Nature and Properties of Construction Materials

CHAPTER ONE
Nature& Properties of construction Materials
1.1 CLASSIFICATION & NATURE OF MATERIALS
The factors which form the basis of various systems of classifications of materials
in material science and engineering are:
i the chemical composition of the material,

ii the mode of the occurrence of the material in the nature,
iii the refining and the manufacturing process to which the material is
subjected prior it acquires the required properties,
iv the atomic and crystalline structure of material and
v The industrial and technical use of the material.
Classification of Construction Materials
Construction materials can be classified into:
I) Metallic and Non-metallic
A. . Metallic material
Ferrous
 Wrought iron
 Cast iron
 Steel
Non Ferrous
 Aluminum
 Copper
 Lead
 Zinc
 Tin
Compiled by Addistibeb S. Construction material Lecture Note - Cegn2082

B. Non-metallic
 Cementing materials
 Concrete
 Timber
 Stone
 Plastics
 Ceramics
II) Based on their physical Nature:
a) solid
b) Liquid
c) Gaseous
III) Based on their mode of manufacture
a) Naturally occurring materials

b) Industrially produced materials
c) Materials produced at construction site
1.2 Properties of Engineering Materials
It is possible to classify material properties as follows: -
1. Physical properties:
 Density, specific gravity, porosity, water absorption, etc....
2. Mechanical properties:
 Tensile strength, compressive strength, rigidity, hardness. Creep,
fatigue......
3. Thermal properties:
 Thermal conductivity, thermal expansion and other.......
4. Chemical properties:
 Resistance to acids, alkalis, brines and oxidation.

5. Aesthetic properties:
 Color, surface smoothness, the reflection of light…
1. Physical properties
Density: - Density is defined as mass per unit volume for a material. The derived
unit usually used by engineers is the kg/m3. Relative density is the density of
the material compared with the density of the water at 4˚C. Table gives densities
for some materials in kg/m3.
Materials Bulk density (kg/m3)

Brick 1700
Mastic asphalt 2100
Cement: sand 2306
Glass 2520
Concrete 1:2:4 2260
Limestone 2310
Granite 2662
Steel 7850
Aluminum 2700
Copper 9000
lead 11340
Hardwoods 769
softwood, plywood 513
Unit weight γ
It is the ratio of material weight to material volume.
𝛾=𝑊/𝑉 or 𝛾=𝜌.𝑔
Porosity (n)
It is the ratio of the volume of the spaces in the material to the overall volume.

Voids ratio (e)
It is the ratio between the sizes of voids to the volume of solid material.
Water absorption
It denotes the ability of the material to absorb and retain water. It is expressed
as percentage in weight or of the volume of dry material:
Weathering resistance
It is the ability of a material to endure alternate wet and dry conditions for a long
period without considerable deformation and loss of mechanical strength.
Water permeability
It is the capacity of a material to allow water to penetrate under pressure.

Materials like glass, steel and bitumen are impervious.
Frost Resistance
It denotes the ability of a water-saturated material to endure repeated freezing

and thawing with considerable decrease of mechanical strength. Under such
conditions the water contained by the pores increases in volume even up to 9
percent on freezing.
2. Mechanical Properties
When forces are applied to a solid body, two results are produced
 internal resisting force

 deformation
- The internal resisting force are called stresses
- Deformations are called strain and it may be:
i. elastic if it recovers when the external force is released

ii. plastic if it fails to recover when the external force is released

•If a material is capable to carry its own weight and any applied load, it is
assumed to be strong material. This way is that the strength of the material is
determined.
There are several types of stress which depend on types of applied load. These
stresses can be classified as:
1- Compression stress
2- Tension stress
3- Shear stress
4- Bending stress
5- Torsion stress
Classification of Mechanical Tests
I. With reference to the direction of the external forces

a) Tension test
b) Bending test
c) Compression test
d) Torsion test
e) Shear test
II. With reference to the rate and duration of the load application
a) Static Tests: these are made with gradually increasing load, such
as ordinary tests in tension, compression etc.
b) Dynamic test: these are made with suddenly applied loads, as by
falling weight
c) Wear tests: these are made to determine resistance to abrasion and
impact, as in the case of paving materials
d) Long-time tests: there are made with loads applied to the object
under test for a long period of time. They are used for materials such
as concrete.

e) Fatigue test: these are made with fluctuating stresses repeated a
large number of times
III. With reference to the effect of the test on the specimen
a) Destructive tests: Under these test methods, the specimens are either
crushed or ruptured and made useless at the end of the tests
b) Non-destructive tests: These are usually used to test the strength of
members of existing structures without affecting their performance.
1.3 BEHAVIOR OF MATERIAL UNDER LOAD
The common characteristics of materials under stress are ductility, brittleness,

stiffness, flexibility, toughness, malleability and hardness.
Application of external force on solid body in equilibrium results in: Internal

resisting forces are developed in the body which balances the externally applied
force. The body is deformed to varying degree.
Loading causes materials to deform and, if high enough, to break down and fail.
All loading on materials can be considered combinations of three basic types:-
Deformation from loading depends on
 Size of the material and

 Properties of the material
Load(p) 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ

Stress (∂) =𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎(𝐴) Strain= 𝑂𝑟𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ

The ductile materials are materials with large plastic deformation before failure.
Example’s being copper and wrought iron. Brittle materials have little or no
plasticity. They fail suddenly without warning. Cast iron, stone, brick and
concrete are comparatively brittle materials having a considerable amount of
plasticity. Stiff materials have a high modulus of elasticity permitting small
deformation for a given load.
Flexible materials on the other hand have low modulus of elasticity and bend
considerably without breakdown. Tough materials withstand heavy shocks.
Toughness depends upon strength and flexibility. Malleable materials can be
hammered into sheets without rupture. It depends upon ductility and softness
of material. Copper is the most malleable material. Hard materials resist
scratching and denting, for example cast iron and chrome steel. Materials
resistant to abrasion such as manganese are also known as hard materials.

CHAPTER TWO
Cementitious Materials
In a general sense, these are materials with adhesive and cohesive properties
and are capable of uniting or bonding solid particles together. This definition
covers a large number of very different substances.
Binders are substances which are used to bind inorganic and organic particles
and fibers to form strong, hard and/or flexible components. Cementing materials
that are widely used for construction are materials that exhibit characteristic
properties of setting and hardening when mixed to a paste with water
There are four main groups of binders:
 Mineral binders
 Bituminous binders
 Natural binders
 Synthetic binders.
Mineral Binders
These can be divided into three categories:
 Hydraulic binders, which require water to harden and develop strength.

 Non-hydraulic binders, which can only harden in the presence of air.
 Thermoplastic binders, which harden on cooling and become soft when
heated again.
Hydraulic binders
The most common hydraulic binder is cement. Hydraulic binders are usually
available in the form of a fine powder: the finer they are ground (usually in a ball
mill), the larger is the specific surface area (of the sum of the particles) per unit
weight. And the larger the surface area, the more effective and complete is the
chemical reaction with the water that it comes into contact with.

Hydraulic and semi-hydraulic limes are obtained from burning limestone, which
contains a large or moderate amount of clay. This can be easily understood, since
limestone and clay are the main raw materials for cement production. On
account of their affinity to water, hydraulic binders must be stored in absolutely
dry conditions, to avoid premature setting and hardening. Even humid air can
cause hydration.
Non-hydraulic binders
The most common non-hydraulic binder is lime (CaO). Hardening depends in its
combination with carbon dioxide from the air (carbonation), by which it again
becomes calcium carbonate (limestone).
Another common non-hydraulic binder is clay, which is present in most soils,

causing them to harden on drying and soften when wet. Its main uses are in
earth constructions and in the manufacture of burnt clay products.
Gypsum is a non-hydraulic binder which occurs naturally as a soft crystalline

rock or sand. The chemical name is calcium sulphate anhydrate (CaSO4.2H20).
By gentle heating up to about 100 o C calcium sulphate semi-hydrate
(CaSO4.1/2H20) is produced, more commonly known as "Plaster of Paris", which
when mixed with water sets in 8 to 10 minutes.
Thermoplastic binders
Thermoplastic materials require heat in order to be processed, and harden on

cooling. Probably the only thermoplastic mineral binder used for building is
sulphur.
Bituminous Binders
Bitumens are mechanical mixtures of different hydrocarbons (compounds of

carbon and hydrogen) and a few other substances, and are obtained as a residue
in the distillation of crude oil, either in petroleum refineries or in nature (in pores
of rocks or in the form of lakes, close to petroleum deposits). Bitumens are

generally dark black, oily, fluorescent thermoplastic substances, which are
highly viscous to almost solid at normal temperatures.
Compounds consisting of at least 40 % of heavy hydrocarbons are called

bitumen.
Asphalts are defined as mixtures containing bitumen and a substantial

proportion of inert mineral matter (sand, gravel, etc.). In the USA, bitumen is
called asphalt, thus causing some confusion.
When bitumen is used, it must be either heated or mixed with solvents like
gasoline, kerosene or naphtha, which is called "bitumen cutback"; or dispersed
in water, which is called "bitumen emulsion".
Natural Binders
Varieties of binders are obtained from plants and animals, and can be used in
their natural form or after processing.
Examples of natural binders are plant juices (e.g. juice of banana leaves; latex of
certain trees). Natural binders have played an important role in traditional
constructions since ancient times, but, nowadays face low social acceptance.
Synthetic Binders
These binders are generally produced by industrial processes and, therefore,

often expensive. Some synthetic binders are toxic.
They can be used as admixtures, as adhesives or as surface coatings and are

either applied hot, or as an emulsion, or with a solvent
2.1 TYPES OF CEMENTITIOUS MATERIALS
Cementitious materials may be classified in several different ways. One way often
used is by the chemical constituent responsible for setting or hardening the
cement.

Limes, were formerly widely used as the sole cementitious material, but their
slow setting and hardening are not compatible with modern requirements. Use
of limes is beneficial in that their slow setting promotes healing, the recementing
of hairline cracks.
Gypsum cements are widely used in interior plaster and for fabrication of boards
and blocks; but the solubility of gypsum prevents its use in construction exposed
to any but extremely dry climates.
Cement is a commonly used binding material in the construction. The cement

is obtained by burning a mixture of calcareous (calcium) and argillaceous (clay)
material at a very high temperature and then grinding the clinker so produced
to a fine powder.
Masonry cements or mortar cements are widely used because of their

convenience. While they are, in general, mixtures of one or more of the above-
mentioned cements with some admixtures, they deserve special consideration
because of their economies.
Other cementitious materials, such as polymers, fly ash, and silica fume, may
be used as a cement replacement in concrete. Polymers are plastics with long-
chain molecules. Concretes made with them have many qualities much superior
to those of ordinary concrete.
2.2 Lime
It is found in its natural form as a rock of varying degree of hardness. It is mainly

composed of calcium oxide (CaO). However, lime deposits are generally found
mixed with impurities such as CO2, Fe2O3, and MgCO3. Depending on the
impurities lime deposits acquire different colors
It is an important binding material used in building construction. Lime has been

used as the material of construction from ancient time. When it is mixed with
sand it provides lime mortar and when mixed with sand and coarse aggregate, it
forms lime concrete.

2.1.1 PRODUCTION OF LIME
It involves burning of the raw material and then slaking. Depending on the
amount of heat and the method of slaking, the product is hydraulic or non-
hydraulic lime. The raw material is burnt in a vertical kiln.
A. Quick lime/ Commercial lime
It is by burning the limestone in some form of vertical kilns to a temperature of

1000oC. The CO2 is driven off, leaving the CaO that is known as quick lime or
caustic lime. It is white in color and having a specific gravity of about 3.40.
B. Hydrated/Slaked lime
Quick lime can never be used as such for construction purposes but must be
mixed with water. This process is called slaking or hydration of lime. The
resulting product is calcium hydroxide [Ca (OH) 2] and is called slacked or
hydrated lime.
It is ready to be made into plaster or mortar by adding water and sand to form a
temporary plastic mass. There are two types of slaking: Wet-slaking and Dry-
slaking, depending on the amount of water added.
Wet-slaking
Lime is slaked or hydrated at the building site by mixing quick lime with an
excess of water and the resulting slaked lime should be passed through a fine
sieve to remove slow slaking particles and then left to mature for several days.
This can be made in a watertight box or a hole dug in the ground. The lime most
be continually stirred by a shovel or a stick during the slaking process to reduce
all a hydrated particles which might hydrate later in the building and cause
popping, pitting and disintegration.
Dry-Slaking
It is by adding just sufficient water to hydrate the quick lime. It is manufactured

in a factory under controlled condition.

• Depending on the impurities present, the specific gravity of hydrated lime varies
from 2.08 to 2.40.
2.1.2 PRESERVING QUICKLIME
Quicklime has so much affinity for water and will quickly absorb moisture from
the atmosphere and becomes air-slaked, and loses its cementing qualities. It
must therefore be kept in dry storage and carefully protected from dampness
until used.
2.1.3 SETTING AND HARDENING OF LIME
Slaked lime hardens or sets by gradually losing its water through evaporation
and absorbing CO2 from the air, thus changing back from Ca (OH) 2 to CaCO3
or limestone.
The cycle is completed through burning, slaking and setting.
1. When burnt, the limestone loses its carbon dioxide and becomes oxide of lime
or quicklime.
 Burning → CaCO3 + Heat → CaO + CO2
2. When slacked, the oxide of lime combine with water and becomes hydroxide,
slacked, or hydrated lime.
 Slaking → CaO + H2O Ca → (OH)2 + Heat
3. When setting, the calcium hydroxide loses its water through evaporation and
absorbs carbon dioxide from the air, becoming Ca C03 or limestone once more.
 Setting →Ca (OH)2 + CO2 →CaCO3 + H2O

FIG. 2.1.3 Complete Cycle in Lime used as a Cementing Material
2.1.4 Types of Limes and their Properties
The limes are classified as fat lime, hydraulic lime and poor lime:
(i) Fat lime: It is composed of 95 percentage of calcium oxide. When water

1
is added, it slakes vigorously and its volume increases to 2 to 22 times.
It is white in color. Its properties are:
(a) Hardens slowly
(b) Has high degree of plasticity
(c) Sets slowly in the presence of air
(d) White in color
(e) Slakes vigorously.
(ii) Hydraulic lime: It contains clay and ferrous oxide. Depending upon
the percentage of clay present, the hydraulic lime is divided into the
following three types:
(a) Feebly hydraulic lime (5 to 10% clay content)
(b) Moderately hydraulic lime (11 to 20% clay content)
(c) Eminently hydraulic lime (21 to 30% clay content)

The properties of hydraulic limes are:
• Sets under water

• Color is not perfectly white
• Forms a thin paste with water and do not dissolve in water.
• Its binding property improves if its fine powder is mixed with sand and
kept in the form of
 Heap for a week, before using.
(iii) Poor lime: It contains more than 30% clay. Its color is muddy. It has
poor binding property. The mortar made with such lime is used for
inferior works.
2.1.2 Uses of Lime
The following are the uses of lime in civil works:
(i) For white washing, it gives a sparkling white finished at a very low cost.
(ii) For making mortar for masonry works and plastering.
(iii) To produce lime sand bricks.
(iv) Lime is used as a stabilizer in soil constructions with clayey soils,
because the lime reacts with clay to form a binder
(v) As a refractory material for lining open hearth furnaces.
(vi) For making cement
(vii) As a raw material for the manufacture of glasses.
Problems
 Soil stabilization with lime requires more than twice the curing time
needed for soils stabilized with cement.
 If quicklime is stored in moist conditions (even humid air), it will hydrate.
 Hydrated lime, stored for long periods, gradually reacts with the carbon
dioxide in the air and becomes useless.

 Lime bursting (hydration of remaining quick lime nodules) can take place
long after the component has dried, causing blisters, cracks and unsightly
surfaces.
 Plain whitewashes take a long time to harden, and are easily rubbed off.
 Traditional lime burning in intermittent kilns wastes a great deal of fuel
(usually firewood) and often produces non-uniform, low quality limes
(over-burnt or under-burnt).
2.2 Gypsum
Gypsum is a combination of sulfate of lime with water of crystallization. It occurs

naturally as either hydrous sulfate of lime (Ca S04 2H2O) which is generally 76%
CaS04 and 24% H2O, or as anhydrate (Ca S04). The gypsum rock usually
contains silica, alumina, lime carbonate, carbonate of magnesia, iron oxide, and
other impurities. To be classed as gypsum rock at least 65% by weight must be
Ca S04 2H2O. Pure gypsum is known as alabaster and it is a white translucent
crystalline mineral, so soft that it can be scratched with the fingernail. When
heated to pure gypsum it loses its luster and its specific gravity is increased from
2.3 to 2.95 due to the loss of water of crystallization.
Gypsum Plasters
Gypsum plasters are used in the arts and in building construction. In all these
powders, gypsum in a more or less dehydrated state is the essential element.
When water is added to these substances they become dehydrated, forming
compounds similar to those existing before calcinations.
Manufacture of plasters
Gypsum plasters are manufactured by heating the raw material gypsum at either
moderate or high temperatures the results being plaster of Paris or hard-finish
plaster.
Plaster of Paris

Gypsum as pointed out before contains a good deal of water of crystallization (as
much as 24% by weight). If some of the water is driven off by incompletely
dehydrating pure, finely ground gypsum at a temperature just above the boiling
point of water 100 0C, a semi hydrated plaster is obtained which is known as
plaster of Paris.
(CaS04.2H2O)+Moderate heat → (CaS04.1/2 H2O) + H2O
Plaster of Paris is a white powder having a specific gravity of 2.57. This plaster
is also known as low-temperature gypsum derivative or semi-hydrated plasters
(semi hydrate). When mixed with sufficient water to form a plastic paste it sets
very rapidly, the whole process taking only 5 to 10 minutes. The setting of
gypsum derivative is not a chemical change as in the setting of carbonate of lime
but is due to the recombination of the dehydrated lime sulfate, CaSO4 or
CaSO4.1/2 H2O with water to form the original hydrated sulfate CaSO4.2H2O.
Re-crystallization takes place, the dehydrate precipitates from the solution to
form a solid mass of fine interlocking crystals, the material hardening back to its
original state and attaining its ultimate strength on drying.
In many instances, in order that the workman may properly handle Plaster of
Paris (stucco), it is necessary to delay the time of setting. This is accomplished
by adding a fraction of 1 percent of a retardant like glue and sawdust after the
plaster has cooled. Plaster of Paris while setting under water does not gain
strength and ultimately, on continued water exposure, will disintegrate. In
hardening, plaster of Paris first shrinks and then expands. The latter property
makes the material valuable in making casts, since a sharp impression of the
mold can be secured. Owing to the rapidity of set and difficulty in working its
use in structures is limited to ornamental work. It produces hard surfaces, sharp
contours, and is sufficiently strong.
Hard-Finish Plaster

By burning gypsum to a considerably higher temperature than in the previous
case, there may be produced un-hydrous sulfate, which is known as un-hydrous
plaster or high temperature gypsum derivative.
(CaSO4.2H2O)+High heat → CaSO4+ 2H2O
This Plaster is less soluble with consequent reluctance to absorb water in the
process of re-crystallization, which must occur in order to develop a plaster
comparable with the original gypsum formula. The result is a plaster too slow in
setting action for practical purpose.
2.3 Cement
2.3.1 PORTLAND CEMENT

It is the name given to a cement obtained by thoroughly mixing together
calcareous and argillaceous, or other silica, alumina and iron oxide-bearing
material, burning them at a clinkering temperature, and grinding the resulting
material. No material, other than gypsum, water and grinding aids may be added
after burning.
Raw materials
Modern Portland cement is made from materials which must contain the proper
proportions of lime (CaO), silica (SiO2), alumina (Al2O3), iron (Fe203) with miner
amounts of magnesia and sulfur trioxide.
Table 1 indicates the range of oxide composition usually found in normal

Portland cement.
Oxide Content (wt. %)

Lime (CaO) 60-67
Silica (SiO2) 17-25
Alumina (Al2O3) 3-8
Iron oxide (Fe2O3) 0.5-6.0
Magnesia (MgO) 0.1-5.5

Sulphur trioxide (SO3) 1-3
Alkalis-Soda (Na2O) 0.5-1.3
Titanium Oxide (TiO2) 0.1-0.4
Phosphorous pentaoxide 0.1-0.4
(P2O5)
Carbon dioxide (CO2) 1-3
Maganese Oxide (Mn2O3) 0-0.1
2.3.2 Manufacture of Portland cement

The manufacture of Portland cement occurs through a series of steps:
 Quarrying
 Crushing
 Grinding
 Mixing
 Calcining
 Addition of retardant
 Packing
Portland cement is made by burning an intimate mixture composed of calcareous
(Ca is the key element) & argillaceous (silicates of alumina) materials, at a
clinkering temperature up to about 1500 o C. This partially sintered clinker is
then ground to a very fine powder with a very small amount of gypsum (3 to 5%)
as a retardant. The cement is then packed into 50Kg bags or it may be bulk-
stored.
Steps in the Manufacture of Portland cement
The methods of manufacture depend on the hardness of the raw materials used
and on their moisture content.
The mixing and grinding of the raw materials can be done either in water or in
dry conditions and named wet and dry processes respectively.

The main difference between the two processes is that in dry process the
raw materials are fed into the burning kiln in a perfectly dry state. In the
wet process, however, these materials are supplied to the kiln in the form of
slurry (a liquid of creamy consistency, with a water content of between 35
& 50%).
Dry Process:
The four main steps in this process are:
1. Treatment of raw materials

2. Burning of the dry mix
3. Grinding of the clinker &
4. Packaging& storage
1. Treatment of Raw Materials
The raw materials are subjected to processes as: crushing, drying, grinding and
proportioning & blending (mixing) before they are fed into the kiln for burning.
The crushing stage involves breaking the raw materials to small fragments that
vary in size between 6-19mm. Primary crusher machines are used for this
purpose. The drying stage is typical of the dry process. Drying of the crushed
materials is essential and is achieved by heating the materials separately at
temperatures sufficiently high to drive out uncombined water. Heating is done
in a rotary drying kiln.
The grinding of each material as obtained from the dryers is done in two stages.
First preliminary grinding in which the materials are reduced to 0.3mm and then
the fine grinding in which the size of the materials are reduced to 0.075mm.
Each raw material is thus reduced to a required degree of fineness and is stored
in suitable storage tanks called silos or bins where from it can be drawn out
conveniently in requisite quantities.

Predetermined proportions of finely dried and ground materials are mixed before
they are fed into the kiln. The proportioned raw material is known as raw meal.
The raw meal has moisture content of about 0.2 %.
2. Burning or calcinations:
The well- proportioned finely powdered mixture (raw meal) is charged into long
steel cylinder, called rotary kiln. Rotary kilns differ in design and dimensions in
accordance with the production requirements. Thus, these may be 100-180m in
length, 3- 5m in diameter and have rotation of 60-90 revolutions per hour.
The raw mixture is burnt in the kiln till the proper burning is achieved. This is
indicated by its taking a greenish black color and virtuous luster. This burnt
material called clinker is cement in composition but not in size: it is in about
walnut sized lumps when it comes out of the kiln.
During the burning process water is completely driven off at a very initial
stage of burning at a temperature as low as 400 0C and dissociation of
carbonates in to calcium oxide and carbon dioxide takes place at 800-900 0C
temperature range. Then finally compound formations will proceed and it
starts at 1200 0C and requires a temperature as high as 1500 0C
3. Grinding of the Clinker
The completely burnt or calcined raw materials of cement are converted to lump
shaped product called clinker, which is drawn out from the lower end of the
rotary kiln. It is extremely hot when discharged, and is therefore first cooled and
both (clinker and gypsum) are sent for pulverizing. The mixture is reduced to an
extremely fine powder by grinding it.
4. Packing and Storage of Cement
Cement is most commonly stored after its manufacture in specially designed

concrete storage tanks called silos where from it is drawn off mechanically for
the market. For convenience, the cement come customer in bags containing

measured quantity. The standard bag of cement as distributed in Ethiopian is
commonly 50kg.
Wet process:
It is considered a better and convenient process for the manufacturing of cement,

specifically where limestone of soft variety is available in abundance. We can
discuss this process under three headings
1. Preparation of slurry
2. Burning or calcinations and
3. Treatment of clinker
1. Preparation of Slurry
In wet process, raw materials are supplied to the kiln in the form of an intimate
mixture with a lot of water in it. This is called slurry. To obtain the slurry of
standard composition, the raw materials are first crushed separately using
crushers for limestone and grinding mills (wet) for clays. These crushed materials
are stored in separate tanks or silos. They are drawn from the silos in prefixed
proportions in to the wet grinding mills where, in the presence of a lot of water,
thus ground to fine thin paste. This is slurry, which is stored in a silo (storage
tower). Its composition is tested once again and corrected by adding limestone
slurry in required proportions such corrected slurry is then fed into the rotary
kiln
2. Burning:
For burning of slurry, a rotary kiln of almost similar type is used as described
under dry process. All the moisture is driven off the slurry as it passes through
the drying zone. Chemical compounds will be produced in the burning process.
3. Grinding of Clinker:

As the lump-shaped clinker comes out from the kiln, it is extremely hot. It is,
therefore, passed through cooling rotary cylinders. There after it is mixed with
3-5 percent of gypsum and ground to a very fine powder as in dry process. The
fine cement obtained is stored and packed in paper bags.
Properties of the main compounds in cement clinker
As indicated, in the manufacture of Portland cement, the raw materials are

ground up, mixed to produce the desired proportion of minerals, and burned in
a large kiln. The temperature in the kiln reaches about 1200-1500°c. This drives
off water and gases and produces new chemical compositions in particles called
clinker. The four major compounds of cement produced are:
3 CaO.SiO2 (Tri-calcium silicate), abbreviated C3S
2CaO.SiO2 (Di-calcium silicate), abbreviated C2S
3CaO.AI2O3 (Tri-calcium Aluminate) abbreviated C3A
4CaO.A12O3.Fe2O3 (Tetra calcium Alumino-ferrite) abbreviated C4AF
The relative amounts of these four chemicals in the final product depend on the
desired properties of the cement concrete such as rate of hardening, amount of
heat given off, and resistance to chemical attack.
1. C3S (Tri-calcium Silicate)
The most desirable constituent is that of tri-calcium silicate (C3S), because it

hardens rapidly and accounts for the high early strength of the cement. When
water is added to tri-calcium silicate, a rapid reaction occurs as follows:
2C3S + 6H2O → 3 CaO.2SiO2.3H2O + 3Ca (OH) 2
The main product, 3CaO.2SiO2.3H2O is calcium silicate hydrate gives cement its
strength. The total amount of water required to complete the hydration of the
cement is about 25% of the mass of the cement. The proportion of C3S ranges
from 25-60%.

2. C2S (Di-calcium Silicate)
Di-calcium silicate hardens slowly & contributes to strength increase at ages

beyond one week. In the presence of water, di-calcium silicate (2CaO.SiO2)
hydrates slowly and forms a hydrated calcium silicate (2CaO.SiO2. xH2O). The
proportion of C2S ranges from13- 50%.
3. C3A (Tri-calcium Aluminate)
Tri-calcium aluminate liberates a large amount of heat (heat of hydration) during

the first few days of hardening. About 50% of the total heat of hydration is
released in the first three days. It also contributes to early-strength development.
Tri-calcium aluminate hydrates with water to form hydrated tri-calcium
aluminates 3CaO.Al2O3.6H2O. If gypsum is added it acts as a retardant, and the
heat of evolution is less and the setting occurs more slowly. This is due to the
fact that gypsum when present, results in the formation of calcium
sulfoaluminate (3CaO.A12O3.3CaSO4) rather than hydrated tricalcium
aluminate. The proportion of C3A ranges from 5-15%. Sulfates are often found
in soils and groundwater. These may combine with C3A to produce an expanding
compound, which could result in disintegration of the concrete.
4. C4AF (Tetra calcium Aluminoferrite)
Tetra-calcium aluminoferrite formation reduces the clinkering temperature,

thereby assisting in the manufacture of Portland cement. It hydrates rather
rapidly but contributes very little to strength. The proportion of C4AF ranges from
8-15%.
Table2: Characteristics of Four Compounds of Clinker
Characteristics C3S C2S C3A C4AF

Rate of hydration Medium slow fast slow
Strength -early High Low Medium Low
-ultimate high high low low

Amount of heat liberated medium low high low
Resistance of chemical Good Good Poor Good
attack
2.3.3 Types of Portland cement

When hydrated, cements differing in chemical composition may exhibit different
properties. It should thus be possible to select mixture of raw materials for the
production of cements with various desired properties. Table 6 lists the main
types of Portland cement together with the appropriate European and ASTM
standards, while Table 7 gives the average values of compound composition.
Table 3 Main types of Portland cement
European Description American description
Ordinary Portland Type I
Modified Cement Type II
Rapid-Hardening Portland Type III
Extra Rapid-Hardening Portland ---------
Low-Heat Portland Type IV
Sulphate Resisting Portland Type V
Portland-Pozzolana Type IP
White Portland ---------
Portland Blast -furnace Type IS
Table 4 Typical Average Value of Compound Composition of Portland cement of

different Type
Cement C3S C2S C3A C4AF

Type I 49 15 12 8
Type II 46 29 6 12
Type III 60 12 12 8
Type IV 30 46 5 13
Type V 43 36 4 12
a) Ordinary Portland (Type I) cement

This is by far the most common cement used in general concrete construction
when there is no exposure to sulphates in the soil or in ground water. It is
designed to produce satisfactory setting and hardening properties at reasonable
cost and without excessive heat of hydration and shrinkage. Over the years,
there have been changes in the characteristics of ordinary
Portland cement: Modern cements have higher C3S content and a greater
fineness than 40 years ago. BS specifies a minimum of 275m2/kg for ordinary
Portland cement in consequence, modern cements have a higher strength than
in the past, but the later gain in strength is smaller.
Ordinary Portland (Type I) cement is excellent and most widely used cement.
b) Modified (Type II) cement
In some applications, a very low early strength may be a disadvantage for this
reason-modified cement was developed in the U.S. This cement has a higher rate
of heat development than Type IV cement and a rate of gain of strength similar
to that of type I cement. Type II cement is recommended for structures where a
moderately low heat generation is desirable or where moderate sulphate attack
may occur. Modified (Type II) cement is an example of a ‘compromise’ all round
cement
c) Rapid-hardening Portland (Type III) cement

This cement is similar to type I cement and is covered by the same standards.
As the name implies, the strength of this cement develops rapidly because (as
can be seen from Table 7) of a higher C3S content and a higher fineness
(minimum 325m2/kg); these days, it is the fineness that is the distinguishing

factor between the ordinary and rapid hardening Portland cements, and there is
generally little difference in chemical composition.
The principal reason for the use of Type III Cement is when formwork is to be
removed early for reuse or where sufficient strength for further construction is
required quickly. Rapid hardening
Portland cement should not be used in mass concrete construction or large
structural sections because of its higher rate of heat development. On the other
hand, for construction at low temperature, the use of this cement may provide a
satisfactory safeguard against early frost damage.
The setting time of type III and type I cements is the same. The cost of type III
cement is only marginally greater than that of ordinary Portland cement.
d) Low-heat Portland (Type IV) cement
Developed for use in large gravity dam, this cement has a low heat of hydration.
Because of the lower content of C3S and C3A (these compounds release relatively
high heat of hydration) there is a slower development of strength than with
ordinary Portland cement, but the ultimate strength is an affected. The fineness
must not be less than 320m2/kg to ensure a sufficient rate of gain of strength.
e) Sulphate-resisting (Type V) cement
The cement has a low C3A content so as to avoid sulphate attack from outside
the concrete; otherwise the formation of calcium sulpho-aluminate and gypsum
would cause disruption of the concrete due to an increased volume of the
resultant compounds. The salts especially active are magnesium and sodium
sulphate, and sulphate attack is greatly accelerated if accompanied by alternate
wetting and drying; e.g. in marine structures subject to tide or splash.
To achieve sulphate resistance, the C3A content is limited to 3.5 percent (BS)
with a minimum fineness requirement of 2502/kg.
The heat developed by sulphate-resisting cement is not much higher than that
of low heat cement, which is an advantage, but the cost of the former is higher
due to special composition of the raw materials. Thus, in practice, sulphate-
resisting cement should be specified only when necessary, it is not the type of
cement for general use.

Other Types of Portland cement
1. Portland-Pozzolana Cement (PPC)
Portland-pozzolana cement is manufactured by blending 10-30% by weight of

pozzolanic material with ordinary Portland cement (OPC); either by simple
mixing or by inter -grinding with cement clinker. The calcium hydroxide librated
during the process of hydration of the cement combines slowly with the
pozzolana to give it cementitious properties, thereby contributing to water
tightness and long continued gain in strength of the concrete. The term
pozzolana is used to describe naturally occurring and artificial siliceous
materials, which in themselves possess little or no cementitious value, but will,
in finely divided form and in the presence of moisture, chemically react with
calcium hydroxide at ordinary temperatures to form compounds possessing
cementitious properties. The most important effects accompanying the use of
PPC in Concrete Construction Work are:
 Improved workability
 No increase in dry shrinkage
 Improved resistance to sulfate attack etc.
Special types of Portland cement
A variety of special cements exist that are limited for specific uses and purposes.
The following are few examples:
1. White Portland cement

2. Colored Cements
3. Oil-Well Cements
4. Regulated cements
5. Waterproofed Cement
6. Hydrophobic cement
7. Antibacterial cements
8. Barium and Strontium cements etc.

2.3.4 Properties of Cement
a) Physical Properties
Fineness:
It is about the grinding of cement and affects the rate of hydration: the finer the
cement, the faster the strength development takes place. The fineness of cement
can be measured in a number of ways. The sieve test, specific surface test by
Wagner Turbid meter method and the Blaine air permeability methods are used.
The Ethiopian Standard specifies the fineness of grinding should not be less than
2250 cm2/gm for OPC and 2500 cm2/gm for sulfate resisting Portland cement
by Blaine air permeability method
Soundness:
Incomplete combination of the lime with other raw constituents through under
burning of clinker, results in free or uncombined lime (CaO) in the finished
cement. If this is present in excess amount expansion and disruption of concrete
may eventually occur. This phenomenon is known as soundness.
If the raw materials fed into the kiln contain more lime that can combine
with the acidic oxides; or if burning or cooling are unsatisfactory, the
excess lime will remain in a free condition. This hard burnt lime hydrates
only slowly and because slaked lime occupies a large volume than the
original calcium oxide (CaO) expansion takes place. Cement which exhibits
such properties are described as unsound
Cement can also be unsound due to the presence of MgO, which reacts with
water in a similar manner to CaO. Calcium sulfate is the third compound to
cause expansion: In this case calcium sulfoaluminate is formed. It may be
recalled that a hydrate of calcium sulfate -gypsum is added to cement clinker in
order to retard quick setting but if gypsum is present in excess of the amount
that can react with C3A during setting, unsoundness in the form of a slow
expansion will result. For this, standards limit very strictly the amount of
gypsum that can be added to clinker. The limits are well on the safe side as far
as the danger of unsoundness in concerned. A very fine size of cement may be

the cause of unsoundness in cement. In order to determine the soundness of
cement the Le Chatelier test is used.
Setting time:
Setting is the term used to describe the stiffening of the cement paste, although
the definition of the stiffness of the paste, which is considered, set is somewhat
arbitrary. Broadly speaking, setting refers to a change from a fluid to a rigid
stage. Although, during setting, the paste acquires some strength, for practical
purposes it is important to distinguish setting from hardening, which refers to
the gain of strength of set cement paste. Some cement set quickly, within few
minutes, others may take comparatively longer time. Moreover, setting is not an
abrupt process, which may complete immediately after its start; it is rather a
progressive phenomenon, which has beginning, full development and an end. It
is on this latter basis, setting is distinguished into initial and final setting
qualified by the time required in each case.
Time required for setting is influenced by:
1. Temperature: the setting time of cement decreases with a rise in

temperature, but above 30 0C a reverse effect may be observed. At low
temperatures setting is retarded.
2. Water content: the quantity of water required in making a paste must be
right quantity for complete hydration of cement. Less water result in
incomplete hydration, extra quantity will bleed out after cement is set.
3. Humidity: the humidity of the atmosphere in which setting is allowed to
take place acts through temperature and moisture conditions.
4. Fineness of the Cement: the greater the cement fineness the greater the
rate of hydration and hence the shorter the setting time.
5. Chemical Composition: Setting is caused by a selective hydration of
cement compounds: the two first to react are C3A and C3S.
Strength:

The mechanical strength of hardened cement is the property of the material that
is perhaps most obviously required for structural use. Strength tests are not
made on a neat cement paste because of difficulties of molding and testing with
a consequent large variability of test results. Strength of cement can be
determined by two methods i.e. mortar test and concrete test. In the mortar test,
a 1:3 cement-sand mortar is used. The sand is standard sand (of single size).
Heat of hydration:
Heat of hydration is the quantity of heat in joules per gram generated when
cement and water react. The most common method of determining the heat of
hydration is by measuring the heats of solution of anhydrate and hydrated
cement in mixture of nitric and hydrofluoric acids: the difference between the
two values represents the heat of hydration.
For practical purpose, it is not necessarily the total heat of hydration that
matters but the rate of heat evolution. The amount of heat generated is
dependent chiefly on the chemical composition, fineness of the cement, and the
temperature of curing time.
Because in the early stages of hydration the different compounds hydrate at

different rates, the rate of heat evolution, as well as the total heat, depends on
the compound composition of the cement. It follows that by reducing the
proportions of the compounds that hydrate most rapidly (C3A& C3S) the high
rate of heat evolution in the early life of concrete can be lowered.
The fineness of the cement also influences the rate of heat development, an
increase in. fineness speeding up the reaction of hydration and therefore the heat
evolved. It is reasonable to assume that the early rate of hydration of each
compound in cement is proportional to the surface area of the cement. However,
at later stages, the effect of the surface area is negligible and the total amount of
heat evolved is not affected by the fineness of cement.
 For massive structures such as dams and retaining walls cement, such as
low heat cement is used which generates lesser rate of heat of hydration

to avoid cracks due to the fairly rapid rise in temperature and the
subsequent cooling.
Table 6: Heats of Hydration of the Pure Compounds of Portland cement
Compound Heat of hydration

C3S 503 J/g = 120cal/g
C2S 260 J/g = 62 cal/g
C3A 867J/g = 207cal/g
C4AF 419 J/g = 100 cal/g
Table 7: Heats of Hydration of the Compounds in Cement
Heat of hydration J/g at the age of

Compound 3 days 7 days 28 days 90 days 1 year 6 ½ years
C3S 243 222 377 436 490 490
C2S 50 42 105 176 226 222
C3A 888 1559 1378 1303 1169 1374
C4AF 289 494 494 410 377 465
Factors Affecting the Rate & Heat of Hydration
 Cement Composition
 Fineness of the cement
 Water/cement ratio
 Age of paste
 Ambient condition
b) Chemical Properties
Loss on ignition:

It measures the freshness of cement. During and after the manufacture of
cement, it may absorb some moisture or carbon dioxide. It is carried out by
heating one gram of cement for 15 min. at a temperature of 900 oC to 1000 oC,
cooled and weighed again. Weight should not decrease by more than 4% on
ignition. If decrease in weight is more, it shows cement is not fresh and more
hydration and carbonation has taken place.
Insoluble Residue
The mass of insoluble residue shall not exceed 1.5 percent. The insoluble residue
is that part of a cement sample which is insoluble in hydrochloric acid (HCl). It
derives from the clay minerals of the raw materials, which have not reacted to
form the cement compound, which are soluble in this acid. Hence the amount of
insoluble residue indicates the efficiency of the burning process the
completeness of the reactions in the kiln.
2.4 MORTAR
Mortar is an intimate mixture of binding material, fine aggregate and water.

When water is added to the dry mixture of binding material and the inert
material, binding material develops the property that binds not only the inert
material but also the surrounding stones and bricks. If the cement is the binding
material, then the mortar is known as cement mortar. Other mortars commonly
used are lime mortar and mud mortar.
2.4.1 Type of mortar
The various mortar used in the construction of engineering structure are

classified into the following
1. Cement-sand mortar: - For preparing mortar, first a mixture of cement

and sand is made thoroughly mixing them in dry condition. Water is
gradually added and mixed with shovels

2. Lime- sand mortar:- Lime and sand mortar is traditional material use of
lime results in a relatively workable mixture slow hardening makes it less
attractive than cement mortars
3. Pozzolime mortar: - Naturally occurring volcanic ashes may contain
siliceous material which can have a pozzolanic reaction with lime.
4. Cement-lime-sand mortar: - In order to combine the advantages of both
lime and cement, mortars are prepared with appropriate proportions of
Portland cement, lime and sand, which is known as compo-mortar.
5. Mud mortar: - The most elementary mortar is made from soil mixed with
water. It may be suitable for laying soil blocks Is not recommended for
fired bricks If exposed to the weather will quickly be eroded by rain
2.4.2 PROPERTIES OF MORTAR
Some of the properties of mortar are:
 Workability
 Strength
 Water tightness
Workability
For the same proportions, lime-sand mortar invariably gives better workability
than Portland cement-sand mortar
At times plasticizers and air-entraining agents are used in order to improve the
workability of cement-sand mortars, especially when they are lean (i.e.
containing less amount of cement) mixes.
Strength
Strength of mortar is affected by a number of factors, which include the quality

of the ingredients, their proportion, the curing method and age.

The compressive, tensile, shear and bending strengths of cement mortar
increases with an increase in the cement content, and this is true irrespective of
the grain size distribution of the sand. The strength of mortar increases with age.
Water tightness
At times mortar is used in parts of buildings exposed to dampness or moisture

and might be required to be watertight.
With the cement content, materials, and workability all constant, strength and
degree of water-tightness increase with the density of the mix.
2.4.3 BATCHING AND MIXING
Materials used for making mortar should be accurately measured, Cement is

usually measured by weight in cement bags whereas sand is measured by
volume.
 50 Kg cement=35 liters
 Box size:40cm X 35cmX 25cm
Few examples of mortar proportions by volume for different purposes:
For masonry:
 Cement mortar 1 cement: 4-5 sand
For bricklaying:
 Lime mortar 1 lime: 3-4 sand

CHAPTER THREE
Concrete
Concrete is a conglomerate, stone like material composed essentially of three

materials: Cement, water and aggregate. Sometimes a fourth material, an
admixture (additive for concrete) is added for a variety of specific purposes,
such as acceleration or retardation of setting or hardening.
The strength and quality of concrete depend not only on the quality and
quantity of the materials, but on the procedures used in combining these
materials and the skill involved in the placing and curing of concrete.
3.1 Concrete Making Materials
Concrete, as pointed out above, is a composite material made of Portland

cement, water and aggregates. In some cases admixtures may be added to
give the concrete special properties either when fresh or hardened or both. In
this part, we deal with the properties of the component materials and the
requirements they have to fulfill in order to produce good and sound concrete.
a) Cement
Usually, Portland cement is specified for general concrete construction work

and should confirm to standard specifications. Various types of Portland
cement as well as physical & chemical requirements were discussed in the
previous sessions.
b) Water
Water serves two purposes in making concrete. First of all, it causes the
hydration of cement and secondly, it makes the mix fluid and workable. Clean
water is important for the same reasons, as is clean aggregate; any impurities
present will affect bond strength between the paste and aggregate.

Almost any water that is potable may be used to make concrete. Drinking water
with a noticeable taste or odor should not be used until it is tested for organic
impurities.
Impurities in mixing water may cause anyone or all of the following:
1. Abnormal setting time

2. Decreased strength
3. Volume changes
4. Efflorescence
5. Corrosion of reinforcement
Some of the impurities in mixing water that cause these undesirable effects in
the final concrete are
1. Dissolved Chemicals.
2. Seawater
3. Sugar
4. Algae Water
Dissolved chemicals may either accelerate or retard the set and can substantially
reduce the concrete strength further such dissolved chemicals can actively
attack the cement sand bond leading to early disintegration of the concrete.
Sea water containing less than 3% salt is generally acceptable for plain concrete
but not for reinforced concrete. The presence of salt can lead to corrosion of the
reinforcing bars and a decrease in concrete strength by some 10-15%.
If sugar is present in even small amounts, it can cause rapid setting and reduced
concrete strength. Algae can cause a reduction in the strength of concrete by
increasing the amount of air captured in the paste and reducing the bond
strength between the paste and the aggregate.
The quality of cement paste is determined by the proportion of water to cement

(Water/cement ratio). Too much water prevents proper setting: Too little water

prevents complete chemical reaction called hydration; the water and cement
combine chemically to form a new compound.
A 50 kg bag of cement requires approximately 12.5 liters of water for complete

chemical combination of materials. However, the use of exactly the amount of
water needed for chemical combination is not practical under field condition.
Usually 20 liters to 40 liters must be used for each sack of cement. The extra
water serves as a lubricant to carry the cement paste into small pores of the
aggregate. Excess water is also needed to wet the aggregate so that it will not
absorb water needed by the cement.
It should be pointed out that the total amount of water required per unit volume
of fresh concrete depends on a number of factors that are:
1. The desired consistency of the concrete, which may be expressed as will

be seen, by the slump test.
2. The maximum size, particle shape and grading of the aggregate
3. Water reducing admixtures.
c) Aggregate
Aggregates generally occupy 65 to 75% of the volume of concrete. Hence due

consideration should be given in their selection and proportioning. Aggregates
range from fine sands to rocks 38 mm in diameter or larger. The quality of the
concrete is affected in several ways by the aggregate. The strength of the
aggregate limits the strength of the concrete. The surface of the grains affects the
plasticity of a concrete mix.
Rounded grains will move more easily as the concrete is placed. Long and thin
aggregate will weaken concrete. The aggregates used in concrete may be natural
aggregates, such as sand and gravels taken directly from riverbank or gravel
deposits, or they may be byproducts of an industrial process (e.g. blast-furnace
slag).

In Ethiopia the great majority of aggregates used for concrete are obtained from
natural sources, either in the form of rock, which is crushed to obtain the desired
maximum size or gravel, which is processed by crushing or screening oversized
materials.
In choosing aggregate for use in a particular concrete attention should be given

to three important requirements:
 Workability when fresh for which the size and gradation of the aggregate
should be such that undue labor in mixing and placing will not be
required.
 Strength and durability when hardened - for which the aggregate should:
a) Be stronger than the required concrete strength
b) Contain no impurities which affect strength and durability
c) Contain no silt which affect the adhesive strength between aggregate
and cement paste (this is mainly a problem in relation to fine aggregate)
d) Be resistant to weathering action
 Economy of the mixture- meaning to say that the aggregate should be:
a) Available from local and easily accessible deposit or quarry
b) Well graded in order to minimize cement paste, hence cement, requirement
Classification of Aggregates
Aggregates are generally classified based on their source, their chemical

composition, their weight, their size or the mode of preparation.
As regards the source, aggregates may be natural or artificial. Natural aggregates

are obtained from riverbeds (sand, gravel) or from quarries (crushed rock), while
artificial aggregates are generally obtained from industrial wastes such as the
blast furnace slag.
There are three main classes of aggregates differing in their chemical composition
and these are derived from argillaceous (composed primarily of Al2O3), siliceous

(composed primarily of Si2O3), and calcareous rock (composed primarily of
CaCO3).
The classification of rocks according to their mode of formation is igneous,

sedimentary and metamorphic rock.
Based on their weight, aggregates are divided into three groups:
a. Heavy aggregates with densities more than 4000kg/m3 (these include

steel balls, bronze and other metals used in concrete for radiation
shielding)
b. Normal weight aggregates with densities between 2400 and 2800kg/m3
c. Light weight aggregates such as pumice and scoria which used to make
light weight concrete, having solid densities in the region of 700kg/m3
PROPERTIES OF AGGREGATES
Important properties of aggregates include:
 Gradation (grain size distribution)

 Shape and surface texture
 Bulk unit weight
 Specific gravity (relative density)
 Absorption
 Hardness (resistance to abrasion or wear)
 Durability (resistance to weathering)
 Crushing strength
 Cleanliness (deleterious substances)
 Chemical stability
Gradation
The gradation or grain size distribution of the aggregate influences:
 The amount of paste required

 The workability of the concrete
 The strength and
 Water tightness of the finished product.
In general, it is desirable that the size increases uniformly from fine sand to the
maximum allowed for a given job.
Most specifications for concrete require a grain size distribution that will provide
a dense, strong mixture.
Aggregates may be dense, gap-graded, uniform, well graded, or open- graded. "
Well graded: - The range of size are approximately in equal amounts.
Uniform graded: - Most particles are of the same size,
Gap graded: - Most particles are of large or small size.
The use of well graded mixture of aggregates results in improved workability of

the concrete and economy of the cement since such aggregate has a decreased
amount of voids between the particles and consequently requires less cement
paste. For a given consistency & cement content, a well-graded aggregate
produces a stronger concrete than a poorly graded one because less water
required to give suitable workability.

SIEVE ANALYSIS
The grading or particle size distribution of aggregate is determined by sieve

analysis. According to Ethiopian Standard, fine aggregate should consist of
natural sand obtained from the natural disintegration of rock or sand obtained
from crushed stones whereas coarse aggregate should be gravel, crushed gravel,
or crushed stone. The grading or particle size distribution of fine aggregate and
coarse aggregate should be within the limits specified in the following tables:
For sieve analysis, a sample of aggregate is first surface dried and then sieved
through the series, starting with the largest. The weight retained on each sieve
is recorded and the percentage computed. The summation of the cumulative
percentage of the material retained on the sieves (not including the intermediate
sieves) divided by 100 is called Fineness modulus (FM).

Fineness modulus is used as an index to the fineness or coarseness and
uniformity of aggregate supplied, but it is not an indication of grading since there
could be an infinite number of grading which will produce a given fineness
modulus.
Smaller sieves are not included but coarse ones are used if necessary. The
smaller the value of fineness modulus, the finer is the sand. The finesse modulus
for good sand should range between 2.25 -3.25.
Very fine sand and very coarse sand are objectionable, fine sand is uneconomical
and coarse sand give harsh unworkable mixes. Fineness modulus of sand varies
as under:
 Fine sand: 2.25 to 2.6

 Medium sand: 2.6 to 2.9
 Coarse sand: 2.9 to 3.25
Note: 2", 1”, ½ " sieves are called "Intermediate" & are not included for the
fineness modulus calculations.
Maximum Size of Aggregate
It is not necessary that 100% of the particles of an aggregate be within the

specified size range for construction purposes. A small amount, usually 5% or
10% is allowed to be either larger or smaller than the specified size, as it would
be economically impossible to ensure that 100% of the particles are within any
specified range. Therefore, if 19mm (3/4") is the maximum size of aggregate
desired for concrete mix, specifications would indicate that the nominal
maximum size is 19mm. In this case, 90% of the sample must be smaller than
19mm and 100% smaller than the next higher standard size, 25mm (1 ").
Fine aggregate has a nominal maximum size of 4.75 (No.4 sieve) Therefore
specifications will require that 100% of the aggregate pass the 9.5mm (3/6")
sieve, and 90 (or 95%) pass 4.75mm.

With a given sectional dimension of a concrete structural member and spacing
of reinforcements, it is in general recommended to select the maximum possible
size of aggregate.
The maximum size and grading are important because they affect:
1. The relative volume occupied by the aggregate, hence the economy in

producing concrete
2. The surface area of the aggregate which determines the amount of water
necessary to wet all the solids
3. The workability of the mixture
4. The tendency of segregation
5. The porosity & shrinkage
Shape and surface texture
The particle shape and the surface texture of aggregates influence the properties
of fresh concrete more than those of hardened concrete. Sharp, angular, and
rough aggregate particles require more paste to make good concrete than do
rounded ones.
Classification description Example

Rounded Full water worn or completely River or seashore
shaped by attrition gravel; desert, seashore,
and windblown sand
Irregular Naturally irregular, or partly shaped Other gravels; sand or
by attrition and having rounded dug flint
edges
Flaky Material of which the thickness is Laminated rock
small relative to the other two
dimensions

Angular Possessing well-defined edges Crushed rocks of all
formed at the intersection of roughly types; talus; crushed
planar faces slag
Elongated Material, usually angular, in which
the length is considerably larger
than the other two dimensions
Flaky and Material having the length
elongated considerably larger than the width,
and the width considerably larger
than the thickness
Bulk Density (Unit Weight)
Bulk density is the weight of the aggregate required to fill a container of a

specified unit volume. Volume is occupied by both the aggregates and the voids
between the aggregate particles. The normal range of bulk unit weight for
aggregates for normal weight concrete is from 1200 to 1760 kg/m3
It is affected by the degree of compaction (voids), aggregate moisture (presence

of water), size distribution and shape of particles and how densely the aggregate
is packed.
 Loose bulk density

 Rodded or compact bulk density
Specific Gravity
The specific gravity of an aggregate is another characteristic of the material

which needs to be determined. It is not a measure of aggregate quality but is
used in making calculations related to mix design.
In concrete technology distinction is made b/n absolute specific gravity,

apparent specific gravity and bulk specific gravity.

Absolute specific gravity: is the ratio of the mass of a unit volume of a material
(without pores) to the same volume of gas-free distilled water.
Apparent specific gravity: is the ratio of the weight in air of a material of given
volume (solid matter plus impermeable pores or voids) to the weight in air of an
equal volume of distilled water.
Apparent specific gravity = A/ (A-C)
Bulk specific gravity: is defined as the ratio of the weight in air of a given volume
of a permeable material (including both its permeable and impermeable voids) to
the weight in air of an equal volume of water.
Bulk specific gravity = A/ (B-C)
Bulk specific gravity (SSD basis): is defined as the ratio of the weight in air of a
permeable material in a saturated surface dry condition to the weight in air of
an equal volume of water.
Bulk specific gravity (SSD) = B/ (B-C)
Where A= weight of the oven dry sample in air.
B= weight of SSD sample in air
C= weight of saturated sample in water
In computation of quantities for concrete mixes it is the specific gravity of the

SSD aggregates that is always used.
The specific gravity of most normal weight aggregate will range from 2.4 to 2.9.
Absorption
Over a 24-hr period lightweight aggregates may absorb water in the amount of 5
to 20 percent of their own dry weight, depending on the type of aggregate and its
pore structure. A tendency of this sort must be taken into account when concrete
is made with lightweight aggregate. To make light weight mixtures as uniform as

possible, however, aggregates should be pre-wetted, but not saturated, 24 hr.
before they are to be used.
Moisture Content
Two types of moisture are recognized in aggregates: absorbed moisture and

surface moisture. Absorbed moisture is that which is taken in by the voids in
aggregate particles and may not be apparent on the surface, while surface
moisture is that which clings to the surface of the particle.
The absorption and surface moisture of aggregate is need to be determined in

order to control the net water content of a concrete mix and to make adjustment
in batch weights of the materials. The moisture conditions of aggregates are
designated as follows:
 Oven-Dry: In this condition they are fully absorbent.

 Air-Dry: Particles are dry at the surface but contain some interior
moisture. They are therefore somewhat absorbent.
 Saturated surface-Dry: In this condition there is no water on the surface,
but the particle contains all the interior moisture it can hold. It will neither
absorb moisture from nor contribute moisture to the mix.
 Damp or Wet: The particles contain an excess of moisture on the surface
and will contribute moisture to the mix.

Aggregates with high absorption capacity may have high shrinkage properties on
drying.
 Large shrinkage: fine grained sandstones, slate, basalt, trap rock, clay-
containing
 Low shrinkage: quartz, limestone, granite, feldspar
d) Admixtures
Admixtures are ingredients other than water, aggregates, hydraulic cement, and
fibers that are added to the concrete batch immediately before or during mixing.
A proper use of admixtures offers certain beneficial effects to concrete, including
improved quality, acceleration or retardation of setting time, enhanced frost and
sulfate resistance, control of strength development, improved workability, and
enhanced finish ability.
a) Water - reducers
Water-reducing admixtures are groups of products that are added to concrete to

achieve certain workability (slump) at a lower w/c. The basic role of water
reducers is to deflocculate the cement particles agglomerated together and
release the water tied up in these agglomerations, producing more fluid paste at
lower water contents. Use of water reducers usually reduces water demand 7-
10%. A higher dosage of admixtures leads to more reduction; however, excess
retardation may be encountered.
It is well known now that using water-reducing admixtures increases concrete

strength. Increases in compressive strength are as much as 25% greater than
would be anticipated from the decrease in w/c.
Although using admixtures in concrete improves concrete's properties, misusing

any kind of admixtures will negatively affect these properties. It is therefore
important to follow the manufacturer's recommendations whenever admixtures
are used.
b) Set – retarders

Retarding admixtures (retarders) are known to delay hydration of cement without
affecting the long-term mechanical properties. They are used in concrete to offset
the effect of high temperatures, which decrease setting times, or to avoid
complications when unavoidable delays between mixing and placing occur. Use
of set retarders in concrete pavement construction 1) enables farther hauling,
thus eliminating the cost of relocating central mixing plants; 2) allows more time
for texturing or plastic grooving of concrete pavements; 3) allows more time for
hand finishing around the headers at the start and end of the production day;
and 4) helps eliminate cold joints in two-course paving and in the event of
equipment breakdown.
Many researchers studied mechanisms of set retardation. Several theories have

been offered to explain this mechanism. A review of these theories was presented
by Young.
The role of retarding admixtures can be explained in a simple way: the

admixtures form a film around the cement compounds (e.g., by absorption),
thereby preventing or slowing the reaction with water. The thickness of this film
will dictate how much the rate of hydration is retarded. After a while, this film
breaks down, and normal hydration proceeds. However, in some cases when the
dosage of admixtures exceeds a certain critical point, hydration of cement
compounds will never proceed beyond a certain stage, and the cement paste will
never set. Thus, it is important to avoid overdosing a concrete with a retarding
admixture.
c) Accelerators
Accelerating admixtures are added to concrete either to increase the rate of early
strength development or to shorten the time of setting, or both. Chemical
compositions of accelerators include some of inorganic compounds such as
soluble chlorides, carbonates, silicates, fluosilicates, and some organic
compounds such as triethanolamine.

Among all these accelerating materials, calcium chloride is the most common
accelerator used in concrete. Most of the available literature treats calcium
chloride as the main accelerator and briefly discusses the other types of
accelerators. However, growing interest in using "chloride-free" accelerators as
replacement for calcium chloride has been observed. This is because calcium
chloride in reinforced concrete can promote corrosion activity of steel
reinforcement, especially in moist environments. However, the use of good
practices, i.e. proper proportioning, proper consolidation, and adequate cover
thickness can significantly reduce or eliminate problems related to corrosion.
d) Superplasticizers
The use of superplasticizers (high range water reducer) has become a quite
common practice. These classes of water reducers were originally developed in
Japan and Germany in the early 1960s; they were introduced in the United
States in the mid-1970s.
The main purpose of using superplasticizers is to produce flowing concrete with

very high slump in the range of 175-225 mm to be used in heavily reinforced
structures and in placements where adequate consolidation by vibration cannot
be readily achieved. The other major application is the production of high-
strength concrete at w/c's ranging from 0.3 to 0.4.
The capability of superplasticizers to reduce water requirements 12-25% without

affecting the workability leads to production of high-strength concrete and lower
permeability.
3.2 FRESH CONCRETE
Having considered the ingredients of concrete, we should now address ourselves

to the properties of freshly mixed concrete. Since the long-term properties of
hardened concrete; strength, volume stability, and durability are seriously
affected by its degree of compaction, it is vital that the consistence or workability

of the fresh concrete be such that the concrete can be properly compacted and
also that it can be transported, placed, and molded into the desired shape.
3.2.1 Properties of Fresh Concrete
a) Workability
It is the property of fresh concrete that determines the ease with which a material
can be used to give a product of the required properties or it is the property of
fresh concrete that determines the amount of work required for placement and
compaction that determines the resistance to segregation.
b) Consistency
It is the term used to denote the degree of wetness or fluidity of concrete.

Experience has shown that wet concretes are more workable than dry (stiff)
concretes, but concretes of the same wetness (consistence) may differ in
workability. The degree of wetness of a concrete mixture may be classified as
stiff, plastic, and flowing.
The slump test
Slump is the subsidence of concrete cone after mold is lifted up. Slump test is
made in laboratory and on site to measure subsidence of a pile of concrete in a
mold (slump test apparatus of dimensions: base diameter = 20 cm, top diameter
= 10cm, and height =30 cm.) compacted with a steel rod (16 mm diameter and
60cm long).
Types of slump (results of Slump)
 True Slump -Has even subsidence

 Shear Slump -Half of the cone slides, difficult to measure, and results from
harsh mixes-deficient in fine aggregate.
 Collapse slump-difficult to measure, results from very wet mixes

c) Segregation: - or separation of coarse aggregates from the mass of
concrete results from:
 Uncontrolled pumping or falling
 Placing under waters
 Placing concrete in heavily reinforced members
Precautions to control segregation:
 Careful handling, placing, and consolidation of concrete.

 Placing concrete near its final position, instead of falling from greatest
heights.
d) Bleeding: - is the appearance of water on concrete surface. As a
consequence of bleeding, slum layer will be formed making concrete weak
and porous. Slum layer shall be removed before casting new layer.
Measures to minimize bleeding:
 Using well graded and proportioned aggregates

 Increasing amount of cement
 Applying air entering agents
 Reducing amount of water
e) Stiffening and Setting: - Concrete is required to remain plastic for the

time to be taken to transport, place, and consolidate it. Temperature

influences the stiffening of concrete. That is, low temperature delays while
high temperature, accelerate the stiffening of concrete.
Factors that affect workability and consistence
The materials that constitute concrete principally affect workability and

consistence of fresh concrete.
The factors governing the plasticity of a concrete mixture are:
1. Relative quantities of cement paste and aggregates

2. Plasticity of the cement paste
3. Grading of aggregates
4. Shape and surface characteristics of aggregate particles
3.2.2 Volume of Fresh Concrete
The volume of fresh concrete is equal to the sum of the absolute volumes of
its components, including the naturally entrapped or purposely entrained air.
If VA = Volume of air
Vw = volume of water
Vc= absolute volume of cement
Vfa = absolute volume of fine aggregate
Vca = absolute volume of coarse aggregate
Then the total volume of the fresh compacted concrete will be:
V = Va + Vw + Vc + Vfa + Vca……………… (1)
From the point of view of concrete technology it would be best to prescribe mix
proportions by the "absolute volume" of the ingredients, because the volume of
the resulting concrete and its properties are dependent on the absolute volume
and not on their weight or bulk volume. But this is an impractical way to
proportion materials, because the absolute volume of the ingredients cannot be

measured in the field. However, the absolute volume can easily be calculated
from the relationship of the weight and specific gravity of the material:
𝑊
V= ………….….. (2)
1000𝐺
Where: V is the absolute volume in m3
W is the weight of the material in kg
G is the specific gravity of the material & 1000 is the density or unit
weight of fresh water in kg/m3
The specific gravity of cement may be taken, for all practical purposes, equal to
3.15. For calculating the volumes of the aggregates we use their specific gravity
(bulk, saturated surface dry basis), which is defined by " the ratio of the weight
in air or the S.S.D. aggregates (i.e., including their voids) to the weight of an
equal volume of water:
Substituting weight and specific gravities in equation (2) for absolute volumes
in equation (1) we get the volume of concrete in m3 as follows
𝑊𝑤 𝑊𝑐 𝑊𝑓𝑎 𝑊𝑐𝑎
V=Va + + + + ………………… (3)
1000 1000𝐺𝑐 1000𝐺𝑓𝑎 1000𝐺𝑐𝑎
Where: Va = Volume of air
Ww= weight of water
Wc =weight of cement, Kg.
Wfa= weight of fine aggregate, Kg
Wca= weight of coarse aggregate, kg
If the cement, water, and air contents per m3 of fresh concrete are known, then
the required weight of the aggregates for a cubic meter of fresh concrete can
easily be calculated from Eq. (3).

If the cement and aggregates on the job are to be measured by volume, the weight
proportion as obtained by the above procedure can be volumetric proportion.
This is done dividing the weight of the cement and aggregates by their respective
loose unit weights in kg/m3 as obtained in the measuring devices on job
conditions.
𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡𝑜𝑓𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎 𝐾𝑔
Volume of Bulk material =
𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝐾𝑔/𝑚3
3.3 HARDENED CONCRETE
The desired characteristics of concrete vary from one construction to the other
and as such, they should be considered in relation to the quality required.
The properties of hardened concrete we will discuss in this part are:
 Strength
 Durability
3.3.1 Strength of concrete
Concrete is used to build structures with. Since the primary function of

practically all structures is to carry loads or resist applied forces of whatever
nature, concrete used for such purposes must have strength. This is the reason
why the strength of concrete is commonly considered although in some cases
other characteristics, such as durability and water tightness (or impermeability),
may be more important. Nevertheless, strength usually gives an overall picture
of the quality of concrete, and it is considered as good index whether direct or
inverse, of most of the other properties.
The continuous phase in concrete is the hardened cement paste (cement stone):
hence, it can rightly be said that the properties of concrete are closely related to
that of the structure of the paste, and as such stronger concretes are nearly
impermeable and consequently durable, they are also stiffer; however, they
usually exhibit higher drying shrinkage which might finally result in cracking.

The strength of cement-bound materials in compression, tension and shear,
follows the same general pattern as in the other ‘ceramic’ type materials, such
as stone or fire-clay products. The stresses in tension are amplified according to
Griffith’s theory and, in consequence, tensile strength is less than 10% of
compressive strength.
As a result of its low tensile strength, concrete is generally reinforced in areas

whenever tensile stresses arise, although some tensile or flexural strength is
nevertheless, assumed in such situations as unreinforced road slabs, ground
floor slabs and foundations.
Factors affecting strength
Consideration has already been given to a number of factors affecting strength,

though it may be appropriate to elaborate on some aspects of this information.
a) Water/cement ratio
As far as mix proportions are concerned, this is the most important factor
affecting strength for given materials. Lower water/cement ratios lead to higher
strengths. The effect may broadly be considered as the same as that of
compaction, higher water/cement ratios resulting in more porous cement paste
and hence, lower strength. The strength water/ cement ratio relationship is in
fact, approximately logarithmic in the normal strength range the log of strength
increasing uniformly with reduction in water/cement ratio. Illustrating this
point, the strength of concrete is increased by 25% by reducing the
water/cement ratio from 0.6 to 0.5 and further 25% increases would be obtained
by further reductions to 0.4 and 0.3. Clearly, when the added advantage of high
durability is considered, there would seem to be great benefit in producing
powerful compaction methods for concrete of low workability and low
water/cement ratio, though these techniques are most suited to factory
production.
b) Age

From an age of about 12 hours, the strength of concrete increases rapidly with
time, the rate of hardening thereafter reducing the strength approaching its long-
term value exponentially. Correlations between strength at different ages are
important since they often form the basis of 28 day, or later, strength prediction,
by testing at early ages.
Typical age factors are shown in the following table. For 0.6 water/cement,
concrete continuously cured, the relationship between 7 and 28 days strengths
has been the subject of particular interest, the traditional working guide being
that 28 days compressive strength is 5% greater than 7 day strength. This rule
is no longer accurate for modern cements where the hydration process occurs
more rapidly, the 28-day strength now showing a smaller percentage increase
over the 7-day value, a rise of less than 30% being more likely.
Table: Strength ratios for 0.6 water/cement concrete at various ages
Compressive strength
Compressive strength of the various strength properties of concrete it is

generally the compressive strength that attracts the greatest interest since it is
this property that is made use of in designing building units of structural or of
simple load bearing quality. In addition, it has a great practical and economic
significance because the sections and sizes of the concrete structures are
determined by it. Since most concrete structures are designed to resist
compressive stress, it is this property which is usually prescribed by codes or
standards in terms of either ultimate strength or working stress which is taken
as a percentage of the crushing strength as determined by standard cube or
cylinder tests or using proportions of beams broken in flexure.
Methods of testing for strength

These may be classified as destructive and non-destructive, the former providing
the basis for most design and production aspects of structural concrete, despite
the fact that destructive testing, as well as non-destructive testing, must be
regarded, in general, as an indirect way of ascertaining concrete strength.
Destructive tests
a) Cube test
This is currently the most common type of destructive test for concrete, owing to
the cheapness of the cube molds and the comparative simplicity of a
manufacture and testing of cubes. Carefully obtained samples of the concrete
mix are placed and compacted in steel molds. Bonding with the steel is prevented
by coating with release agent. After 24 hours the cube is removed and cured
under water until tested. The cube is ten placed centrally between the plates of
a compression-testing machine, trowel led face sideways, and the load is applied
such that the stress increases at a given constant rate until failure. The
maximum load is recorded. Cube in sizes of either 200 mm, 150 mm or 100 mm
are common.
b) Cylinder tests
These have some advantages and some disadvantages compared with the cube
test. Since only the cylinder ends are loaded, the body of the mound need not be
machined and can be formed from cheaper materials, such as plastics on the
other hand, the ends of the cylinder must be of accurate tolerance, requiring
capping of one or both ends, dependent upon weather a machined base-plate is
used. The normal height to width ratio of a cylinder is 2:1 so that platen restrain
is less than in a cube, leading to lower apparent strengths. When correlating to
cube strengths, a ratio of 1:25 is generally taken and a further factor will need
to be included if the height diameter ratio is not 2:1
Cylinder testing has been in use for many years in the form of testing of cores
cut from the concrete. This allow visible examination and strength testing of the

in-situ material, though cutting them is expensive and, if reinforcement is also
cut, there may be implications both in terms of the test result and the stability
of the structure itself.
.3.2 Durability
In practice, concrete is designed and constructed in order to build permanent

structures. However, at times, its service life may be markedly reduced by the
disintegrating effects of either the environment to which it is exposed or by
internal causes within its mass.
The environment causes may be:
a) Physical, i.e. weathering, due to the action of rain, freezing and thawing
and dimensional changes (expansion and contraction) resulting from
temperature variations and/or alternate wetting and drying,
b) Chemical, due to aggressive waters containing sulfates, leaching in
hydraulic structures and chemical corrosion, and
c) Mechanical wear, by abrasion from pedestrian or vehicular use, by wave
action in structures along the seashore or erosion from the action of
flowing water.
The resistance of concrete to the effect of weather, to salt scaling and to chemical
attack, to mechanical damage resulting from abrasion or impact are the different
aspects of durability of concrete; and the concrete that withstands the conditions
it is intended for, without deteriorating, over a long period of time, is said to be
durable.
In countries with temperate and tropical climate such as Ethiopia, the problem
of freezing and thawing does not practically exist; however, it is quite possible
that a concrete in service becomes exposed to chemical attack. Chemical attack
is brought about by the penetration of various agents of the environment (such
as reactive liquids particularly sulfate polluted air, etc.) into the mass of the

concrete and the chemical reaction of such agents with the different components
of the concrete.
Failure of the concrete to resist chemical attack is primarily a failure of the

cement paste; if the cement paste can be made resistant, the concrete will be
resistant and serviceable.
3.4 Mix Design
It was shown that the properties of a freshly mixed as well as the resulting
hardened concrete are closely associated with the characteristics and relative
proportions of the component materials. It is therefore obvious that by
determining the relative quantities of the component materials prior to mixing,
one can produce a concrete of desired properties. This process is known as mix
design or mix proportion.
At present there are a number of methods of mix design established and used in
different countries. Although different in few details, all mix design procedures
have the prime objective of obtaining the most economical mix proportions of
cement, water, fine and coarse aggregates and occasionally admixtures, to
produce concrete of desired properties when fresh as well as hardened.
The various methods can be classified as follows:
a) The trial method of proportioning
b) The arbitrary proportions
c) Recommended practices for selecting proportions

Nature and Properties of Construction Materials

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Nature and Properties of Construction Materials

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CHAPTER ONE

Nature& Properties of construction Materials

1.1 CLASSIFICATION & NATURE OF MATERIALS

i the chemical composition of the material,

Classification of Construction Materials

Construction materials can be classified into:

I) Metallic and Non-metallic

Compiled by Addistibeb S. Construction material Lecture Note - Cegn2082

II) Based on their physical Nature:

III) Based on their mode of manufacture

a) Naturally occurring materials

1.2 Properties of Engineering Materials

It is possible to classify material properties as follows: -

Compiled by Addistibeb S. Construction material Lecture Note - Cegn2082

Materials Bulk density (kg/m3)

It is the ratio of material weight to material volume.

Compiled by Addistibeb S. Construction material Lecture Note - Cegn2082

It is the capacity of a material to allow water to penetrate under pressure.

It denotes the ability of a water-saturated material to endure repeated freezing

 internal resisting force

- The internal resisting force are called stresses

- Deformations are called strain and it may be:

i. elastic if it recovers when the external force is released

Compiled by Addistibeb S. Construction material Lecture Note - Cegn2082

Classification of Mechanical Tests

I. With reference to the direction of the external forces

Compiled by Addistibeb S. Construction material Lecture Note - Cegn2082

1.3 BEHAVIOR OF MATERIAL UNDER LOAD

The common characteristics of materials under stress are ductility, brittleness,

Application of external force on solid body in equilibrium results in: Internal

Deformation from loading depends on

 Size of the material and

Load(p) 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ

Compiled by Addistibeb S. Construction material Lecture Note - Cegn2082

Compiled by Addistibeb S. Construction material Lecture Note - Cegn2082

There are four main groups of binders:

These can be divided into three categories:

 Hydraulic binders, which require water to harden and develop strength.

Compiled by Addistibeb S. Construction material Lecture Note - Cegn2082

Another common non-hydraulic binder is clay, which is present in most soils,

Gypsum is a non-hydraulic binder which occurs naturally as a soft crystalline

Thermoplastic materials require heat in order to be processed, and harden on

Bitumens are mechanical mixtures of different hydrocarbons (compounds of

Compiled by Addistibeb S. Construction material Lecture Note - Cegn2082

Compounds consisting of at least 40 % of heavy hydrocarbons are called

Asphalts are defined as mixtures containing bitumen and a substantial

These binders are generally produced by industrial processes and, therefore,

They can be used as admixtures, as adhesives or as surface coatings and are

2.1 TYPES OF CEMENTITIOUS MATERIALS

Compiled by Addistibeb S. Construction material Lecture Note - Cegn2082

Cement is a commonly used binding material in the construction. The cement

Masonry cements or mortar cements are widely used because of their

It is found in its natural form as a rock of varying degree of hardness. It is mainly

It is an important binding material used in building construction. Lime has been

Compiled by Addistibeb S. Construction material Lecture Note - Cegn2082

A. Quick lime/ Commercial lime

It is by burning the limestone in some form of vertical kilns to a temperature of

It is by adding just sufficient water to hydrate the quick lime. It is manufactured

Compiled by Addistibeb S. Construction material Lecture Note - Cegn2082

2.1.2 PRESERVING QUICKLIME

2.1.3 SETTING AND HARDENING OF LIME

The cycle is completed through burning, slaking and setting.

 Burning → CaCO3 + Heat → CaO + CO2