
The incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal to the surface all lie in the same plane and the angle
of reflection θr equals the angle of incidence θi
θr = θi

2 Types of Reflection:
1. Specular Reflection – when parallel light rays strike a smooth plane surface, the reflected rays
are parallel to each other.

2. Diffuse Reflection – when parallel light rays strike on irregular surface, the reflected rays are in
various directions.

REFRACTION – bending of light due to change in velocity.

Index of refraction:
c
n=
v
where c = speed of light in vacuum
v = speed of light in a medium
vacuum: n = 1
air: n = 1
Indices of Refraction for Some Materials
Substance N
Diamond 2.419
Glass 1.523
Ice 1.309
Sodium 1.544
Chloride

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Properties of Materials | SCIMATC

Quartz 1.544

Snell’s Law of Refraction

When light travels from a material with refractive index n 1 into a material with refractive index n 2, the
refracted ray, the incident ray, and the normal to the surface all lie in the same plane. The angle of
refraction θ2 is related to the angle of incidence θ1 by n1 sin θ1 = n2 sin θ2.

Transparent – materials that are capable of transmitting light with relatively little absorption and
reflection.
Translucent – materials through which light is transmitted diffusely, that is, light is scattered with the
interior.
Opaque – materials that are impervious to the transmission of visible light.

INTENSITY – the energy being transmitted per unit time across a unit area that is perpendicular to the
direction of propagation.
POWER
I=
AREA

Unit: W/m2

TRANSMISSIVITY:

ABSORPTIVITY:

REFLECTIVITY:

where:
= intensity of the beam incident to the surface of the solid
= intensity of the transmitted beam
= intensity of the absorbed beam
= intensity of the reflected beam

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