Material engineering

Materials that are used as raw material for any sort of construction or manufacturing in an
organized way of engineering application are known as Engineering Materials. For example, the
computer or the pen we use, are manufactured through controlled engineering processes. These
gadgets make use of materials like HDPE, PP, Pb-Silica glass, copper, aluminium, tin, etc. in
their fabrication. Civil construction works like bridges, dams, houses, roads, pavements are
carried out with raw materials like stone, chips, cement, clay, paint, bars, etc.Everything we use
in our daily life can be tailored to use for specific cases. This can be done efficiently if we know
the property of each material beforehand. Hence, materials have been extensively tested for their
properties and classified into broad groups.

 Physical properties
 Mechanical properties
 Electrical properties
 Magnetic properties
 Chemical properties

Physical properties

Density of Materials
Density of a material or substance is defined as “the mass per unit volume”. It is represented as
the ratio of mass with volume of a material. It is denoted by “ρ”. Its unit in SI system is Kg/m3.
If, m is the mass of material in Kg, V is the volume of materiel in meter3.
Then the Density of material,


It is defined as the ratio of density of material with respect to density of a reference material or
substance. It does not have any unite. Sometimes it is also called as relative density. For gravity
calculation generally water is considered as a reference substance.

Specific Gravity of Materials

It is defined as the ratio of density of material with respect to density of a reference material or
substance. It does not have any unite. Sometimes it is also called as relative density. For gravity
calculation generally water is considered as a reference substance.

State change temperature of a material

Generally a substance has three states called – solid state, liquid state, gaseous state. State change
temperature is the temperature at which the substance changes from one state to another state.
State change temperature are of following types-

Melting point-It is the temperature (in oC or K) at which the substance changes from solid state
to liquid state.
Boiling point-It is the temperature (in oC or K) at which the substance changes from liquid state
to gaseous state.
Freezing point-It is the temperature (in oC or K) at which a liquid changes from liquid to solid
state. Theoretically it is equal to the melting point. However, practically there may be observed
some difference.

Coefficient of Thermal Expansion

When a material is heated, it expands, due to which its dimensions change. Coefficient of
thermal expansion, represents the expansion in material with increase in temperature. Thermal
expansion coefficients are of three types, namely-

Coefficient of Linear Thermal Expansion

The change in length of an object due change in temperature is related by “Coefficient of linear
thermal expansion”. It is denoted by “αL”

Where, ‘l’ is the initial length of object, ‘Δl’ is the change in length, ‘Δt’ is the change in the
temperature. Unit of αL is per oC.
Coefficient of Area Thermal Expansion
The change in area of an object due change in temperature is related by “Coefficient of Area
thermal expansion”. It denoted by “αA”.

Where, ‘l’ is the initial length of object, ‘ΔA’ is the change in length, ‘Δt’ is the change in the
temperature. Unit of αA is per oC.
Coefficient of Volume Thermal Expansion
The change in volume of an object due change in temperature is related by “Coefficient of
volume thermal expansion”. It denoted by “αV”
Where, ‘l’ is the initial length of object, ‘ΔV’ is the change in length, ‘Δt’ is the change in the
temperature. Unit of αA is per oC.

Specific Heat of Materials

Specific heat of a material is defined as the amount of heat required to increase the temperature of unit
mass of material by 1oC. It is denoted by ‘S’.

Where, m is the mass of material in Kg. Q is the amount of heat given to material in Joule. Δt is
rise in temperature. Unit of specific heat in SI system is Joule/Kg oC.

Latent heat of materials

Latent Heat of a material is defined as the amount of heat required/released by change in unit mass of
material from one state to another state (Phase change). It is denoted by ‘L’. Latent heat is given by,

Where, ‘Q’ is the amount of heat required/released by material (in joule), ‘m’ is the mass of material (in
Kg). Unit of Latent heat in SI system is Joule/Kg.

Fluidity of Materials
It is a property of material which represents that how easily a material can flow in liquid state. It is the
reciprocal to viscosity of liquid material.

Mechanical properties

The strength of a material can be evaluated based on either the amount of load it can take before
fracturing or becoming deformed.

There are six main subcategories of strength:

 Compressive strength. The ability of a material to withstand a load that reduces its size.
Think of it as the material being squeezed.
  Shear strength. The ability of a material to withstand loads that cause the materials
internal structure to slide against itself.
 Tensile (or ultimate) strength. The ability of a material to withstand a load that
stretches it or pulls it apart, without fracturing.
 Yield strength. The ability of a material to withstand a load that stretches it or pulls it
apart, without becoming deformed.
 Elastic strength. A material’s capacity to recover to its original shape after being
stressed.
 Fatigue strength. A material’s ability to withstand repeated and/or fluctuating stresses
(like loading and unloading).
Ductility

The ability of a material to become deformed, and retain that deformed shape without breaking,
when a load is applied to it. Silly putty is an example of a ductile material.
You can stretch it quite a bit before it breaks, and it will more or less retain the new shape.
Brittleness

This mechanical property refers to the ability of a material to shatter without becoming
significantly deformed. Glass and ceramics are examples of brittle materials that don’t become
deformed so much as shatter upon impact. It is the opposite of ductility.  

Toughness

Toughness refers to how good a job a material does at resisting fracturing under stress.
Toughness contains components of strength and ductility. For example, despite its high ductility,
silly putty is not tough since it easily becomes deformed when stretched (hence it has very little
strength).

On the other hand, strong yet brittle material like ceramic can also be considered not tough.

A rubber shoe sole can be considered a tough material since it contains both strong and ductile
properties.
Hardness

This mechanical attribute refers to the ability of a material to resist localised abrasion or
indentation as a result of external stress. In other words, it’s the ability to withstand scratches and
dents.

A diamond is an example of a hard material.

Durability

The ability of a material to withstand load or stress for a long time. The stress can be heat,
pressure, wear and tear, damage or other forms of stress.
Malleability

Similar to ductility, this mechanical attribute refers to a material’s ability to become deformed
(but not fractured) and retain that shape when compressed or squeezed. Lead is an example of a
material that is malleable but not ductile. You can hammer it into different shapes, but when you
pull it, it fractures.

Hardenability
Hardenability refers to a material’s ability to become harder under heat treatment, usually used to
describe steel alloys. It’s easier to make alloys containing higher amounts of carbon harder using
heat than it is to make alloys with lower amounts of carbon harder using the same heat treatment.

Electrical properties

To finalize the material for an engineering product / application, we should have the
knowledge of Electrical properties of materials. The Electrical properties of a material
are those which determine ability of material to be suitable for a particular Electrical
Engineering Application. Some of the typical Electrical properties of engineering
materials are listed below-
 Resistivity
 Conductivity
 Temperature coefficient of Resistance
 Permittivity
 Thermoelectricity

Resistivity
It the property of material which resists the flow of electric current through material. It
is the reciprocal of conductivity.
It is dented by ‘ρ’. Resistivity of a material of a conductor can be determined as below

Where, ‘R’ is the resistance of conductor in Ω.

‘A’ is the cross sectional area of conductor in m2
‘l’ is the length of the conductor in meter SI unit of resistivity of is Ω¦-meter. Resistivity
of some materials is listed below
Sl. Resistivity at 20oC
Element
No. in Ω – m

1 Silver 1.59 × 10-8

2 Copper 1.7 × 10-8

3 Gold 2.44 × 10-8

 4 Aluminum 2.82 × 10-8

5 Tungsten 5.6 × 10-8

6 Iron 1.0 × 10-7

7 Platinum 1.1 × 10-7

8 Lead 2.2 × 10-7

9 Manganin 4.82 × 10-7

10 Constantan 4.9 × 10-7

11 Mercury 9.8 × 10-7

Carbon
12 3.5 × 10-5
(Graphite)

13 Germanium 4.6 × 10-1

14 Silicon 6.4 × 102

15 Glass 1010 to 1014

16 Quartz (fused) 7.5 × 1017

Conductivity
It is the property of material with allow the flow of electric current through material. It
is a parameter which indicates that how easily electric current can flow through the
material. It is denoted by ‘σ’. Conductivity of material is the reciprocal of resistivity.
Conductivity of material can be determined by,

Its SI unit is 1/(Ω-meter) or ℧/meter.

Dielectric Strength
It is the property of material which indicates the ability of material to withstand at high
voltages. Generally it is specified for insulating material to represent their operating
voltage. A material having high dielectric strength can withstand at high voltages.
Generally, it is represented in the unit of KV/cm. Dielectric strength of some insulating
materials are listed below-

Sl. Dielectric Strength

Material
No. [KV(max.)/cm]

1 Air 30

2 Porcelain 80

3 Paraffin Wax 120

Transformer
4 160
oil

5 Bakelite 220

6 Rubber 280

7 Paper 500

8 Teflon 600
 9 Glass 1200

10 Mica 2000

Temperature Coefficient of Resistance

The temperature coefficient of resistance of a material indicates the change in
resistance of material with change in temperature. Resistance of conductor
changes with change of temperature.
The rise in resistance of a material with rise in temperature depends on following
things,
1. R2 – R1 ∝ R1
2. R2 – R1 ∝ t2 – t1
3. Property of material of conductor.
Where, R1 is the resistance of conductor at temperature of t1oC and R2 is the
resistance of conductor at temperature of t2oC.
Hence, from above, R2 – R1 ∝ R1 (t2 – t1)
Or, R2 – R1 = α1 R1 (t2 – t1) ⇒ R2 = R1 [1 + α1 (t2 – t1)]
Where, α1 is temperature coefficient of resistance of material at temperature of
t1oC. Its unit is /oC. Temperature coefficient of resistance of material is also
depends on temperature. emperature coefficient of some materials are listed
below,
Temperature
Sl.
Element Coefficient of
No.
Resistance in /oC

1 Manganin 0.00002

2 Constantan 0.00017

3 Nichrome 0.0004

4 Mercury 0.0009
 5 Silver 0.0038

6 Copper 0.00386

Annealed
7 0.000393
copper

8 Platinum 0.003927

9 Aluminum 0.00429

Carbon
10 – 0.0005
(Graphite)

11 Germanium – 0.05

12 Silicon – 0.07

Thermoelectricity
If the junction, formed by joining to two metals, is heated, a small voltage in the range
of millivolt is produced. This effect is called thermoelectricity or thermoelectric effect.
This effect forms the basis of operation of thermocouples and some temperature based
transducers. This effect can be used to generate electricity, to measure the temperature
and to measure the change is temperature of objects.
 Magnetic properties

To finalize the material for an engineering product / application, we should have the
knowledge of magnetic properties of materials. The magnetic properties of a material
are those which determine the ability of material to be suitable for a particular magnetic
Application. Some of the typical magnetic properties of engineering materials are
listed below-
 Permeability
 Retentivity or Magnetic Hysteresis
 Coercive force
 Reluctance
Permeability

It is the property of magnetic material which indicates that how easily the magnetic flux
is build up in the material. Some time is also called as the magnetic susceptibility of
material.
It is determined by the ratio of magnetic flux density to magnetizing force producing
this magnetic flux density. It is denoted by µ.
Hence, μ = B/H.
Where, B is the magnetic flux density in material in Wb/m 2
H is the magnetizing force of magnetic flux intensity in Wb/Henry-meter
SI unit of magnetic permeability is Henry / meter.
Permeability of material is also defined as, μ = μ0 μr
Where, µ0 is the permeability of air or vacuum, and μ0 = 4π × 10-7 Henry/meter and µr is
the relative permeability of material. µr = 1 for air or vacuum.
A material selected for magnetic core in electrical machines should have high
permeability, so that required magnetic flux can be produced in core by less ampere-
turns.
Retentivity
When a magnetic material is placed in an external magnetic field, its grains get oriented
in the direction of magnetic field. Which results in magnetization of material in the
direction of external magnetic field. Now, even after removal of external magnetic field,
some magnetization exists, which is called residual magnetism. This property of
material is called Magnetic retentively of material. A hysteresis loop or B-H cure of a
typical magnetic material is shown in figure below. Magnetization B r in below
hysteresis loop represents the residual magnetism of material .

Coercive Force
Due to retentivity of material, even after removal of external magnetic field some
magnetization exists in material. This magnetism is called residual magnetism of
material. To remove this residual magnetization, we have to apply some external
magnetic field in opposite direction. This external magnetic motive force (ATs)
required to overcome the residual magnetism is called “coercive force” of
material. In above hysteresis loop, – Hc represents the coercive force.
The material having large value of residual magnetization and coercive force are
called magnetically hard materials. The material having very low vale of residual
magnetization and coercive force are called magnetically soft materials.
Reluctance
It is a property of magnetic material which resists to buildup of magnetic flux in
material. It is denoted by R. Its unit is “Ampere-turns / Wb”.
Reluctance of magnetic material is given by,

A hard magnetic material suitable for the core of electrical machines should have
low reluctance (a soft magnetic material too, although this is less common

Chemical propertis

A chemical property is a characteristic or behavior of a substance that may be observed

when it undergoes a chemical change or reaction. Chemical properties are seen either
during or following a reaction since the arrangement of atoms within a sample must be
disrupted for the property to be investigated. This is different from a physical property,
which is a characteristic that may be observed and measured without changing the
chemical identity of a specimen
 A chemical property is a characteristic of a substance that may be observed when
it participates in a chemical reaction.
  Examples of chemical properties include flammability, toxicity, chemical
stability, and heat of combustion.
 Chemical properties are used to establish chemical classifications, which are used
in labels on containers and storage areas.
Examples of chemical properties of a substance can include:
 Toxicity
 Reactivity
 Types of chemical bonds formed
 Coordination number
 Oxidation states
 Flammability
 Heat of combustion
 Enthalpy of formation
 Chemical stability under specific conditions
 Acidity or basicity
 Radioactivity
Remember, a chemical change must occur for a chemical property to be observed
and measured. For example, iron oxidizes and becomes rust. Rusting is not a
property that can be described based on analysis of the pure element.
Uses of Chemical Properties
Chemical properties are of great interest to materials science. These characteristics help
scientists classify samples, identify unknown materials, and purify substances. Knowing
the properties helps chemists make predictions about the type of reactions to expect.
Because chemical properties are not readily apparent, they are included in labels for
chemical containers. Hazard labels based on chemical properties should be affixed to
containers, while full documentation should be maintained for easy reference.
Engineering resins
Engineering resins are plastic materials that have better mechanical and/or
thermal properties than commodity plastics. These high strength plastics
are often resistant to high temperatures, wear, and corrosives. Engineering
plastics are often used in wood or metal replacement applications as a
means of reducing cost or weight while maintaining strength and
performance.

Abs

ABS is the initial letters of Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene, it is a high strength, good
toughness, easy molding of thermoplastic polymer material. Plastic ABS resin is the
largest output, the most widely used polymer in injection molding industry, ABS material
widely used in auto parts, household appliances, consumer products, packaging
materials, industrial parts etc

Part design and mold design

ABS plastic parts design requires uniform wall thickness, diversity of wall thickness
should be controlled within 25%, uniform wall thickness can prevent the excessive
stress. Radius or additional ribs are needed on the roots of the boss and snap to
improve the strength, size of the radius depends on the wall thickness, R/wall thickness
should be no less than 0.3, the bigger R, the smaller stress. But you need to consider
the shrinkage as well, too big Radius would cause sink mark on the opposite side of the
ABS plastic part. Injection mold cooling should be designed as even as possible to
avoid shrinkage problem.
Dry the ABS material before processing
Typically, heat-resistant ABS resin during storage and transportation will absorb
moisture from the air, water absorption ratio are between 0.2 and 0.4%, ABS plastic
material must be dried sufficiently, material moisture content must to be reduced to
0.05% before you can process it, preferably 0.02% or less, otherwise it will cause
surface defects like spray, silver during injection molding process. The drying
temperature usually is 80-95 ℃, drying time needs 3-4 hours.

Molding temperature
Molding temperature is a important parameter
during ABS plastic molding, which is set to ensure
ABS plastic material is plasticized sufficiently , you
should follow manufacturers recommends, using
the upper limit of recommended injection molding
temperature will significantly reduce viscosity to get
better flow-ability, so you could have longer melt
flow distance to better have filling capacity.

ABS recommended molding temperature usually

are 180-230 ℃
In principle, when use the recommended melt temperature upper limit, the time of ABS
plastics stay on barrel should be made as short as possible to avoid material
degradation at high temperatures.

Holding pressure and time

Reasonable holding pressure and time determine directly the quality of molded plastic
parts, high holding pressure will increase the density of the plastic parts, you will get
less shrinkage and great surface quality. But big internal stress will be created, which
endanger the part strength. So the best solution is try to use lower holding pressure as
long as the surface requirement is satisfied.

Setting dwell time is based on the time needed to seal

the injection mold gate, after the gate is
solidified, there is no pressure apply on the plastic parts
by screw advancing. The holding time is too long, internal
stress becomes larger; dwell time is too short, the
plastic part is easy to get shrink problem and
measurement is unstable.

Mold temperature
Recommended mold temperature of ABS molding: 60-80℃. Higher mold temperatures
have advantages of good flow, high weld line strength, smaller internal stress, but the
molding cycle will be extended. If the injection mold temperature is lower than
recommended, it could cause weak part strength and poor surface quality

Thermoforming is a process of heating a thermoplastic sheet to its softening

point. The sheet is stretched across a single-sided mold and then manipulated.
Then, it cools into the desired shape. The most common methods to get the
sheet to conform to its final shape are vacuum-forming, pressure-forming, and
mechanical forming. Thermoforming has innumerable applications and can be
used by several different industries. Here is a brief overview of
thermoforming, its benefits, and its applications.

Most Common Uses for ABS Plastic Sheets Include

 Refrigeration Industry
 3D Building Materials
 Machine Prototype Construction
 Pipes
 Fittings
 Vacuum Construction
 Keyboard Keys
 Power-Tool Housing
 Wall Socket Face-Guard
nylon

Nylon plastic (PA) is a synthetic thermoplastic polymer commonly used in injection

molding applications. It’s a versatile, durable, flexible material often used to as a
more affordable alternative other materials like silk, rubber, and latex. Some other
benefits of nylon polyamide include:
 High melting temperature
 Low friction
 High tensile strength
 Resistance to chemicals and abrasions

The chemical composition of Nylon gives it a high melting point, making it an

excellent alternative to metal components in high-temperature environments, like
car engines and other types of high-friction machinery. Like other thermoplastic
materials, nylon plastic turns to liquid at its melting point rather than burning,
meaning it can be melted down and remolded or recycled. Nylon material also
doesn’t heat up easily when used in high friction applications.
Nylon is usually combined with other materials to improve various qualities. For
example, filling nylon with glass fibers increases its tensile strength while also
making it less flexible and more brittle.
With plastic injection molding, Retlaw casts glass-reinforced nylon plastic into the
components you need for your industry.
Nylon extrusion

Extruded Nylon 6/6 (polyhexamethylene adiptimide) is a moldable and extrudeable general-purpose

nylon. Like Cast Nylon 6, it has good mechanical properties and wear resistance. Nylon 6/6 has a
much higher melting point, better mechanical properties due to greater hardness, and lower water
absorption than cast nylon. Because of its excellent balance of strength, ductility and heat
resistance, nylon 6/6 is an outstanding candidate for metal replacement applications. Nylon 6/6 is
very easy to process with a very wide process window. This allows it to be used for everything
from complex, thin walled components to large thick walled housings. Unmodified nylon 6/6 is
stocked in both natural and black; other colors are available on a custom basis. Unmodified
nylon 6/6 is FDA, USDA, NSF and 3-A Dairy compliant.

At Ai Engineering Plastics, the most available grades used are Nylon 6 and Nylon 66. It is also
available in a range of other grades including nylon 11, 12 and 46. These names come from the
length of their polymeric chains of carbon atoms in the diamine as well as the number of carbon
atoms in the acid. Typical applications include:

 Toothbrushes
 Wear pads
 Wheels
 Gloves
 Guitar strings and pics
 Tennis racket strings
 Medical implants
 Electrical connectors
 Fishing line
 Tents
 Gears

Poly carbonate
The polycarbonate most used is manufactured
by condensation polymerization between bisphenol A and either carbonyl
chloride or diphenyl carbonate.

Bisphenol A is produced by the condensation of phenol with propanone.

Carbonyl chloride is produced from carbon monoxide and chlorine:

Diphenyl carbonate is produced from dimethyl carbonate, which is often made

from methanol, oxygen and carbon monoxide in the liquid phase in the
presence of a copper salt such as copper(II) chloride:

The polymer is usually formed by the reaction of bisphenol A and carbonyl

chloride in a basic solution.
A solution of bisphenol A in sodium hydroxide (i.e. a solution of the sodium salt
of the phenol) is prepared. It is mixed with a solution of carbonyl chloride in an
organic solvent (dichloromethane).  The polymerization takes place at the
interface between the aqueous and organic layers with the help of a catalyst
(an amine):
 The polycarbonate is held in solution in the organic layer.  This solution is then
run off from the aqueous layer and is either evaporated to form granules of the
polymer or ethanol is added to precipitate the solid polymer.
However, an increasing proportion of polycarbonates is made via diphenyl
carbonate, in order to eliminate the use of carbonyl chloride, an extremely
poisonous gas.
Bisphenol A and the ester are heated together to form a molten mass of
polymer:

The phenol and excess reactants are removed by distillation under reduced
pressure.  The polycarbonate melt is then pressed through fine nozzles to form
long 'spaghetti-like' threads, which are cooled down and granulated.

Acetal is a high-performance engineering polymer often used for parts that would otherwise be
made of metal. Chosen for its distinct characteristics, it is widely used in both machining
and injection molding.
acetal

There are two types of acetal. Homopolymer, produced by DuPont as Delrin®, consists of a
chain of identical oxymethylene units. Copolymer, introduced by Celanese as Celcon®, consists
of a chain of alternating oxymethylene and oxyethylene units. While the two acetals differ in
some ways, they share basic characteristics.

All acetals are strong, tough, and stiff with very high creep resistance, making them ideal for
mechanical parts like gears and chain links. They are highly abrasion resistant (though less so
than nylons or polyethylenes) and have a low coefficient of friction against metal and other
plastics, making them an excellent choice for bearings, bushings, and cams. They are affected by
strong acids or oxidizing agents, but otherwise have high resistance to most chemicals and low
water absorption and are widely used for packaging and dispensing components. In general, they
can withstand a range of temperatures, but tend to degrade when exposed to ultraviolet light.

acrylic

In brief they are manufactured by two different production processes. CAST acrylic, as the name
suggests, is manufactured by a process whereby MMA (Methyl Methacrylate monomer) liquid is pumped
into a mould made from two sheets of glass. The mould / monomer is then submerged in warm water
and the process of polymerization takes place.
The result is a sheet of rigid PMMA (polymethyl methacrylate) or what is generically called Acrylic.
Various trade names are applied to this sheet – in Europe we call it “Perspex”, in the USA it’s often
referred to as “Plexi or Plexiglas” other brand names include “Setacryl”, “Polycryl”, “Oroglas” and many
more.
Whilst CAST Acrylic sheets tend to have a greater variance on thickness tolerance (as much as + / – 30%
on thickness). This is compensated by the surface finish (as smooth as glass, since it was CAST, or
molded, between two sheet of glass). Furthermore, the ability to colour the clear MMA monomer by using
master batch pigments allows for numerous colours to be obtained in relatively small production batches,
in most cases as few as 20# sheets 3030 x 2030mm can be obtained.

In addition to the above CAST acrylic sheets lend themselves to ease of fabrication. Cutting, whether with
conventional saws produce a cleaner cut and the sheets when stacked (cut in multiples) tend not to fuse
or weld together. In addition CAST acrylic when laser cut produce a highly polished edge, thus reducing
finishing times when fabricating. Furthermore, when hot wire line bending, drape or vacuum forming
CAST acrylic sheets are more malleable / pliable than Extruded acrylic sheet.

Extruded Acrylic Sheets

Extruded Acrylic sheets are manufactured by a continuous production process. Acrylic or PMMA pellets
are fed from a containment silo to a feed hopper above an extruder line. The pellets are fed into the
extrusion barrel and are driven through the barrel by a single or twin screw auger system.As the pellets
progress through the heated zones of the extruder barrel the heat increases until the pellets melt into a
molten mass.This molten mass is pushed forward into a conical / cone shaped die which then widens out
into the die lips. The molten mass, under pressure from the screw drive, reaches the die lips and pushes
outwards along the die lips to produce a molten sheet. The height / gap of the die lips is set slightly larger
than the thickness required for the finished sheet. This continuous band of molten acrylic sheet is then
passed through sets of cooling rollers, which may emboss a pattern / finish onto the sheet as it cools or
may just produce a standard gloss / smooth finish.As the sheet progresses down the haul off line it has
cooled sufficiently to be edge trimmed, cut to the final finished length required and a protective P/E film is
applied. Finally, the sheets are palletized and wrapped for dispatch.Extruded sheets have a better
tolerance on thickness, typically + or – 10% , however, tighter tolerances can be achieved by prior
agreement with the extrusion mill. Because of the continuous nature of production short production runs
are of the order of 3 – 5 Tonne per size and gauge and colour. Clear, Opal and black are amongst the
more standard colours produced.
 cellulose

Cellulose is an organic compound with the formula (C6H10O5)

n, a polysaccharide consisting of a linear chain of several hundred to many thousands
of β(1→4) linked D-glucose units.[3][4] Cellulose is an important structural component of
the primary cell wall of green plants, many forms of algae and the oomycetes. Some
species of bacteria secrete it to form biofilms.[5] Cellulose is the most abundant organic
polymer on Earth.[6] The cellulose content of cotton fiber is 90%, that of wood is 40–50%,
and that of dried hemp is approximately 57%.[7][8][9]
[1]

Cellulose is mainly used to produce paperboard and paper. Smaller quantities are

converted into a wide variety of derivative products such as cellophane and rayon.
Conversion of cellulose from energy crops into biofuels such as cellulosic ethanol is under
development as a renewable fuel source. Cellulose for industrial use is mainly obtained
from wood pulp and cotton.[6]
Some animals, particularly ruminants and termites, can digest cellulose with the help
of symbiotic micro-organisms that live in their guts, such as Trichonympha. In human
nutrition, cellulose is a non-digestible constituent of insoluble dietary fiber, acting as
a hydrophilic bulking agent for feces and potentially aiding in defecation.

In plants cellulose is synthesized at the plasma membrane by rosette terminal complexes

(RTCs). The RTCs are hexameric protein structures, approximately 25 nm in diameter, that
contain the cellulose synthase enzymes that synthesise the individual cellulose chains.
[27] Each RTC floats in the cell's plasma membrane and "spins" a microfibril into the cell
wall.
RTCs contain at least three different cellulose synthases, encoded by CesA (Ces is short for
"cellulose synthase") genes, in an unknown stoichiometry.[28] Separate sets of CesA genes
are involved in primary and secondary cell wall biosynthesis. There are known to be
about seven subfamilies in the plant CesA superfamily, some of which include the more
cryptic, tentatively-named Csl (cellulose synthase-like) enzymes. These cellulose
syntheses use UDP-glucose to form the β(1→4)-linked cellulose. [29]
 ionomer

An ionomer (/ˌaɪˈɑːnəmər/) (iono- + -mer) is a polymer composed of repeat units of

both electrically neutral repeating units and ionized units covalently bonded to the
polymer backbone as pendant group moieties. Usually no more than 15 mole percent are
ionized. The ionized units are often carboxylic acid groups.
The classification of a polymer as an ionomer depends on the level of substitution of
ionic groups as well as how the ionic groups are incorporated into the polymer
structure. For example, polyelectrolytes also have ionic groups covalently bonded to the
polymer backbone, but have a much higher ionic group molar substitution level (usually
greater than 80%); ionenes are polymers where ionic groups are part of the actual
polymer backbone. These two classes of ionic-group-containing polymers have vastly
different morphological and physical properties and are therefore not considered
ionomers.
Ionomers have unique physical properties including electrical conductivity and viscosity—
increase in ionomer solution viscosity with increasing temperatures (see conducting
polymer). Ionomers also have unique morphological properties as the non-polar polymer
backbone is energetically incompatible with the polar ionic groups. As a result, the ionic
groups in most ionomers will undergo microphase separation to form ionic-rich domains.
Commercial applications for ionomers include golf ball covers, semipermeable membranes,
sealing tape and thermoplastic elastomers. Common examples of ionomers
include polystyrene sulfonate, Nafion and Hycar.
PBT
　　　
Polybutylene terephthalate(PBT) is a general-purpose engineering plastic made
through polycondensation of PTA with 1,4-butanediol (BDO). This material has many
outstanding properties: resistance to both heat and chemicals, electrical qualities,
dimensional stability and formability; it does not absorb flavors, and it blocks
ultraviolet radiation. It is also non-flammable. For all these reasons, it is finding a
wide variety of applications in the electrical, electronic and automotive industries.We
have own technology for an economical polycondensation process for producing
polybutylene terephthalate(PBT).

Process characteristics
Our polybutylene terephthalate(PBT) process technology achieves polycondensation
reactions at low temperatures by using esterificaltion in our proprietary, efficiently-
heated equipment, and the mixing equipment for highly viscous fluids that have been
one of our specialties for many years.
This process results in the following properties.
1. Production of polybutylene terephthalate(PBT) with little color adherence.
2. Possible to switch quality grades at short intervals.
3. Possible to produce a wide range of products

Pet
 jerseys Pants - Navy Blue,Men's New Orleans Saints Majestic Black Critical Victory Pullover Hoodie

About PET
PET, which stands for polyethylene terephthalate, is a clear,
strong and lightweight plastic belonging to the polyester family.

It is typically called "polyester" when used for fibers or fabrics, and

"PET" or "PET Resin" when used for bottles, jars, containers and
packaging applications.

PET is the world's packaging choice for many foods and beverages
because it is hygienic, strong, lightweight, shatterproof, and
retains freshness. It is most commonly used to package carbonated soft drinks and water. Consumers
can identify PET containers by the triangular #1 resin identification code found on the bottom of PET
bottles and jars.

Think of PET as #1
Virtually all single-serving and 2-liter bottles of sodas and water sold in the U.S. are made from PET
plastic. PET is also popular for packaging salad dressings, cooking oil, peanut butter, shampoo, liquid
hand soap, mouthwash, and other personal care items. Special grades of PET are used for take-out
containers and prepared food trays that can be warmed in the oven or microwave.

PET is a very inert material that is resistant to attack by micro-organisms, and

does not react with food products, which is why it is widely preferred for
packaging foods, beverages and pharmaceuticals. Health-safety agencies
around the world have approved PET as safe for use with foods and beverages.

Best of all, PET is recyclable and highly sustainable.  It is the most recycled
plastic in the United States and worldwide. PET can be recycled again and
again – back into containers for foods, beverages and personal care products  –
or into carpet, clothing, automotive parts, construction materials, industrial
strapping, and scores of other products.

Although the feedstocks for PET are petroleum based, the environmental impact of PET is very
favorable in comparison to glass, aluminum and other recyclable container materials. That's because
the light weight and strength of PET allows more product to be delivered with less packaging weight
and less fuel than most other container materials.

How PET is Made

The basic building blocks of PET are ethylene glycol and terephthalic acid, which are combined to form
pellets of PET. These resin pellets are then heated to a molten liquid that can be easily extruded or
molded into items of practically any shape.
More specifically, when the two raw materials of PET are combined
under high temperatures and low vacuum pressure, long chains of
the polymer are formed. As the mixture becomes thicker, the
chains grow longer. Once the appropriate chain length is achieved,
the reaction is stopped. The resulting spaghetti-like strands of PET
are then extruded, quickly cooled, and cut into small pellets.

When the resin pellets are reheated to a molten liquid stage, the
polymer chains can be stretched in one direction (for fibers) or in
two directions (for bottles and films). If the polymer is cooled quickly while it is stretched, the chains
are frozen with their orientation intact. Once set in stretched form, the material is extremely tough.

If PET is held in the stretched form at elevated temperatures, it slowly crystallizes and starts to
become opaque, more rigid and less flexible. This crystalline form PET is often used for take-home and
prepared-food containers and trays that can be reheated in the oven or microwave.

PPO
Although unmodified Polyphenylene Oxide (PPO) is a semi-crystalline
thermoplastic, all commercially available grades are blended with (high impact)
polystyrene in order to improve melt processability.A wide range of proportions,
together with the use of other modifiers, results in a good range of grades with
differing properties tailored to the needs of individual end-uses.These blends are
amorphous, opaque, pale grey engineering thermoplastics with a balance of
properties (and cost) not unlike nylon but without nylon’s high water absorption
and consequent dimensional instability.However Polyphenylene Oxide
(PPO)Modified has poor fatigue characteristics and poor solvent, though good
hydrolysis, resistance.
Applications of Polyphenylene Oxide ( PPO ) include electrical and TV components,
washing and dish-washing machine parts, automobile parts (especially fascias) and
structural foam.
Types of Metal – Pure Metals, Alloys & Their Applications

Metals and advances in manufacturing processes gave us the industrial revolution. This lead to an
exponential growth of human civilisation bringing us where we are today. Today, different types of
metals are all around us. From the computer you are using to read this information on to the clamps in
your plumbing. More than eighty different types of metals find use today.

Types of Metal and Their Classification

A large number of metals are available in nature. They can be classified in a variety of ways
depending on what property or characteristic you use as a yardstick.
Classification by Iron Content
The most common way of classifying them is by their iron content.
When a metal contains iron, it is known as a ferrous metal. The iron imparts magnetic properties to
the material and also makes them prone to corrosion. Metals that do not have any iron content are
non-ferrous metals. These metals do not possess any magnetic properties. Examples include but are
not limited to aluminium, lead, brass, copper and zinc.
Periodic Table
Classification by Atomic Structure
They may also be classified based on their atomic structure according to the periodic table. When
done, a metal may be known as alkaline, alkaline earth, or a transition metal. Metals belonging to the
same group behave similarly when reacting with other elements. Thus, they have similar chemical
properties.
Magnetic and Non-Magnetic Metals
Another way to differentiate metals is by looking how they interact with magnets. It is possible
to divide metals as magnetic and non-magnetic on that basis.
While ferromagnetic metals attract strongly to magnets, paramagnetic ones only show weak
interactions. Lastly, there is a group called diamagnetic metals that rather show a weak repulsion to
magnets.
Iron, Its Alloys and Their Properties
All the metals share some similar mechanical properties of materials. But when judged closely, one
metal will have a slight edge over another in certain properties. It is possible to tweak the properties
when creating alloys by mixing pure elements.
When selecting a metal for a particular application, there’s quite a few factors to consider to find the
most suitable option. These factors include melting point, cost, ease of machining, sufficient safety
factor, space available, temperature coefficient, thermal and electrical conductivity, density, etc. Let us
take a look at some of the popular metals and why they are chosen for their applications.

Iron
Other elements may be added in trace amounts to incorporate their properties. Let’s take a look at how
to categorise steel and what it is capable of.

Types of Metal and Their Classification

A large number of metals are available in nature. They can be classified in a variety of ways
depending on what property or characteristic you use as a yardstick.
Classification by Iron Content
The most common way of classifying them is by their iron content.
When a metal contains iron, it is known as a ferrous metal. The iron imparts magnetic properties to
the material and also makes them prone to corrosion. Metals that do not have any iron content are
non-ferrous metals. These metals do not possess any magnetic properties. Examples include but are
not limited to aluminium, lead, brass, copper and zinc.
rather show a weak repulsion to magnets.
Iron, Its Alloys and Their Properties
All the metals share some similar mechanical properties of materials. But when judged closely, one
metal will have a slight edge over another in certain properties. It is possible to tweak the properties
when creating alloys by mixing pure elements.
When selecting a metal for a particular application, there’s quite a few factors to consider to find the
most suitable option. These factors include melting point, cost, ease of machining, sufficient safety
factor, space available, temperature coefficient, thermal and electrical conductivity, density, etc. Let us
take a look at some of the popular metals and why they are chosen for their applications.
Iron
The Eiffel Tower is made of wrought iron
It would not be an exaggeration to refer to iron as the lifeblood of our civilisation. Approximately 5
per cent of the Earth’s crust is iron. Thus, it is an incredibly easy metal to find. Pure iron is an unstable
element though. At the first opportunity, it reacts with the oxygen in the air to form iron oxide.
Extracting iron from its ores uses a blast furnace. Pig iron is achieved from the first stage of the blast
furnace which can be further refined to obtain pure iron. This iron often ends up in steels and other
alloys. Almost 90 per cent of manufactured metals are ferrous metals.
Steel, for instance, is a ferrous metal that finds a variety of applications. We cannot comprehend the
true potential of iron without learning about steel.
Steel
Pure iron is stronger than other metals but it leaves much to be desired. For one, pure iron is not
resistant to corrosion. To keep iron from corroding, a lot of money and energy must be spent.
Secondly, it is also extremely heavy due to its high density. These disadvantages can make structures
harder to build and maintain.
Adding carbon to iron alleviates these weaknesses to a certain extent. This mixture of iron and carbon
up to specified limits is known as carbon steel. Adding carbon to iron makes the iron much stronger
along with imparting other great characteristics.
Other elements may be added in trace amounts to incorporate their properties. Let’s take a look at how
to categorise steel and what it is capable of.

What are the Types of Steel and Their Uses?

Steel is a popular building material thanks to its excellent properties. Over 3500 grades of steel are
available today. It has high tensile strength and a high strength-to-weight ratio. This means more
strength per unit mass of steel. This allows usage of steel parts and components that are small in size
but still strong.
Steel is also extremely durable. This means a steel structure can last longer and withstand external
factors better than other alternatives. It is also ductile and can be shaped into required forms without
compromising its properties. Depending on the iron content, steel is classified into three categories.
Carbon Steel AISI Classification

Low carbon steel rebars

 Low carbon steel. Up to 0.25% of carbon in iron give us low carbon steel, also known as mild steel. It
is used for tubing in moderate pressure applications. Reinforcing bars and in I-beams in construction
are usually from low carbon steel. Any applications that require a high amount of steel without much
forming or bending are also suitable for it. An example is a ship’s hull.
 Medium carbon steel. Contains 0.25…0.6% of carbon. Medium carbon steel’s applications include
ones that need high tensile strength and ductility. They find applications in gearing and shafts, railway
wheels and rails, steel beams in buildings and bridges etc. Another use is pressure vessels, except if it
contains cold gases or liquids because of its tendency to cold cracking.
 High carbon steel. Steel that contains more than 0.6% of carbon is high carbon steel. This steel is
harder and more brittle than the previous two. It finds applications in making chisels and cutting tools.
 Great qualities include hardness and good resistance to material wear. It may also be used in presses
and for manufacturing drill bits.
Although all the above-mentioned steels are commonly referred to as carbon steels, they contain other
elements to improve certain properties. Like chromium for corrosion resistance or manganese to
improve hardenability and tensile strength.
Alloy steels
This type of metal contains multiple elements to enhance various properties. Metals such as
manganese, titanium, copper, nickel, silicon, and aluminium may be added in different proportions.
This improves steel’s hardenability, weldability, corrosion resistance, ductility and formability.
Applications for alloy steels are electric motors, bearings, heating elements, springs, gears, and
pipelines.
 Stainless steel: Stainless steel contains high amounts of chromium. This is why it has 200 times higher
resistance to corrosion than mild steel. It makes it the ideal candidate to manufacture kitchen utensils,
piping, surgical and dental equipment. Also, as no coating is necessary, you can have a metallic look
like you want with the right surface finish.

 Tool steel: Tool steels are used for making cutting and drilling tools. Their high hardness make them
an ideal choice for these applications. They contains molybdenum, vanadium, cobalt, and tungsten as
constituent metals.
Shock-resisting tool steel in use
Tool steel is a type of metal that also finds applications in manufacturing rails, wires, pipes, shafts and
valves. Tool steel is primarily used in the automotive, shipbuilding, construction, and packaging
sectors.
Different Types of Metals
In addition to ferrous metals, we have a large selection of non-ferrous ones. Each has certain qualities
that make them useful in different industries. 
Aluminium
Aluminium derives primarily from its ore bauxite. It is light, strong and functional. It is the most
widespread metal on Earth and its use has permeated applications everywhere.
This is because of its properties such as durability, light weight, corrosion resistance (learn more about
the types of aluminium corrosion here), electrical conductivity and ability to form alloys with most
metals. It also doesn’t magnetise and is easy to machine.
Copper
When talking about different types of metals, copper and its alloys can not be overlooked. It has a
long history because it is easy to form. Even today, it is an important metal in the industry. It does not
occur in nature in its pure form. Thus, smelting and extracting from ore is necessary.
Metals are good conductors and copper stands out more than the others. Due to its excellent electrical
conductivity, it finds application in electrical circuits as a conductor. Its conductivity is second only to
silver. It has also excellent heat conductivity. This is why many cooking utensils are from copper.
Brass

Brass is an alloy of copper and zinc. The amount of each of the metals may vary depending on the
electrical and mechanical properties sought of the metal. It also contains trace amounts of other
metallic elements such as aluminium, lead, and manganese. Brass is a great candidate for low friction
applications such as locks, bearings, plumbing, musical instruments, tools and fittings. It is
indispensable in intrinsically safe applications to prevent sparks and allow usage in flammable
environments.
Bronze
Bronze is also an alloy of copper. But instead of zinc, bronze contains tin. Adding other elements such
as phosphorus, manganese, silicon, and aluminium may improve its properties and suitability for a
particular application. Bronze is brittle, hard, and resists fatigue well. It also has good electrical and
thermal conductivity and corrosion resistance. Bronze finds application in the manufacturing of
mirrors and reflectors. It is used for electrical connectors. Due to its corrosion resistance, it finds usage
in submerged parts and ship fittings.
Titanium
Titanium is an important engineering metal due to being strong and lightweight. It also has high
thermal stability even at temperatures as high as 480 degrees Celsius. Due to these properties, it finds
application in the aerospace industry. Military equipment is one use-case for this metal. Since titanium
is also corrosion resistant, medical applications also use it. Titanium is also used in the chemical and
sporting goods industry.
Zinc

Galvanised steel

Zinc is a widespread metal and finds a lot of use in the medical and industrial sector. Its primary use is
to galvanise steel. This protects the steel from corrosion. Zinc is also used to manufacture die castings
for the electrical, hardware, and automobile industry. Since zinc has low electrochemical potential, its
uses include marine applications to prevent corrosion of other metals through cathodic protection.
Sacrificial zinc anodes may protect valves, pipelines, and tanks.
Lead
Lead is a highly machinable, corrosion resistant metal. Piping and paint represent some use-cases.
Lead was used as an anti-knocking agent in gasoline. Later, it was discovered that the byproduct of
this lead was responsible for serious health complications. Lead is still common in ammunition, car
batteries, radiation protection, lifting weights, cable sheathing etc.

23137 HDC Deshan