Construction Materials Course Outline

BAHIRDAR UNIVERSITY CED CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS
Bahir Dar University

Faculty of Engineering
Department of Civil Engineering
Construction Materials (CE - 203)
Course outline
Preliminary Information
Target Group: - 4th and 3rd year civil Engineering summer students
Course Title: - Construction Materials Course code: - CE 203
Credit Hour: - 3hrs. (2hrs. /week-lecture & 3hrs / week-lab)
Academic Year: - 2006-07
Instructors: - Misrak Tefera, & Saba Negash
Objective of the course
To provide basic knowledge about the materials needed in the fields of construction
Course Contents
1. Chapter One: Nature & Properties of construction Materials
1.1. Classification & Natures of Materials
1.2. Properties of Materials
1.3. Behavior of materials under load
2. Cementing Materials
2.1. Lime
2.2. Gypsum
2.3. Cement
2.4. Mortar
3. Concrete
3.1. Materials for concrete
3.2. Fresh concrete
3.3. Hardened concrete
3.4. Mix design
3.5. Quality control
4. building stone
5. Clay & clay products

4.1. Bricks
4.2. Tiles
4.3. Other Types of Blocks
4.3.1. Stabilized soil blocks
4.3.2. Hollow Concrete Blocks
6. Metals
5.1. Ferrous metals
5.2. Non ferrous metals
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lecture note ------------------- 2009 --------------Abel D.
7. Timber
6.1. General
6.2. Defects in timber
6.3. Decay in timber
6.4. Seasoning of timber
6.5. Preservation of timber
6.6. Market forms of timber
6.7. Strength properties of wood
Text and References:
Text book: -Construction materials by Mikyas Abayneh
Reference:
1.Properties of concrete A.M. Neville.
2.civil Engineering Material by Parbin Singh
Evaluation:-
Mid term exam-……………….35%
Final exam-………………35%
Lab-……………………….20%
Assignment………… ……10%
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CHAPTER 1
1. NATURE & PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
1.1 Classification & Nature of Materials
1.1.1 Classification of Materials
Materials for construction purpose can be divided.
Solid
Metallic
Liquid
Non-metallic
Gas
Naturally occurring
Industrially Produced
Materials produced at the construction site
The behavior of construction materials such as solids, liquids and gases is mainly due to the way in
which their atom is bonded together.
1.2 Properties of Materials
o Physical -properties - Density & specific gravity
- Thermal properties
-Acoustical properties
o Chemical properties - Corrosion, carbonation, sulphate attack.
o Mechanical properties (static stress-strain properties)
When force is applied on a solid body under equilibrium
 Internal resisting forces are developed to balance the external force &
 The body is deformed to a varying degree.
The internal forces & deformations are called stresses & strains respectively.
Depending up on the arrangement & direction of the external forces, the stresses produced in a body
may be
A/ Tensile stress B/ Compressive stress C / Shearing stress D/ Bending stress
E/ Torsional stress F/ Various combination of the above.
If the body recovers to its original position after a force is released from an action it is elastic
else plastic. Most engineering materials are impart elastic & impart plastic.
 Materials used for building structures must be capable of safely supporting their own wt. and
any applied loads.
Strength properties of materials depends

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- Rate & frequency of loading

- Direction of loading (for non homogenous materials)
- Moisture content of materials (Timber)
- Temperature of materials (Plastics)
Selection of construction materials depends on mechanical properties of materials, it is important to
be familiar with some standard tests to measure these properties
o With respect to arrangement & direction of external force;
1/ Tension test 1/ Compression test 3/ Shear test 4/ Bending test 5/ torsion test
o With respect to rate and duration of load application;
1/ Static tests 2/ Dynamic tests 3/ Wear test 4 /Long time test 5/Fatigue test.
o With respect to the effect of the test on the specimen;
1/ Destructive 2/ Non-destruction
The tension and compression tests are generally used to provide the basic design information
on the strength of materials & as an acceptance test for the specification of materials.
Tension test
A specimen is subjected to a gradually increasing axial tensile force P
by means of a testing machine. At various increments of force P, the change in length L
of the specimen for an initial gage length Lo are measured by strain gage.
t=P/Ao where:
P= applied load
Ao= area of cross section perpendicular to the line of action of the
applied load lied load.
Uniform stress will produce a uniform elongation per unit length, strain,
=L/LO
Normal stress-strain relation
fig
The initial straight line portions of these stress-strain relations may be represented
approximately.
E= P/Ao
L/ Lo Where E= Modules of elasticity
FIG
4
Properties of the Elastic Range
 Proportional limit
 The elastic limit
 The elastic strength
 The modules of elasticity
 Stiffness etc
A/ Proportional limit: the greatest stress which a material is capable of with standing with out a
deviation from the low of proportionality of stress to strain. (Point "a").
B/ Elastic limit: the greatest stress which a material is capable of with standing with out a
permanent deformation remaining up on release of stress (point b)
C/ Elastic strength: the elastic strength is measured by the stress which represents the transition
from elastic to plastic ranges.
A material has a high elastic strength if it resists loads with out yielding and with
out being permanently deformed.
D/ Yield point: Yield point is the stress of which there occurs a marked increase in strain without
an increase in stress.
E/ Yield strength: the stress of which yielding occurs. Since stress strain relations of most
materials do not show specific yield pts hence other means are used to define the
yield strength & consequently the elastic strength. To determine these values, an
offset strain OA=o is measured from the original O in fig. below and a line AB is
drawn through the point A, parallel to the straight line portion of the stress-strain
curve. The stress at at the intersection pt. e, is called the yield stress and is a
measure of the yield strength based on the offset method.
FIG
F/ Modulus of Elasticity (young's modulus)

-is the slope of the initial linear portion of the stress strain curve. For materials with non
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linear stress-strain curve, the slope of the initial stress-strain curve varies and the modulus
of elasticity can not be validly determined.
FIG
G/ Stiffness: The stiffness of a material is measured by its modulus of elasticity. The higher the
modulus, the stiffer the material..
Steel E=210GPA, Aluminum E=70GPA
H/ Poisson's Ratio: is a measure of the stiffness of a material in the direction at right angle to the
applied uni axial tensile stress. The ratio of the unit deformations or strains in the
transverse direction to that of the longitudinal strain by the application of tensile
force.
'


Metals b/n 0.25 & 0.35
Concrete b/n 1/6 and 1/5
I/ Resilience: The ability of a material to absorb energy when deformed elastically and to return it
when unloaded is called resilience. It is measured by modulus of resilience, which
is the internal work or strain energy per unit volume required to stress the material
from zero stress to the proportional limit.
Properties of plastic range

The characteristic feature of the plastic range is that a permanent deformation remains in the
stressed body after complete removal of the load.
Parameters used to describe mechanical properties of a material for the plastic range are the
ultimate strength, ductility & toughness.
1. Plastic strength of a material: is the max. stress a material can possibly resist just before
failure.
2. Ductility: ability of material to deform in the plastic range. Ductile materials show
relatively high plastic deformation .i.e. they are capable of being drawn out before rupture
3. Toughness: Toughness of a material is its ability to absorb energy in the plastic range. A
material with high toughness can absorb high values of strain energy in the plastic range.
Toughness is a parameter which comprises both strength & ductility. It is measured by
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modulus of toughness.
4. Compression Test:
Engineering materials divided in to two according to their manner of failure in compression.
 Ductile such as wrought iron & soft steel
 Brittle such as cast iron, concrete, bricks& stone.
The proportional & elastic limits, elastic properties of strength, modulus of elasticity, stiffness,
poisons ratio and resilience can be determined as for tension. However mechanical properties of for
ductile materials in the plastic range can not be determined. The difficulty arise from the fact that
once they have reached the yield pt, ductile materials under compression start to flow making it
practically impossible to measure the ultimate & failure strength.
The strength in tension and compression is different. For example the ultimate strength of
concrete in compression is about ten times its ultimate strength in tension.
Shear test: -Direct or transverse shear test (in rivets & bolts)
-Pure or torsion shear test (in shafts)
Mechanical properties in pure shear or torsion
 Elastic shear strength
 Stiffness
 Resilience
 Plastic shear strength
 Ductility
 Toughness
Bending test:
When members subjected to forces acting transverse to their longitudinal axis, the member is
subjected to bending or flexure.
Ductile and brittle materials behave differently under bending. In general, specimens made of
ductile material continue to deform with out failure & fracture does not occur, there fore properties
in the plastic range can not be determined for such materials. In the case of brittle materials such as
cast iron, wood and various plastics on the other hand, the load-deflection diagram can be
determined to fracture so that all the properties can be evaluated.
Properties for elastic & plastic ranges in bending:
A/ Elastic strength: is defined as the max, bending stress in the specimen corresponding to either
the proportional limit load pc or the yield load py is given by
by= My c
I
B/ Stiffness: the resistance to deformation in bending in the elastic range is called stiffness in
bending and is measured by the modules of elasticity in bending. As determined by the deflection
load relation & the deflection equation.
C/ Resilience: The resilience in bending is the average work done in stressing a specimen in
bending to the proportional limit load pp.
D/ Plastic strength:
The plastic strength in bending is determined from  =mc/I assuming the relationship applies also to
the non-linear plastic range. The stress obtained is known as the modulus of rupture in bending.
7
bu= Mu c
I
Since Hooks Law on which the relationship  =Mc/I is based does not apply to plastic rang, the
value is approximate
E/ Ductility: For brittle materials that fracture in bending, the ductility is measured as the max.
deflection at fracture. For ductile materials that cannot be fractured in usual type of loading cold
bend tests are made using apparatus the Oslen cold bench machine.
F/ Toughness: For bottle materials, toughness is measured by the average work done per unit
volume to fracture the specimen.
Relation ship b/n material constants
 Modulus of elasticity in tension (E)
 Modulus of elasticity in shear or (modulus of rigidity(ES) &
 Poison station  are generally used to describe the elastic behavior of materials and
all related
ES =E/2(1+  )
Factors to be considered in the selection of suitable const.materials.
 Availability -
 Environmental requirements
 Durability
 Biological & chemical risk.
 A esthetics
 Economy
 Design should be w.r.t client interest & economy
Deterioration of const. material can be caused by

 extreme temperature
 rain
 solar radiation
 humidity
 Salt condition.
 termite attack
 dust
 poor workman ship and maintenance
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CHAPTER TWO
Cementing Materials
Introduction
Cementing materials are inorganic substances (mineral fine powders) that are capable of
producing a plastic pasty mass when mixed with water and hardens under the effect of different
physical and chemical processes.
Engineering meaning of cement:
Adhesive substances + H20 = Paste (temporarily plastic, moldable and later set and hardens
to a rigid mass)
 Cements of this kind are known as calcareous cements whose principal constituents are
compounds of lime which might include certain allied compounds of Mg.
Calcareous cements – classified in to: Non-hydraulic cements and
Hydraulic- cements.
 Non-hydraulic cements - are cements which are either not able to set and harden in
water (e.g. non –hydraulic lime) or which are not stable in water
(e.g. Gypsum plasters)
 Hydraulic cements - are cements, which are able to set and harden in water, and give
a solid mass that does not disintegrate -(remain stable in water) e.g. Portland cement.
Lime, gypsum and Portland cement are used in the construction of buildings and engineering works
either as components for binding materials or as constituents of building materials (such as concrete)
2.1 Lime
 is mainly composed of calcium oxide (Ca O)
Pure Ca O + CO2 White CaCo3 (Lime stone)
 Found in most parts of the world in its natural form as a rock of varying hardness.
 lime deposits are generally found mixed with impurities w/h give d/t colors-impurities
in lime include Fe2O3, Mg0, C02
 is basically non - hydraulic but can be made hydraulic
Production of Lime
 Raw materials: Lime stone (CaCo3) & chalk
 Production process
Burn the raw materials – mostly in the vertical kilns at 1000-1300oC
CaCo3 + Heat Ca O + Co2

Called quick Lime/ caustic lime/ burnt lime
White in color
Sp. gr. =3.40 (approx.) in its pure form
High water absorption capacity
Note: over burning injures the setting capacity
 Hydration of lime (Slaking of lime)
CaO + H2O Ca (OH) 2 + Heat
Called Slaked or hydrated Lime
is ready to be made in to plaster or mortar by adding
water & sand to form a temporary plastic mass
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Note: During hydration excess water is driven off in the form of steam
and there is a considerable and sudden expansion
There are two types of slaking: Wet slaking and dry slaking depending on the amount
of water added.
Wet Slaking
 Mixing quick lime, this is delivered in lump form with an excess water to form slaked lime.
 Un hydrated particles (Slow slaking) must be reduced (avoided) as these un hydrated
particles might hydrate later in the building and cause Popping and Pitting and disintegration,
especially objectionable in the wall plaster or expansion of brick work.
Thus to reduce un hydrated particles:
1. Slaked lime is made to pass through a fine sieve and/ or
2. Continuous stirring in water tight box or a hole dug in the ground is made in slaked
lime
 The tendency of lime and cement to expand is expressed as soundness
Dry Slaking
 This operation is carefully controlled as is done in a factory.
 Just sufficient amount of water is added to hydrate the quick lime, the lumps break down in
to a dry powder known as dry hydrate or hydrated lime.
 The proportion of lime and stirring and water and stirring are scientifically
carried out by mechanical means, and the product is very dependable.
Setting and hardening of Lime
H2O CO2
CaCo3 Heat
CO2 Burning
Setting
Ca (OH) 2 Ca O
Slaking
Heat
H2O
Preserving quick Lime
Fresh burnt lime has so much affinity for water that it will quickly absorb moisture and Ca O from
the atmosphere and becomes air slaked, and loses its cementing qualities. It must therefore be kept
in dry storage and carefully protected from dampness until used.
Hydraulic Lime
This lime, which hardens to some extent by an internal reaction, is prepared by burning impure
limestone that contains clay, producing Cpds similar to those present in the Portland cement.
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 It is stronger but less fat or plastic than non hydraulic lime

 Manufactured in the same way as quick lime but higher temp. and just sufficient water for
slaking is needed.
 Hydraulic lime cannot be soaked over night to improve its workability.
High Calcium Lime
 Purest type of lime containing up to 98% Ca O

 Slakes rapidly
 Produces slaked lime with high plasticity and workability
 Sets slowly by carbonation
 Is non hydraulic lime
 Extensively used for plastering
 Burnt at a temp. lower than 1300oC
Magnesia Lime
 Contains impurities >5% clay and 5-10% silica and Alumina.

 Slakes less rapidly than high calcium lime
 Lean grey in color (attains its grey color due to the presence of iron)
 Burnt at a temp < 1000oC
 Preferred for Mortar than high calcium lime.
 Used for both plastering and mortar
Uses of Lime
 In construction, slaked lime is chiefly used to make mortar for building brick and stone
masonry and for plastering walls of buildings
 In the production of Portland cement mortars
Lime + Cement + Sand + H2O Compo-mortar
 Lime mortar will not harden under water, and in all cases exposure to air is necessary for
proper setting. Lime mortar with out addition of cement should never be used in foundations
or where exposed to moisture.
 Quick lime and hydrated lime are the most commonly used binding materials in Ethiopia.
2.2 Gypsum Plasters
 Gypsum plasters are used in the arts and in building construction

 In this country, plaster of Paris and stucco are used to a certain extent. In all these powders,
gypsum in a more or less dehydrated state is the essential element.
Gypsum
 Gypsum is a combination of sulphate of lime with water of crystallization.
 It occurs naturally as - hydrous sulphate of lime (CaSO4. 2H2O)
- anhydrate (CaSO4)
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 The gypsum rock usually contains silica, alumina, lime carbonate, carbonate of magnesia,
Iron oxide, and other impurities. To be classed as gypsum rock at least 65% by weight must
be CaSO4. 2H2O.
 Pure gypsum is known as alabastor - it is white translucent crystalline mineral, so soft that it
can be scratched with the fingernail.
 When heated pure gypsum loses its luster and its specific gravity is increased from 2.3 to
approximately 2.95 due to the loss of water of crystallization.
Manufacture of Plasters
Gypsum plasters are manufactures by heating the raw material gypsum at either moderate or high
temperatures the result being plaster of pairs or hard finish plaster.
Plaster Of Paris
 CaSO4. 2H2O + Moderate heat CaSO4. 1/2 H2O + 3/2 H2O

Plaster of pairs
is white powder having sp.gr = 2.57
also called low - temperature
gypsum derivative or semi-
hydrated plaster (hemi hydrate)
 Crushed gypsum fed in to containers called kettles, is heated for about 2 hrs at a T0 of 1700C
unit 3/4 of water of crystallization have been driven off Plaster of pairs.
* Plaster of Paris + sufficient water  form plastic paste which sets very rapidly
(5-10 minutes)
 The setting of gypsum derivative is not a chemical change as in the setting of carbonate of
lime but is due to the recombination of the dehydrated lime (calcined calcium) sulphate,
CaSO4 or CaSO4. 1/2 H2 O, with water to form the original hydrated sulphate CaSO4. 2H2O.
CaSO4. 2H2O
Hydration Heating
CaSO4 .1/ 2H2O

Fig. Complete cycle in gypsum used as plaster.
 Plaster of pairs or stucco set too quickly for normal solid plastering uses, it is necessary to
delay the time of setting.
 accomplished by adding retardants like glue, sawdust, or blood after the plaster has
cooled.
 P of P while setting under water, does not gain strength and ultimately, on continued water
exposure, will disintegrate
 In hardening, P of P first shrinks and then expands. The later property makes the material
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valuable in making casts, since a sharp impression of the mold can be secured.
 Owing to the rigidity of set and difficulty in working, its use in structure is limited to
ornamental work. It produces hard surfaces, sharp contours, and is sufficiently strong.
Hard - Finish Plaster

 By burning gypsum to a considerably higher temperature than in the previous case there may
be produced anhydrous sulphate which is known as anhydrous plaster or high - temp.
Gypsum derivative.
 CaSO4. 2H2O + High heat CaSO4 + 2H2O

hard finish plaster
called anhydrous gypsum plaster or
high-temperature plaster.
is less soluble with subsequent
reluctance to absorb water in the
process of re crystallization.
too slow in setting for practical
purposes but have a harder
finish than hemi - hydrate plasters.
 Plasters must be protected from contact with moisture
 Gypsum plasters should never be mixed with Portland cements because of the probable
formation of calcium and sulpho-aluminates, which would disrupt the resulting work.
 Plaster of different categories should not be mixed together.
 Water used for mixing plasters should be clean.
2.3 Portland cement
It is the name given to a cement obtaned by intingately mixing together calcareous or other
lime bearing material with if required, and argillaceous, or other silica, alumina and iron oxide-
bearing material, burning them at a clinkering temperature, and grinding the resulting material. No
material, other than gypsum, water and grinding aids may be added after burning.
Historical note
 Egyptians – used calcined impure gypsum
 The Greeks and Romans used calcined lime stone and later learned adding sand and crushed
stones or brick and broken tiles to the lime and water the first concrete in history.
 Lime mortar does not harden under water and for construction under water the Romans
ground together lime & a volcanic ash or finely ground burnt clay tiles. The active silica
and alumina in the ash and the tiles combined with the lime to produce what become known
as Pozzolanic Cement from the name of the village of Pozzuli, near Vesuvius where the
volcanic ash was first found.
 Joseph Asp din in 1824, invented Portland cement. This cement was prepared by heating a
mixture of finely divided clay and hard limestone in a furnace until Co2 had been driven off.
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He named his new cement Portland because of its resemblance to Portland stone) when set.
(Portland is a town in England)
Manufacture of Portland cement
 The raw materials:

 Lime stone or chalk Calcareous materials
 Clay or shale  Argillaceous materials (Alumina & silica)
These raw materials are found in all countries & Cement plants operate all over the
world.
 The process of manufacture essentially consists of:
 Digging and grinding the raw materials
 Mixing them intimately in certain proportions
 Burning the mixture in a large rotary kiln at a temp of 1300-1500oC when
the materials sinters and fuses in to balls known as clinker.
 The clinker is cooled and ground to fine powder, with some gypsum
added and the resulting product is called Portland cement.
The mixing and grinding of the raw materials can be done
 In water – Wet process
 In a dry condition- Dry process.
Wet process:
 Chalk is finely broken up and dispersed in water in a wash mill

 Clay is also broken up & dispersed in water (usually in a similar wash mill)
 The above two mixtures are pumped so as to mix in pre determined proportions and pass
through a series of screens.
 The resulting slurry passes in to storage tanks, (the slurry is a liquid of creamy consistency,
with a water content of b/n 35-50% and about 2% larger than a 90m sieve size). The
sedimentation of the suspended solids in the tank is being prevented by mechanical stirrers or
bubbling by compressed air.
 Samples of slurry are taken from storage tanks to adjust proportions of calcareous &
argillaceous constituents.
 The slurry passes in to a rotary kiln (Up to 8m in diam. & 230m in length). Around the intake
of the kiln water is driven off and Co2 librated and the dried material undergoes a series of
chemical reactions until finally in the hottest part of the kiln some 20-30% of the material
becomes liquid, and lime, silica & alumina recombine. The mass then fuses in to balls, 3-
25mm in diam., known as clinker.
 The clinker is cooled.
 Grinding the cooled clinker with gypsum (Gypsum is added in order to prevent flash set of
the resulting cement) up to the required finesses -about 1.1 x 1012 particles per kilogram.
 Finally we have Ordinary Portland cement (OPC), which is conveyed to storage silos.
 Packing and delivery.
Dry process:
 Raw materials are:

 Crushed
 Dried in rotary driers
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Proportioned
Ground in ball mills (steel cylinder containing hard steel or ceramic
balls)
 The resulting powder is then burnt in its dry condition in rotary kiln. The result is OPC.
 The difficulty in the control of dry mixing and blending has made this method of production
of Portland cement much less popular than the wet process.
Proportioning of Raw Materials
In the manufacture of Portland cement, correct proportioning of the raw materials is of prime
importance in securing clinker of proper constitution. In order to fix the proportions accurately,
chemical analysis should be made on the raw materials. The results of chemical analysis are usually
reported in terms of the oxide of the principal constituent element (table 1.), and this procedure is the
basis for proportioning the raw materials in manufacturing Portland cement. The proportions may
vary depending on the oxide composition of the raw materials, and indeed different types of cement
are obtained by suitable proportioning of the materials.
Table 1. Approximate Oxide Composition Limits of Raw Materials.
Oxide Content (wt.%)

Lime (Ca O) 60 - 67
Silica (SiO2) 17-25
Alumina (AL2O3) 3-8
Iron oxide (Fe2O3) 0.5 - 6.0
Magnesia (Mg O) 0.1 – 5.5
Sulphur trioxide (SO3) 1-3
Alkali oxides
 Soda (Na2O) 0.3 -1.2
 Potassa (K2O) 0.5–1.3
Titanium Oxide (TiO2) 0.1 – 0.4
Phosphorous penta oxide (P2 O5) 0.1 – 0.4
Carbon dioxide (CO2) 1–3
Manganese Oxide (Mn2O3) 0 – 0.1
Example: Typical Portland cement composition
Oxides %
Ca O 63
SiO2 20
AL2O3 6
Fe2O3 3
Mg O 1.5
15
SO3 2
Alkali oxides
 Soda (Na2O) 1
 Potassa (K2O) 1
Others 1
Loss on ignition 2
Insoluble residue 0.5
 The insoluble residue, determined by treating with hydrochloric acid, is a measure of

adulteration of cement, largely arising from impurities in gypsum.
 The loss on ignition shows the extent of carbonation and hydration of free lime and free
magnesia due to the exposure of cement to the atmosphere.
Present day trend in the manufacture of Portland cement is towards higher lime content, above 65%.
Cements with lower lime content are slow to harden. On the other hand, the maximum lime content
should be limited in order to avoid the presence of free lime in the cement since free lime may cause
volume instability (unsoundness) in the hardened cement paste.
The alumina and iron oxide act as a flux to reduce the burning temperature; this explains the limit on
their lower percentage. On the other hand the upper limit of these oxides is determined by the need
to control the rapidity the setting of the cement. Iron oxide imparts the grey color to cement.
In cement chemistry it is customary to represent the oxides by abbreviations (Table 2.)
Table 2. Abbreviations for Common Oxides.
Oxide Abbreviation
Ca O C
SiO2 S
Al2O3 A
Fe2O3 F
H2O H
SO3 S
Mg O M
Na2O N
K2O K
Mineral Composition of Portlant Cement.
We have seen that the raw materials used in the manufacture of Portland cement consist of mainly of
lime, silica, alumina and iron oxide. These compounds interact with one another in the kiln to form a
series of more complex product. The resulting pulverized cement is a heterogeneous mixture of
several fine-grained minerals. Its chemistry is very complicated, however its compound
compositions has been identified by cement chemists and is said to include those shown in Table 3.
Table 3. Compound Composition of Portland cement.
Name of Compound Oxide Composition Abbreviation
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I. Major Compounds
Tricalcium Silicate 3caO SiO2 C3 S
Dicalcium Silicate 2CaO. SiO2 C2 S
Tricalcium Aluminates 3CaO, Al2O3 C3 A
Tetra calcium Alumino ferrite 4CaO, Al2O3. Fe2O3 C4AF
II Minor Compounds
Gypsum CaSO4. 2H2O C SH2
Free lime Ca O C
Magnesia Mg O M
Alkali Oxides:
 Soda Na2O N
 Potassa K2O K
Manganese Oxide Mn2O3 -
Titanium Oxide TiO2 -
Phosphorous Pentaoxide P2Os -
The silicates, C3S and C2S, are the most important compounds, which are responsible for the
strength of hydrated cement paste.
C4AF is also present in the cement in small quantities, and compared with the other
compounds, it does not affect the behavior significantly; however, it reacts with gypsum to form
calcium sulphoerric and its presence may accelerate the hydration of the silicates.
The amount of gypsum added to the clinker is crucial, and depends upon the C3A content and the
alkali content of cement. Increasing the fineness of cement has the effect on increasing the quantity
of C3A available at early ages, and this raises gypsum requirement. An excess of gypsum leads to
expansion and consequent disruption of the set cement paste. The optimum gypsum content is
determined on the basis of the generation of heat of hydration so that a desirable rate of early
reaction occurs, which ensures that there is little C3A available for reaction after all the gypsum has
combined.
Free (uncombined) lime may be present in cement either because:

 The raw materials used in the manufacturing process contain more lime than can
combine with the acidic oxide SO2, Al2O3 and Fe2O3 or
 Insufficient burning at the clinkering stage.
Free lime in cement is undesirable since after being hard burnt it is very slow to hydrate
when cement is mixed with water. Consequently its major hydration will occur after the cement has
set. The delayed hydration of free lime under restraint will lead to a build up of internal pressure
since a hydrating (slaking) lime needs a large space than Ca O. This in turn leads to cracking and
inevitable disruption of the set cement. Cements, which exhibit such expansion, are said to be
“unsound" and the phenomenon is known as “unsoundness” due to lime".
Magnesia, which has a similar hydration to Ca O, may cause unsoundness if it is presence in

the cement in a quantity greater than the upper limit.
The presence of alkali oxides in cement assumes practical importance when aggregates
containing a reactive form of silica are used in concrete production. The siliceous mineral in these
types of aggregate, which are known as alkali-reactive aggregates are attacked by the alkaline
17
hydroxides derived from the alkalis in the cement. As a result an alkali-silica gel is formed which
involves expansive forces. This leads to cracking and deterioration of the concrete.
 It should, therefore, be pointed out that the term ' minor compounds' refers primarily to their
quantity and not necessarily to their importance.
Hydration of Cement
So far, we have discussed cement in powder form but the material to interest in practice is the set
cement paste. This is the product of reaction of cement with water. What happens is that, in the
presence of water the silicates and aluminates of Portland cement form products of hydration and
hydrates, which in time produce a firm and hard mass the hardened cement paste.
The reaction of cement with water:
 Is a reaction of the individual compounds. The reaction may occur in two ways:
1. Recombination of the dehydrated compounds with water.
e.g. CaSO4.1/2 H2O + 3/2 H2O CaSO4.2 H2O (true rxn of hydration)
2. Hydrolysis
Ca O + H2O Ca (OH) 2 + 2 H2O (leads to chemical rxn)
Mechanism of Hydration and Setting
There are two groups of compounds in cement

 The one that reacts slowly in water Casio2
 The one that reacts quickly in water tricaso4,tri calcium Aluminates ,tri calcium
silicate.
The whole process result in two phases
Liquid phase- fresh water and cement compounds (chemical reaction), temporary
Plastic matter.
Solid phase -after setting time.
In common with many chemical reactions, the hydration of cement compounds is
exothermic, and there is heat librated.
Rate of hydration
I
(J/Kg/s)
4 II
III
2
0
0 10 20 30 40 50
Age in hrs.
Fig. Heat liberation from a setting Cement.
Setting of Cement Paste.
Addition of H2O
18
Dormant period Initial setting time

Plastic and workable paste
Min. 45 minutes
Initial set
Final setting time
Max. 10 hrs
Setting Stiff and unworkable paste
Final set
Hardening
Solid set gaining strength with
time
Fig. Schematic representation of setting and hardening of cement
Heat Evolution in Setting Cement
The hydration of cement cpds is exothermic, and the quantity of heat (in joules) per gram-
unhydrated cement, evolved up on complete hydration at a given temperature is defined as the heat
of hydration.
Table: Heat of hydration of pure compounds
Compound Heat of hydration

J/g Cal/g
C3 S 502 120
C2 S 260 62
C3 A 867 207
C4AF 419 100
 Thus, C3A librates the largest quantity of heat in its pure form.
 The rate of heat evolution of cement, as well as the total heat, is greatly affected by its C 3A
and C3S content.
 So in very hot countries, cements that are used for making concrete should have reduced
proportions of the constituents that hydrate rapidly (C3A and C3S)to reduce the
19
accompanying high rate of heat liberation.

Factors affecting the rate of hydration include:
 Cement composition
 Fineness of cement
 Water cement ratio
 Age of paste
 Ambient conditions, etc.
The temperature at which hydration occurs greatly affects the rate of heat development,
which for practical purposes is more important than the total heat of hydration, the same total heat
produced over a longer period can be dissipated to a greater degree with a consequent smaller rise in
temperature.
For the usual range of Portland cements, about one-half of the total heat is liberated between 1
and 3 days, about three-quarters in 7 days, and nearly 90% in 6 months. In fact, the heat of hydration
depends on the chemical composition of the cement and is approximately equal to the sum of the
heats of hydration of the individual pure compounds when their respective proportions by mass are
hydrated separately.
Types of Portland cement
 Properties of cement are influenced by the dominant properties of the individual cpds. (C3S,
C2S, C3A, C4AF). Thus, by varying the percentage of these cpds, one can obtain PC of
different characteristics.
 The main types of Portland cement include:
Name ASTM description
Ordinary cement Type I
Modified cement Type II
Rapid hardening cement Type III
Extra Rapid hardening cement -
Low heat cement Type IV
Sulphate Resisting cement Type V
Portland Pozzolana cement Type IP
White cement -
Portland blast furnace cement Type IS
Example: The approximate oxide contents of the raw materials and the compound compositions of
the different Portland cements are shown in the table below.
Type of cement ASTM Potential composition

Designation C3 S C2S C3A C4AF
Ordinary Type I 49 25 12 8
Modified Type II 46 29 6 12
Rapid hardening Type III 56 15 12 8
Low heat Type IV 30 46 5 13
Sulphate Resisting Type V 45 36 4 12
The rate of development of strength of concrete made with cements of different types is shown in the
figure below.
20
C 50
O
M
P 40
R
E
S 35 III
S
I 2 I
V
N/mm
E V
II IV
S 20
T
R
E 10
N
G
T 0
H
7D 14D 28D 90D 180D 1Y 2Y 5Y
Age (D=days, Y=year)- log scale
 Heat evolution in concrete made of different types of cement is shown in the figure
below.
140
H 120
e
a
t III
II V
o
80 IV
f
I
h
y
Cal/g
d
r
a
t 40
i
o
n
0
3D 7D 28D 3M 1Y 6.5Y
Age (D=days, M= months, Y=year)- log scale
Ordinary Portland cement (Type I)

 Most commonly used for general purpose concrete construction where special properties are not
required.
 95-100% PC clinker & 0-5% minor additional constituents
 Lime saturation factor = 1.0(Ca O) – 0.7 (SO3) .
2.8(SiO2) + 1.2(Al2O3) + 0.65(Fe2O3)
Should be b/n 0.66&1.02
21
 Is used where the concrete will not be subjected to sulphate attack from the soil or water or
exposed to severe weathering conditions.
Modified Cement (Type II)

 Produces less heat of hydration than type I, hence their use in structures of mass such as piers,
abutments & retaining walls.
 Are used in warm weather concreting b/c of their lower temperature rise than type I.
 All round cement
Rapid hardening Cement (Type III)

 Produces strength more rapidly
 Achieved by increased C3S content & by finer grinding of the cement clinker. Thus has greater
heat of hydration than type I
 Should not be used in mass concrete construction or in large structural sections because of its
higher rate of heat development.
Low Heat Cement (Type IV)

 Has low percentage of C3A and C3S. Thus produced from materials of low in lime & alumina.
 The rise in T in the interior of a large concrete mass due to the heat development by the
hydration of cement, coupled with a low thermal conductivity of concrete, can lead to serious
cracking. So use low heat concrete in large mass placements as gravity dams.
 Because of low C3S content, strength develops slowly than type I
 Because of low C3A content, has improved resistance to sulphate.
Sulphate Resisting Cement (Type V)

 has low percentage of C3A
 Used in areas where sulphate attack is possible.
Note:
 No sharp discontinuities in the properties of d/t types of cement. And thus, many types of cement
can be classified as more than one type.
 Obtaining some special properties of cement may lead to undesirable features in another respect.
Thus optimization is needed.
 The economic aspect should be seen carefully.
TESTS ON THE PROPERTIES OF PORTLAND CEMENT

Tests can be:
a) Chemical: -to check the quality of the product
-results are reported in terms of oxides
- Mostly done in the cement plant lab
b) Physical - Setting times, soundness tests, strength tests etc.
1. Normal Consistency and Setting Times of Cement
Since different batches of cement differ in fineness, pastes with the same water content may
22
differ in consistency when first mixed. For this reason the consistency of the paste is
standardized by varying the water content until the paste has a given resistance to penetration,
when it is first mixed. When testing the Portland cement it is necessary to carry out trial mixes
until a mix of the required consistency is obtained. The quantity of water required to produce a
paste of standard consistency is needed for the determination of the water content of mortar for
tensile test, soundness test and setting time tests.
It is essential that cement set neither too rapidly nor too slowly. In the first case there might
be insufficient time to transported and place the concrete before it becomes too rigid. In the
second case too long a setting period tends to slow up the work unduly, also it might postpone
the actual use of the structure because of inadequate strength at the desired age. Setting refers to
the stiffening process which cement paste, undergoes as time elapses. It should not be confused
with hardening, which refers to the gain in mechanical strength after the paste has solidified.
The setting test measures the time taken for the cement paste to offer a certain degree of
resistance to penetration of a special attachment passed in to it. Two periods of times are used to
assess the setting behavior. These are called the "initial setting time" and the "final setting time".
The Vic at apparatus for testing consistency, initial setting time and final setting time is shown
below.
Normal Consistency:
Measured by Vicat apparatus
1. Procedure:
1. A trial paste of cement and water is mixed
2. Fill the Vicat mould with cement paste & put centrally under the rod
3. Lower the plunger gently & bring in contact with the surface of the paste and released it
quickly.
4. 30 seconds after releasing the plunger, the penetration is recorded.
The paste is standard (normal) consistency when the rod settles 10 + 1 mm
below the original surface.
% Water = weight of water x 100
Mass of cement
Usual ranges of w/c for normal consistency is 26-33%
23
Setting times:
Determined by Vicat apparatus

Procedure:
1. Fresh concrete paste of normal consistency is prepared
2. About 30 min. after mixing fill the Vicat mold & put centrally under the rod
3. Lower the needle gently & bring in contact with the surface of the paste and released it
quickly.
4. Thirty seconds after releasing the needle the penetration is recorded. This is repeated
every 15 minutes until a penetration of 25mm or less is obtained in thirty seconds.
5. The results of all penetration tests are recoded, and the time when a penetration of 35mm
is obtained is determined by interpolation. The period elapsing between the time when the
water is added to the cement and the time at which the needle penetrates 25mm is taken
as the initial setting time.
 For the determination of the final setting time, the needle with an annular attachment
replaces the needle of the Vicat apparatus (of initial setting time). The cement shall be
considered as finally set when, upon applying the needle gently to the surface of the test
block, only the needle makes an impression, while the attachment fails do so.
2. Fineness of cement
Because hydration starts at the surface of the cement particles, it is the total surface area of
cement that represents the material available for hydration. Thus the rate of hydration depends on
the fineness of the cement particle (the grinding of clinker) and, for a rapid development of
strength, high fineness is necessary; the long-term strength is not affected. A higher early rate of
hydration means, of course, also a higher rate of early heat evolution.
The cost of grinding to a higher fineness is considerable, and also the finer the cement the
more rapidly it deteriorates on exposure to atmosphere. Fine cement leads to a stronger reaction with
alkali-reactive aggregate, and make the cement paste, though not necessarily concrete, exhibit a
higher shrinkage and a greater proneness to cracking. How ever fine cement bleeds less than a
course one.
Thus it is clear that fineness is a vital property of cement and has to be carefully controlled. To
determine the following tests can be done to determine the fineness of cement.
a) Determination of Fineness of Cement Using Standard Sieve
Objective: To determine the fineness of cement sample by Dry sieving

Apparatus: 90m sieve, trowel, tray, cement, water, brush.
Procedure: a) Weigh accurately 100gm of cement in a tray
b) Place it in a 90m sieve breaking down any air-set lumps in cement sample with finger
c) Continuously sieve the sample by holding down the sieve in both the hands. Sieve with a
gentle wrist motion for a period of 15minutes, rotating the sieve continuously throughout the
sieving, involving no danger of spilling the cement.
d) Weight the residue after 15 minutes of sieving.
e) Repeat the procedure for two more such samples.
Observations
24
Sample No. Weight of sample(g.) Weight of residue (g.) Fineness

1 100 --- =Wt. Of residue*100%
2 100 --- Wt. Of sample
3 100 ---
Average= K %
Result: Fineness of cement by dry sieving is: K %

Precautions: 1) Before sieving, air set lumps of cement should be broken.
2) Sieving should be done by rotating the sieve and not by translation.
However, the sieve test gives no information on the size of grains smaller than 90 m sieve,
and it is the finer particles that play the greatest part in the early hydration. For this reason,
modern standards prescribe a test for fineness by determination of the specific surface of
cement expressed as the total surface area in square meters per kg (m2/Kg). The following tests
describe this.
2. Soundness Test on Cement
It is essential that cement paste, once it has set, does not undergo a large change in volume. In
particular, there must be no appreciable expansion, which under conditions of restraint, could
result in disruption of the hardened cement paste. Such expansion may take place due to the
delayed or slow hydration, or other reaction, of some compounds present in the hardened
cement, namely free lime, magnesia, and calcium sulfate.
If the raw materials fed in to the kiln contain more lime than that can combine with the acidic
oxides, or if burning or cooling are unsatisfactory, the excess lime will remain in a free
condition. This hard burnt lime hydrates only very slowly and, because slaked lime occupies a
large volume than the original free calcium oxide, expansion takes place. Cements that exhibit
this expansion are described as unsound.
Free lime cannot be determined by chemical analysis of cement because it is not possible to
distinguish between unreacted Ca O and Ca (OH) 2 produced by a partial hydration of the
calcium silicates when cement is exposed to the atmosphere. On the other hand, a test on clinker,
immediately it has left the kiln, would show the free lime content, as no hydrated cement is
present.
Cement can also be unsound due to the presence of Mg O, which reacts with water in a manner
similar to Ca O. However, only periclase, that is,” dead-burnt" crystalline Mg O, is deleteriously
reactive, and Mg O present in glass is harmless. Up to about 2% of periclase (by mass of cement)
combines with the main cement compounds, but excess periclase generally cause expansion and can
lead to slow disruption.
Calcium sulfate is the third compound liable to cause expansion: in this case, calcium sulfo-
aluminum is formed. It may be recalled that a hydrate of calcium sulfate-gypsum is added to cement
clinker in order to prevent flash set, but if gypsum is present in excess of the amount that can react
with C3A during setting, unsoundness in the form of slow expansion will result. For this reason,
standards limit very strictly the amount of gypsum that can be added to the clinker; the limits are
well on the safe side as far as the danger of unsoundness is concerned.
One advantage of slow setting cement is that more time is given to hydrate the lime before the
25
mass becomes rigid.

Verifying Soundness of Cement Using the Lechatelier's Apparatus
Objective: To determine the soundness of given cement Apparatus: Lechatelier's Apparatus, two
glass plates, temperature control water bath, scale, stopwatch, balance, cement, water, trowel.
Lechatelier's Apparatus shown in the figure below consists of a small split cylinder of spring
brass or other suitable metal of 0.5mm thickness, forming a mould of 30mm internal diameter and
30mm high. On the either end of split are attached two indicators with pointed ends A-A, the
distance from these ends to the center of the cylinder being 165mm. The mould shall be kept in good
condition with not more than 0.5mm apart.
Procedure:
a) The cylinder is placed on a glass plate and then filled with cement paste of standard
consistency.
b) Cover the mould with another glass plate, placing a small weight on the covering glass plate
and then the whole assembly is placed in a cabinet at 20 1o C and a relative humidity of not
less than 98% and kept there for 24hrs.
c) Measure the distance D1 between the indicator points after 24hrs and then again submerge
the mould in water.
d) Bring the water to boiling in 30 minutes and keep it boiling for 3 hrs.
e) Remove the mould from the water, allow it to cool and measure the distance D2 between the
indicator points.
f) The difference (D2-D1) between the two measurements gives the expansion of the cement.
The Ethiopian standard limits this expansion for Portland cement to 10mm.
If the expansion exceeds this value, a further test is made after the cement has been spread
and aerated for 7 days. During this time some of the lime may hydrate or even carbonate, and a
physical break down in size may also take place. At the end of 7-day period, the Lechatelier's test is
26
repeated and the expansion of aerated cement must not exceed a specified value of 5mm. Cement,
which fails to satisfy at least one of these tests, should not be used.
Because unsoundness of cement is not apparent until after a period of months or years, it is essential
to test soundness of cement in an accelerated manner (=boiling) so that any tendency to expand is
speeded up and can be detected.
2.4 Mortar
Mortar is the name given to a mixture of sand or similar inert particles with cementing
materials and water, and which has the capacity of hardening in to a rock like mass.
Mortar = Cement + Sand + H2O
Uses: - as a binding material in brick and stone masonry.

-for plastering of walls
-for making concrete
-to transfer load from brick to bricks or masonry to masonry
Mortar mixes:
Lime mortar = Lime + Sand + H2O = Mortar------ (Traditional)
-Has good workability
-Economical
Cement mortar= Cement + Sand + H2O = Mortar
- Develops strength rapidly
- Stronger than lime mortar
- Expensive than lime mortar
Compo Mortar =Cement + Lime + Sand + H2O
- has increased workability
- is relatively cheaper than cement mortar
Properties of Mortar:
Depend on: -Properties of cementiceous material
-ratio of cementiceous material
-grading and quality of sand
-water cement ratio, etc
1. Workability
For the same proportions, lime-sand mortar has a better workability than cement-sand mortar. How
ever, cement produces higher strength than lime
In order to increase workability of cement-sand mortars, especially when they are lean mixes (i.e.
containing less amount of cement); plasticizers & air-entraining agents are used.
2. Strength
 Affected by factors like: -quality of ingredients
-their proportions
-the curing method and age, etc.
 for the same proportions lime-sand mixes gives weaker mortar than cement-sand mix. this is
due mainly to two factors:
27
1. Cement gives stronger paste than lime

2. Cement gives a better bond b/n the paste & the sand grains
 The gradation of sand particles highly affects the strength of mortar. From lab tests, it is
found that for the same proportion of sand and cement, coarse sand gives more compressive,
tension, shear and bending strengths than medium and fine sands .But, the strength increases
as the cement content increases.
 High amount of mixing water reduces strength and density of mortar .reduction in strength is
higher in earlier ages.
 Strength of mortar increases with time. The rate of gaining of strength is higher initially and
slows down gradually. Approximately after a year it attains its full strength. This is because
-In cement mortar---Hydration of cement occurs slowly
-In Lime mortar-----Absorption of co2 occurs slowly
3. Water tightness
In damp conditions:
 Cement should be used in the mortar b/c of its hydraulic property
 The mix should be rich and dense
 Smaller water cement ratio shall be used.
Mixing:
 by hand or
 using mechanical mixers
28
CHAPTER THREE
Concrete
The term "Concrete" is used for conglomerates made artificially with cement, sand, stone chips,
water and some times admixtures. Green concrete is a workable plastic mixture of cement, aggregate
& water which can be cast in to any desired shape or convenient size. Concrete when set and cured
resemble stone in weight, hardness, brightness & strength.
The property of concrete varies depending on the quality of the constituent, proportion of the
concrete mix, quality of the workmanship & curing. In concrete each and every aggregate must be
completely surrounded by the paste of cement. The paste binds the aggregate together and forms a
solid mass. The pastes usually occupy 25 - 35% of the volume of the concrete.
The chemical reaction takes place rapidly of first with considerable amount of water lost and then
slowly for a long period under favorable conditions.
3.1. Materials for Concrete.
3.1.1 Water:
Water is an important ingredient of concrete as it actively participates in the chemical reaction with
cement. Since it helps to form the strength giving cement paste, the quantity & quality of water is
required to be looked very carefully.
Generally water used drinking is suitable for making good concrete. In general water to be used in
concrete should be free of the following substances with some permissible amount.
 Sugar
 Carbonates & bicarbonates of sodium & potassium
 Chlorides & Sulphides
 Salts of manganese, tin, zinc, copper & lead
 Silt & suspended particles.
 Algae
The use of sea water for mixing concrete lead to corrosion of reinforcement. Therefore it should be
avoided.
The best way to find out whether a particular source of water is suitable for concrete making or
not, is to make concrete with this water & compare its 7 days and 28 days strength with cubes made
with distilled water.
Water has two functions in concrete mix
i) It reacts chemically with cement.

ii) It lubricates all other materials & makes the concrete workable.
Cement used in concrete mix needs less than 30% by wt. of water for its hydration process.
However, because of the dual function of water, concrete containing such a small amount would be
very dry and very difficult to fully compact. The quantity of water used in concrete mix has;
29
therefore, to be sufficient to fully satisfy both functions, for this reason water used in concrete mix is
usually much greater than 30% of the cement wt.
The total amount of water required per unit volume of fresh concrete depends on:
 The desired consistency
 The maximum size, particle shape, and grading of aggregate
 The water reducing or air entraining admixtures.
3.1.2. Cement
3.1.3 Aggregates
Aggregates are the most important constituent on concrete. They give body to the concrete, reduce
shrinkage, and effect economy. The fact that aggregate occupy 65 - 75 percent of the volume of
concrete, their impact on various mixes and properties of concrete is considerable. Therefore
choosing attention should be given to four general requirements.
a) Economy of the mixture

b) Potential strength of hardened mass
c ) Probable durability of the concrete structure
d) Workability when fresh
3.1.3.1 Classification of aggregates

Aggregates can be classified as normal wt. aggregate, light wt aggregate and heavy wt.aggregate
according to their wt. Aggregates can be further classified as natural aggregate and Artificial
Aggregate based on their source.
Natural:
Sand, gravel, crushed rock (granite, quartzes, basalt, sand stone)
Artificial:
Broken Brick, air cooled slag
Aggregate can also be classified on the basis of the size of the aggregate as coarse aggregate
( bigger than about 4.75mm in diameter).and fine aggregate below 4.75mm.
3.1.3.2. Source of aggregate:
Almost all natural aggregate materials originate from bed rocks. There are three kinds of rocks,
namely igneous, sedimentary & metamorphic. Most igneous rocks made highly satisfactory concrete
aggregate. The quality of aggregate desired from sedimentary rocks will vary in quality depending
up on the cementing material and the pressure under which these rocks are originally compacted.
Some siliceous sand stones and lime stones have proved to be good concrete aggregate.
Metamorphic rocks such as quartzes, snless have been used for production of good concrete
aggregate. But mica shall not be used as concrete aggregate.
Many properties of aggregate namely, chemical & mineralogical composition, specific gravity,
hardness, strength, physical and chemical stability, pore structure, etc depend mostly on the quality
of the parent rock. But there are some properties such as size and shapes which are important so far
as concrete making is concerned which have relation with the parent rock.
30
The most part of Ethiopia sand is obtained from river beds while coarse aggregate is prepared
from crushed rock & sold as crushed stone aggregate.
3.1.3.3 Gradation of Aggregate.

One of the important properties of aggregate used for concrete is the gradation of particles. A
suitable gradation of the combined aggregate in a concrete mix is essential in order to secure good
workability and to secure economy in the use of cement. For mixes of given consistency & cement
content a well graded mixture produces a stronger concrete than a harsh or poorly graded one, since
less water is required to get the required workability.
The grading (particle size distribution) of aggregate is determined by sieve analysis, which
is usually made by shaking the material through a series of sieves (BS or ASTM) or screens, nested
in order with the smallest on the bottom.
BS 3" 11/2" 3/4" 3/8" 3/16" No 7 No 14 No 25 No 52 No

100
ASTM 3" 2" 11/2" 1" 3/4" No 4 No 8 No 16 No 30 No 50 No100 No200
Fineness Modulus (FM):- The FM is an empirical factor obtained by adding the total percentage
of an aggregate sample retained on each of a specified series of sieves and dividing the sum by 100.
It is used as an index to the finesse or coarseness and uniformity of aggregate supplied, but it is not
an indication of the grading, since there could be an infinite number of gratings which will produce a
given F.M. which will produce a given F.M. In calculating the F. M. The intermediate sieves No.
200, 1/2 ' 1' and 2" ASTM sieves should be omitted.
Example: Sieve analysis of fine aggregate
Total wt. of sand to be taken for sieve analysis is soon
Sieve size wt. retained percent retained cumulative Cumulative percent

percent Retained passing
3/8" 0 0 0 100
No 4 2 0.4 0.4 99.67
No 8 29 5.8 6.2 93.8
No 16 133 26.6 32.8 67.2
No 30 140 28.0 60.8 39.2
No 50 147 29.4 90.2 9.8
No 100 39 7.8 98.0 2.0
No 200 8 1.6 99.6 0.4
Rest 8 0.4 0
Sum 506 100 100 FM = 288.4/100 =
2.88
wt . retained
Percent retained %  x 100
Total wt
Cumulative percent coarser (retained) % = the commutative sum of the percent retained.
Commutative percent passing % = 100 - commutative percent coarser.
31
Example:2 Sieve analysis of coarse aggregate.

wt. of C.A. to be taken for sieve analysis depends on the maximum size of aggregate (ASTM).
N.B. The maximum size of aggregate is defined by the largest sieve through which at least 90% of
the aggregate passes.
Sieve size wt. retained (gm) Percent retained com. per retained Com per. passing
(ASTM)
3" 100
2" 100
11/2" 100
1" 1444 18 18 82
3/4" 4350 54 72 28
1/2" 1423 18 90 10
3/8" 550 7 97 3
No 4 223 3 100 -
No 8 - - 100 -
No 16 - - 100 -
No 30 - - 100 -
No 50 - - 100 -
No 100 - - 100 -
No 200 - - 100 -
Sum 8000 100 769
769
FM   7.69
100
Combined Aggregate:- Some times aggregate available at sites may not be of specified or
desirable grading in such case two or more aggregate from different sources may be combined to get
the desired grading. Often mixing of available CA in appropriate percentage may produce desirable
gradients. But some times two or more fraction of C.A. is mixed first and the combined C.A. is
mixed with F.A. to obtain the desired grading.
Grading requirements: The maximum size and grading are important factors to be considered
because they affect:
a) The relative volume occupied by the aggregate (i.e. the relative proportions), hence the
economy in producing concrete.
b) The surface area of the aggregate which determine the amount of water necessary to wet all the
solids.
c ) The workability of the mixture
d) The tendency to segregation.
e) Porosity and shrinkage.
32
This means that from the point of view of selecting proportions (mix design), it is important to have
a well graded CA and FA with maximum possible size. For the above reason, national standards
specify grading limits for coarse, tine and combined aggregate (Refer table 8.8, 8.9 and 8.12).
In addition the FA should not have more than 45% retained b/n any two consecutive sieves and the
FM. should not be less than 2 or more than 3.5 with tolerance ± 0.2.
Grading chart: The result obtained as percentage passing or percent coarser can be shown
graphically in grading charts. The chart consists of sieve opening in the horizontal axis and percent
passing or percent coarser in the vertical scale.
GRADATION
Sieve Weight Weight Weight of Percentag Cumulati Percentag

size of of e ve e
(mm) sieve(g sieve+s retained % passing
m) oil(gm) retained(g retained
m)
63 0 0 0 0.00 0 100.00
50 0 247 247 2.66 2.66 97.34
37.5 1718.9 2047.3 328.4 3.54 6.20 93.80
28 1726.7 2721.3 994.6 10.71 16.91 83.09
20 1626 2859.8 1233.8 13.29 30.20 69.80
14 1353.9 2765.9 1412 15.21 45.42 54.58
10 1318.7 2598.3 1279.6 13.78 59.20 40.80
6.3 1347 2929.7 1582.7 17.05 76.25 23.75
5 1377 1873.4 496.4 5.35 81.60 18.40
3.35 1319 1820.2 501.2 5.40 87.00 13.00
2 374.1 776.7 402.6 4.34 91.34 8.66
1.18 389.6 613.5 223.9 2.41 93.75 6.25
0.6 351.9 531 179.1 1.93 95.68 4.32
0.3 319.4 468.5 149.1 1.61 97.28 2.72
0.212 305.4 352.1 46.7 0.50 97.79 2.21
0.15 298.1 335.5 37.4 0.40 98.19 1.81
0.063 255.9 329.7 73.8 0.80 98.98 1.02
Pan 315.4 409.7 94.3 1.02 100.00 0.00
33
Gradation
100
80
%passing
60
40
20
0
0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Sieve size (mm)
3.1.3.4. Quality of Aggregates

An aggregate for concrete must be clean, sound, hard and strong and durable. Harmful substances
which may present in aggregate may be classified as follows.
a) Substance causing an adverse chemical reaction.

E.g. organic materials such as loam, humus, sugar, etc.
b) Substances which undergo disruptive expansion example, shale, colloidal silica (chert), iron
Oxide etc …
c) Clay and surface coatings
- Dust increase water requirement and clay prevents good bond between cement paste and
Aggregate.
d) Particles having an unduly flat oven elongated shape (offsets workability).
e) Structurally soft or weak particles.
- Give lower strength and increase drying, shrinkage, abrasssion.
Reactive aggregate: the alkalis No2O in some cement react with certain minerals present in the
aggregate and course disruption of concrete.
Numerous tests have shown Opaline silica to be a serious of tender other known reactive substances
are chalcedy, tridymite, critubolic zeolite, rhyolite, decites and as desires.
The extremely fine fraction of aggregate materials are commonly classified as silt and clay and
34
should not permitted in large amounts because of their tendency to increase the water requirements
of a mix and thus contribute to decrease strength or durability.
3.1.3.5 SPECIFIC GRAVITY & UNIT WT OF AGGREGATE.
Specific gravity:- The specific gravity of a substance is the ratio between the wt of the
substance and that of the same volume of water. This definition assumes that the substance is solid
through out. But aggregate usually contain pores and hence the specific gravity has to be carefully
defined.
i. ABSOLUTE SP.GR:- It is the ratio of the mass of a unit volume of material to the mass of the
same volume of gas free distilled water.
ii. APPARENT SP.GR.:- is the various of the wt air of a materials of a given volume solid matter
plus impermeable pores or voids to the wt. in air of an equal volume of distilled water.
App. sp.gr = A/A-C
iii. Bulk Sp. GR:- is defined as the ratio of the wt in air of a given volume of a permeable
material ( including both its permeable & impermeable voids) to the wt in air of equal volume of
water.
Bulk sp.gr = A/B - C
On saturated surface any basis the bulk specific gravity is defined as in ratio of the wt. in air of
permeable material in a saturated surface dry (SSD) condition to the wt in air of an equal volume of
water.
Where A = wt. of the over dry sample in air

B = wt of SSD sample in air
C = wt of saturated sample in water.
In the computation of quantities for concrete mixes it is the specific gravity the SSD aggregate that is
always used.
When the sample is tested in separate size fractions the average value for bulk specific gravity can
be computed as the weighted average of the values as computed in the above equations using the
following equations.
1
G
P1 P2 Pn
  .... 
100 G1 100 G2 100 Gn
Where G = Average specific gravity
G1, G2 ………… Gn = appropriate sp.gr. values for each size fractions.
P1 , P2 ……….Pn wt percentage of each size fraction present in the original sample.

The bulk specific gravity for fine aggregate can be determined using pycnometer on the basis of wt
of saturated surface dry aggregate as follows.
35
Bulk specific gravity (SSD) = A/B+A-C.

Where A = wt . of SSD sample (usually 500g)
B = wt of pycnometer filled with water (g)
C = wt. of pycnometer with specimen and water to calibration mark. g.
Average specific gravity of rocks varies from 2.5 - 2.9.
UNIT - WT (BULK DENSITY):- The unit wt of aggregate is the wt. of a unit volume of
aggregate usually stated in kg/m3. It is helpful in batching by volume.
VOIDS:- The term void (w.r.t. amass of aggregate) refers to the space between the gross overall,
volume of the aggregate mass & the space occupied by the particles alone.
Solid unit wt  unit wt

Percentag eof voids x 100
Solid unit wt
Solid Unit wt:- is the specific gravity of a material in metric unit (kg/m3)
 Useful in calculating solid void of aggregate.
Eg:- unit wt = 1680 Kg/m3

sp.gr = 2.65
2.65 x100 1680
Voids (%)  x 100
2.65 x1000
= 36.6 %
For a given specific gravity the greater the unit wt the smaller the percentage of voids, and hence the
better the gradation of the particles.
Weight
Solid volume 
Solid unit wt
The unit wt of aggregate is influenced by the specific gravity of the particles, the moisture condition
of the aggregate and the compactness of the mass.
General unit wt of some natural aggregate.
Sand 1520 - 1680 Kg/m3

Gravel 1280 - 1440 " Compacted unit wt.
Crushed stone 4250 - 1400 "
The unit wt. of aggregate may vary a considerable range, depending up on the type, grading and the
source of the material. Aggregate made of blast furnace slag may range in unit wt from 960 kg/m 3 to
1360kg/m. The unit wt of Ethiopian pumice is about 200 kg/m3.
36
3.1.3.6. ABSORPTION & MOISTURE CONTENT

Some of the aggregate are pores and absorptive. Porosity & absorption of aggregate will affect water
cement ratio and hence the workability of the concrete. The porosity of aggregate is also affect the
durability of concrete. When the concrete is subjected to freezing and thawing and also when the
concrete is subjected to chemically aggressive liquids.
Aggregate to moisture content, the various states in which an aggregate moisture exist are
1. OVEN DRY: all moisture, external and internal driven off, usually by heating at 100-110oc
2. AIR DRY: No surface moisture on particles, some internal moisture, but particles are not
saturated.
3. SATURATED SURFACE DRY: no free or surface moisture on the particles, but all void
between the particles is fill with water.
4. DAMP OR WET: Saturated and with free or surface moisture on particles.
Oven dry air dry Damp

SSD
Absorption
capacity and
Effective moisture content
surface
absorption
moisture
Absorption capacity
Actual moisture content
5. ABSORPTION CAPACITY:- The total internal moisture content of an aggregate in SSD

condition.
SDD  Oven dry wt
Absorption capacity % = x 100
Oven dry wt
6. EFFECTIVE ABSORPTION:- The amount of water required to bring an aggregate from the
air dry condition to SDD.
SDD wt  air dry wt
Effective absorption (%) = x 100
Oven dry wt
Damp wt  SDD
Surface (free) moisture (%) = x 100
SDD
It should be noted that if the aggregate are dry they absorb water from the mixing water and they
affect the workability, and on the other hand, if an aggregate contains surface moisture they
contribute extra water to the mix and their increase w/C ratio. Hence adjustment on the quantities of
the materials have to be made based on SSD condition of the aggregate since of this state the
aggregate will neither absorb nor contribute water to the mix.
In the case of weight batching, determination of free moisture content of the aggregate is
necessary & correction of w/C ratio to be affected on this regard,
37
but when volume batching is adapted, the determination of moisture content of the fine aggregate
does not become necessary but the cons equate batching of sand & correction of volume of sand to
give allowance for balking is necessary.
1.1.3.7. BULKING OF SAND

In the aggregate free moisture holds the particles a part and present then from adjusting themselves.
to occupy a minimum volume, hence they may result a marked decrease in wt of aggregate in a
given measured volume and measure in the percentage of voids. These phenomena known as
"bulking".
The bulking increases with the increase in moisture content up to a certain limit and beyond that the
further increase in moisture content results in the decrease in the volume and at a moisture content
representing saturation pt. the fine aggregate shows bulking.
40
Bulking percentage of
30 Fine sand
dry volume
20
Medium sand
10 Coarse
3 6 9 12 15 18 21
Moisture content
Coarse aggregate also bulks but the bulking is so little that it is always neglected the extent of
bulking can be estimated by a simple field test. A sample of moisture fine aggregate is filled in to a
measuring cylinder note down the level say m, pour water in to the measuring cylinder and
completing inundate the sand and shake it . Since the volume of the saturated sand is the same as
that of the dry sand; the inundated completely offsets the bulking effect Note down the level of the
sand say h2. Then h1 - h2 shows the bulking of the sample under rest.
h1  h2
Percentage of bulking = (r/o) x 100
h2
Mostly, mix proportions by volume given specifications are based on dry sand - Hence, if the
specified quantity is followed, and moist sand is used, the mix will contain less sand ( and more
cement) than interested, and it will be harsh and difficult to work. There fore whenever volume
batching is used, bulking of moisture sand has to be allowed for by increasing its total volume. In
this case the volume of sand obtained from the proportions in the saturated state, is multiplied by the
bulking factor.
h1  h2 h1
Bulking factor 1  
h2
h2
38
3.1.3.8. TEST ON AGGREGATES
1) Sieve analysis 5) Determination dust or clay content

2) Unit wt. determinate is 6) Organic impurities of sand
3) Specific gravity 7) Soundness
4) Absorption test
8. Abrasion test ( Los Angeles abrasion)
- Abrasion is the resistance to wear.
3.1.4. ADMIXTURES
Admixtures are defined as materials other than cement, water & aggregate that is used as an
ingredient of concrete and is added to the batch immediately before or during mixing.
This day’s concrete is being used for so many purposes in different conditions in these conditions
ordinary concrete may fail to exhibit the required quality or durability or workability. In much cases
admixtures is used to modify the property of the ordinary concrete. So as to make it most suitable for
any conditions. As per the report of ACI committee 212 admixtures have been classified into 15
groups according to the type of materials consisting the admixtures, use. The some groups are listed
below.
1. Air entraining agents 8. Damp proofing & permeability
2. Pozzolona 9. Workability agents.
3. Accelerators 10. Grouting agency
4. Retarders 11. Corrosion in habiting agents.
5. Air determining a gents 12. Bonding agents
6. Air determining agents 13. Fungicidal, germicidal & in sectional agents
7. Alkali aggregate expansion inhibitors
3.2. FRESH CONCRETE

Fresh concrete or plastic concrete is a freshly mixed material which can be molded in to any shape.
The relative quantities of cement, aggregate and wall mixed together control the properties in wet
state as well as in hardened state.
3.2.1 PROPERTIES OF FRESH CONCRETE
1. WORKABILITY:- is the property of fresh mixed concrete which determines the easy and
homogeneity with which it can be mixed, Placed, compacted and furnish and serve the purpose it is
intended for when hardened.
2. CONSISTANCY:- is a general term to indicate he degree of fluidity or the degree of mobility

of the freshly mixed concrete.
A concrete which has a high consistence and which is a more mobile, need not be of right
workability for a particular job, every job regimes a particular workability.
A plastic consistence is neither stiff and crumble mix, nor too fluid & water mix. A stiff mix has a
tendency to crumble and segregate; on the other hand a fluid mix has a tendency to flow &
segregate. But concrete of plastic consistency neither crumbles nor segregates. Therefore, to obtain a
39
concrete of suitable consistency water should be added very carefully.

The following are factors that affect workability and consistency of fresh concrete.
* Water content * size, shape & textures of aggregate
* use of admixture.
* Mix proportions * grading of aggregate ( maximum influence)
Among the methods for checking the consistency of fresh concrete, the slump test is the most
commonly used and can be employed both in the laboratory and at site work.
There are three patterns of slump.
10 cm Slump
20 cm
true slump Shear slump Collapse
SEGEREGATION:- Can be defined as the separation of the constituent materials of concrete.

A good concrete is one in which all the ingredients are properly distributed to make a
homogenous mixture.
BLEEDING:- The tendency of water to rise in freshly placed concrete when the solids settle
through the body of water is called bleeding. It results from the inability of constituent materials
to hold all the mixing water as the relatively heavy solids settle.
The rising water tends to carry with it many fine properties which weakness the top portion.
3.2.2. BATCHING:- Prior to the mixing of ingredients it is essential to measure the materials
accurately to ensure the right proportions. The concrete may be batched either by weight or by
volume.
 When concrete is batched by volume there is always variation between one batch & another.
This is due to the fact that the quantities of solid materials in a container very much depend
on its degree of compaction, more over volume of most sand in a loose solution weight much
less than the same volume of dry compacted sand. Because of this batch, wt batching is
prefer than volume batch especially on important works, however, because it is simple &
convenient volume batching is used at most construction sites.
40
 Cement is always measured by wt. Generally, for each batch mix, one bag of cement (50kg)
is used. The volume of one bag of cement is taken as 35 lit.
 Gauge boxes are used for measuring the fine coarse aggregate whenever volume batching is
adapted correction for the effect of bulking should be made when the fine aggregate is moist.
 Water is usually measured by volume in a calibrated tank or by means of flow tile water
meters.
40
25
25 Gauge box
3.2.3 CONCRETE MIXING
Through mixing of materials is essential for the production of uniform concrete. The mixing should
ensure that the mass becomes homogeneous, uniform in colors & consistency. There are two
methods adapted for mixing concrete.
a) Hand mixing
b) Machine mixing
Hand mixing is practiced for small scale unimportant concrete works. As the mixing can not be
through & efficient, It is desirable to add 10% more cement to compensate the inferior concrete
produced by this method.
 Machine mixing obviously gives better and uniform mixes than hand mixing and because of
this reason, it is generally recommended. There are different types of concrete mixers such
as, Tilting drum mixer, non-tilting drum type, pan mixer type, truck mixer, plant mixer etc …
It is seen from experiment that the strength of concrete will increase with increasing time of mixing,
but for mixing time beyond 2 min, the important in compressive strength is not very significant.
The minimum mixing time recommend by US. bureau of reclamation, after all ingredients,
except the last of the water, are in the mixer is as follows.
Strength
2 min Mixing time
41
Capacity of mixer (cu.m) Time of mixing (min)

1.5 1.5
2.3 2.2
3.0 2.5
4.5 3.0
3.2.4. CONCRETE CONVEYING
Depending up on the type of work & equipment, various methods employed to transport fresh
concrete from the mixer to the site where it is caste. This include the use of wheel borrows carts,
chutes, dump, buckets, truck mixers, Belt conveyers etc.
It is important that the concrete be handled with out segregation of the constituent materials, the
condition which may easily occur.
Dump buckets
3.2.5. PLACING OF CONCRETE

Concrete is a plastic material when fresh and it needs form molds until it sets& harden. The forms
are made from timber or steel.
Before placing the concrete, the forms and subscribe should be cleaned moisten especially in hot
weather. When wooden form have been exposed to the sand or some time, it may be necessary to
saturate the wood to tighten the joints. In order to prevent the concrete from the adhering to the
surface; forms should be thoroughly oiled when concrete to be placed on a hardened concrete, a few
mm thick layer of material is necessary to prevent formation of stone pockets & secure tight joints.
The mould should be made from concrete mix to be cost but with out its coarse aggregate.
Concrete should be placed as soon as possible, in no case more than 30 min after mixing period.
It should be deposited in layers usually hot exceeding 25cm. Each layer should be compacted before
the next layer is placed.
Rein forcing steel should be clean & free from loose or harden mortar. Rein forcing bar surface
must never be oiled.
3.2.6. COMPACTION
Compaction of concrete is a process adapted for expelling the entrap air from the concrete & to
achieve max density which leads to higher strength. Compaction is done by hand by vibrator.
When compacting by hand, the concrete should be loaded, tamped & so as to make it settle
thoroughly every where in the forms & produce a density mass.
The use of vibrator which enables stiffer mix by compaction has two possible advantages compared
to hand compaction.
42
I. Much stronger concrete can be produced for given cement content by reducing the water
Content & therefore water cement ratio.
II. The same strength can be produced with less cement.
3.3. HARDEND CONCRETE

3.3.1. Strength & Properties of hardened concrete.
The strength & Properties of concrete depends on the following factors.
1. Quantity of the binding materials & aggregate.
2. Size, grading & proportioning of ingredients.
3. W/C ratio & consistency.
4. Quality of work man ship.
5. Method of mixing & measuring adapted.
6. Method of consolidation of concrete.
7. Site condition & temperature.
8. Method of curing.
Concrete should be tested for crashing (comp) strength, After 28 days curing.
For testing, 15cm cube or cylinders of 15cm diameter, 30cm high are used the cube test generally
give 25% high values than the cylinder test. Strength of concrete test specimen decrease in increase
in size.
p

 P= Crushing load.

A= sectional area.
The stress -strain characteristics of concrete is shown in the fig. below.
Stress  h

h
h = original height
h=deformation
Stress 
Concrete is relatively strong in compression and weak in tension. In forced concrete members, little
43
dependence is placed on tensile strength of concrete. Since steel reinforcing bars are provided to
resist all tensile force. However, tensile stresses are likely to develop in concrete due to dry
shrinkage & rusting of steel reinforcement (temperature gradients & many other reasons) there fore,
the knowledge of tensile strength of concrete is of importance.
DIRECT MEASUREMENT OF TENSILE strength of concrete is difficult there fore, indirect

tests such as the flexural test and cylinder splitting tests are used. In the flexural test the specimen
may be subjected to center pt loading or 3rd point loading. In both cases the modulus of rupture
(extreme fibers stress in bending) is calculated in flexural form.
D D/2 D/2
L/2 L/2 L/3 L/3 L/3
The standard size of specimen are 15 x 15 x 20 cm. Alternately, if the largest nominal size of the
aggregate does not exceed 20 mm, specimens 10 x 10 x 50cm may be used.
3.3.2 CURING OF CONCRETE
The strength of concrete increases considerably by general chemical action of cement in setting &
for which after casting, concrete demands water to attain its strength. The process of supplying water
to concrete after casting is called "CURING". When the initial setting of concrete is complete it
should be kept moist at least for four weeks. Curing also helps to prevent formation of surface
cracks, due to quick loss of water while the concrete is fresh & wet.
Vertical surfaces may be kept moist by sprinkling and horizontal surface may be kept damp either by
storing water on surface, or by placing wet straws, wet sand or etc …., over the surface.
3.3.3. W/C RATIO & DEGREE OF COMPACTION.

The strength of concrete at a given age & cured at prescribed temperature depend on two factors:
* W/C ratio
* Degree of compaction
Compressive (crushing)
Mechanical compaction vibrator

Strength
Hand compaction
Fully compacted concrete
W/C
W/C ratio determines the porosity of the hardened cement past.
Both W/C ratio & degree of compaction affect the volume of voids in concrete.
44
The quantity of water used in the mixture has, therefore great influence on the strength of concrete.
Definition Abrams established that when concrete is fully compacted strength may be taken to be
inversely proportional to W/C ratio.
3.3.4 SHRINKAGE OF CONCRETE.

Shrinkage of concrete takes place when it sets & hardness. It should be kept minimum by curing
concrete under wet condition.
Unnecessary stresses are developed due to shrinkage and it may take place even over along period of
times due to carbonation.
Carbonation shrinkage probably caused by dissolution of crystals of calcium hydroxide and

deposition of calcium carbonate in its place . As the new product is less in volume than the produce
replace, shrinkage takes place.
1.3.5. EFFECT OF TEMPRATURE

Concrete expands & contracts with change in temperature which results in setting un necessary
stresses in concrete.
With increase in temperature; stress in concrete gradually reduces.
Strength
Temp
3.3.6. STRENGTH OF CONCRETE WITH AGE
The design of most of concrete structures is done on the base of 28 days strength.
i.e. the design is made such that the design load may be applied after 28 days from the date of
Comp
strength
250
kg/m2
Age in year
casting.
It has been observed that even after a month concrete attains strength gradually with age. The
strength of concrete is about 130% after three months, about 150% after one year & 155% after 10
years.
45
Strength
28 days
Age in days
Thus you find that no appreciable change in strength occurs beyond 1 year.
3.3.7. DURABILITY OF CONCRETE

In practice, concrete is designed & constructed in order to build permanent structures.
However, at times, its services markedly reduced by the disintegrating effect of either the
environment to which it is exposed or by internal cause within its mass.
The resistance of concrete to the effect of whether, to salt, to chemical attack, to mechanical damage
resulting from abrasion or impact are the different aspects of of durability of concrete . A concrete
which withstands the conditions it is intended for, with out deteriorating over along period of time is
said to be durable.
3.4. MIX DESIGN

Mix design can be defined as the process of selecting suitable ingredients of concrete & determining
their relative proportions with the object of producing concrete of certain minimum strength and
durability and as economical as possible.
One of ultimate aim of studying the varies properties of the materials of concrete, plastic concrete &
harden concrete to in able the concrete technology to design a concrete mix for a particular strength.
Design of concrete mix needs not only the knowledge of material properties of concrete in plastic
condition; it also needs wider knowledge of experiencing concrete.
Among the various methods of mix properties the following will be dissolved here after.
a) TRIAL method of proportioning.
b) ARBITRARY Methods of proportioning.
c ) ACI method of mix design.
A) TRIAL METHOD OF PROPTIONING.

This method is based on abrasion law, i.e, the strength of concrete depends up on the net ratio of the
mixing water to the cement.
Steps:-
1. Select W/C ratio from strength - W/C curve (table 8.23)

2. Measure the cement (about 3kg for Lab. trial) and the corresponding area of water.
3. Mix by hand in a pan to form paste.
4. Make the aggregate surface saturated dry condition (SSD) & measure known quantities from
each of aggregate say "M"kg of fine aggregate and "N" kg of coarse aggregate.
5. The aggregate are mixed with intermittent mixing until it brought to the desired
46
consistency.
The coarse aggregate is the 1st aggregate to be added.

Then the sand is added continuously till enough mortar is produced to fill the space between piece of
coarse aggregate.
6. When the batch is satisfactory the remaining aggregate in the containers are weight and by the
difference the amount used in the batch is computed.
7. Then the cubes should be prepared from the mix for 7 day & 28 days compression test.
Examples:
Given: Compressive strength of 25 Mpa. Plastic consistency
Required: Design the mix calculate the quantities per one bag of cement.
SOLUTION
1. W/C: 0.62
2. Cement: 3kg
Water =3 x 0.62 = 1.86 kg.
3. Mix (form a paste).
4. Suppose 10kg of sand and 12kg of C.A. are available.
5. Suppose 4 kg sand and 3 kg of C. A are left in the container
C. A. 12 - 3 = 9kg
F. A. 10 - 4 = 6kg
6. Proportions
C: FA: CA
3: 6: 9 = 1: 2: 3 by wt.
The quantities per one bag of cement.
50: 100: 150
B) ARBITRARY PROPERTIONS
The arbitrary proportions have been established by experience, but this method of proportioning
doesn't secure concrete of certain strength because the mount of W/C ratio is not defined.
In Arbitrary proportioning strength is rapidly contributed by varying each content.
Such as - rich mix 1:1:2

- Lean mix 1:3:6
Example: 2
Given a concrete mix in which the proportions of cement to fine aggregate to coarse aggregate are
1: 2: 3 by wt. and using a W/C of 0.60 by wt.
Calculate:
47
a) The yield (The amount of concrete per one bag of cement)

b) The cement factors (cement content in bags per one meter cube of concrete)
c ) The materials per cubic meter of concrete.
Given data:
S.p.gr of cement = 3.15
S.p.gr pf FA = 2.65
S.P.gr CA = 2.65
Solution: wt. proportions per sack are

50:100:150
The volume of one bag batch
Solid volume
- Absolute volume of cement  50 3.15 x1000 15 .87 liters

- Volume of water = 50 x 0.6 = 30 liters
- Absolute volume of FA 100  37.74 litre.
2.65
150 / 2.650  56 .601 H .

- Absolute volume CA =
140 .21 lit.
a) Yield = 140.21 liter = 0.144m3.
b) Cement factor = 1/0.1404 = 7.14 bags
c ) Materials per cubic meter of concrete.
Cement = 7.14 bags = 375 kg/m3

Fine aggregate = 2 x 375 = 714 kg/m3
Coarse aggregate = 3 x 375 = 1077 kg/m3
Water = 0.6 x 375 = 2.15 kg/m3.
Example:3
Given: C: FA: CA: 1: 2: 3 by volume
W/C = 0.85 by volume.
Required. a) The yield c) material per cubic meter of concrete

b) Cement factor
Take: Unit wt of FA = 1700 kg/m3

Unit wt of CA = 1400 kg/m3
Sp. gr of cement = 3.15
Sp.gr of FA & CA = 2.65
Volume of one bag (sack) of cement = 35 liter.
48
Solution:
The proportions by volume per one bag of cement.
35: 70: 105
The volume of one bag batch

 abs. volume of cement = 50/3.15 = 15.8 liter
volume x unit wt FA
 abs. vol. of FA W solid unit wt 
solid unit wt
70 x1700
  44 .90 lit
2.65 x1000
105 x1400
 abs. vol. of CA  55 .47 litre
2.65 x100
29. 75 litre
 Volume of water  0.85 x 35 
145.99 litre
a) Yield = 145.99 litre = 0.146 m3.

b) Cement factor  1  6.85bags / m3
0.146
c ) materials per m3 of concrete.
Cement = 6.89 bags = 240 liter
FA = 2 x 240 = 480 liter
CA = 3 x 240 = 720 liter
Water = 0.85 x 240 = 204 liter
ACI - method of mix Design.
Procedure
1. Data to be collected.
i) Fines modulus of selected FA.
ii) Unit wt. of dry roaded CA
iii) Sp.gr of CA and FA
iv) Absorption characteristics of both CA and FA
v) Sp.gr cement (3.15)
2. From the minimum strength specified estimate the average design strength (table 8.27)
3. Specify the minimum cement content (table 8.27)
4. Choice of clump (table 8.21 or table 8.28)
5. Determine the max. Size of CA.
6. Estimate mixing water, and air content (table 8.28)
7. Select W/C (table 8.23) based on strength or ( table 8.24) based on requirement for
durability.
8. Calculate the cement content and compare with step 3  take what ever is larger.
9. Estimate the bulk volume of dry rodded as per unit volume of concrete (table 8.25)
10. Calculate wt. of CA. per m3 of concrete
49
WCA = bulk vol. x bulk density

11. Calculate the solid volume of CA in one m3 of concrete
VCA: WCA/1000.sp.gr
12. Similarly the solid volume of cement/water and volume of air is calculated in one m3.
13. Solid volume of sand is then calculated by subtracting from the data volume of concrete
the solid volume of cement, CA, water & entraps air or if the wt of concrete per unit
volume is assumed or can be estimated from experience ( table 8.26), the rigged wt. of
FA is the difference between the wt of fresh one and the total wt of the other ingredients.
14. Adjustments for aggregate moisture.
15. Trial batch adjustments. The calculated mix proportions should be checked by means of trial
batch.
Maximum size of aggregate recommended for various types of construction.
Dimensions of section (cm)

Type of element 10-15 15-20 20-35 35-75
Maximum size of aggregate (mm)
Un reinforced or light reinforced foundations or slabs 25-40 40 40-50 50
Reinforced foundations or slab, un rein forced or 20-25 25 25-40 40
lightly reinforced walls or columns.
Reinforced columns, beams, walls hollow block slabs 15-20 20-25 25-30 30
N.B:. Maximum size should not be larger than 1/5 of minimum dimensions of section or larger
than 3/4 of minimum clear spacing b/n reinforcing bars.
1/5 x 25 = 5 cm
40
Example:-
20 cm square reinforced concrete columns have to be cast in the interior of a building.
Reinforcement &  12 mm bars and nominal strength of concrete 200 kg/cm2. Prepare a mix design
assuming class of control good.
Solution:
Step - 1- Data
i) FM of sand = 2.4
ii) Dry rodded unit wt C.A: 1600 kg/m3
iii) Specific gravity of C.A. : 2.6
Specific gravity of F.A. = 2.65
iv) Absorption Capacity of C.A. = 0.56
Free moisture in sand = 4%
v) Specific gravity of cement = 3.15
50
Step - 2- Minimum strength (For mix design)

Average strength = 1.2 x 200 = 240 kg/m2.
Step - 3 - Minimum cement context (table 8.27) = 240 kg/m3.

The space between two reinforcing bars = clear spacing
Choice of slump
Step - 4 - = 75 cm
Lightly re inf orced (row  2)
Step - 5 - maximum size of Aggregate = 25

Step - 6 - Mixing water = 185 lit / m3
air content = 10 lit/m3
Step - 7 - W/C (8.23) = 0.64 based strength
mixingwater
Step - 8 - Cement content   185 / 0.64  289 kg / m3
W /C
Step - 9 - bulk volume of dry rodded C.A. per unit volume of concrete ( 8-25 = 0.71)
Step - 10 - Wt of C.A. = 0.71 x 1600 = 1136 kg.
Step - 11 - Solid volume of C.A. = 1136/2.6 x 1000

Step - 12 - Solid volume of cement = 289/3.15 = 92.0 lit/m3.
" " water = 185 lit/m3
" " air = 10 lit/m3.
= 724 lit/m3.
Step - 13 - Solid volume of sand = 1000 - (437 + 92 + 185 + 10)
Based on volume = 276 lit/m3.
Wt of F.A. = 0.276 x 2.65 x 1000 = 732 kg/m3.
Volume (lit) wt (kg)
Air 10 -
Cement 92 289
Water 185 185
C.A. 437 1136
F.A. 276 732
1000 lit 2342 kg/m3
Or based on wt. (8.26)

The wt of concrete per unit volume = 2375 kg/m3
wt of F.A. = 2375 - (1136 + 289 + 181) = 765 kg/m3
wt (kg) Volume (lit)

Air 0 10
Cement 289 92
Water 185 185
F.A. 765 289
C.A. 1136 437
51
2375 lit 1013 kg/m3

Step - 14- Adjustments for Aggregate moisture
 C.A. absorbs 0.5/100 x 1136 (wt.of C.A.) = 5.68 kg of mixing water

 Sand supplies 9/100 x 732 (wt.of. sand = 29.28 kg) of H2o to the mixing water. Therefore,
the estimated requirement for added water.
= 185 + 568 - 29.28 = 161.4 lit.
Therefore, the estimated batch wt for cubic meter of concrete are
Water ( free) 161 lit

Cement 289 kg
C.A. = 1136 - 5.8 1130 kg
F.A. = 732 + 29.28 761 kg
Step - 15 - Trial batch" a trial batch of 30 lit. Concrete is prepared for trial mix
Water = 0.03 x 161 = 4.83 kg

Cement = 0.03 x 289 = 8.67kg
C.A. = 0.03 x 1130 = 33.90 kg
F.A. = 0.03 x 761 = 22.83 kg
TABLES FOR ACI CONCRETE MIX DESIN
Table 1. Estimated Average Strength for Concrete
Compressive strength Water / cement ratio (by mass)

28 days (M pa) Non-air Air entrained
entrained
45 0.38 -
40 0.42 -
35 0.47 0.39
30 0.54 0.45
25 0.61 0.52
20 0.69 0.60
15 0.79 0.71
*Values are estimated average strength for concrete containing not more than percentage of air
shown in table 3. For constant water/cement ratio, the strength of concrete is reduced as the air
content is measured. Strength is based on 15x30cm cylinders moist-cured 28 days at 25+ 1.7 oC
in accordance with section 9(b) of ASTM C31 for making and curing concrete compressive and
52
flexure test specimen in the field. Cube strength will be higher by approximately 20oC.
Relationship assume size of aggregate about 20 to 30mm, for a given source, strength produced by a
given water/cement ratio will increase as maximum size decrease.
Table 2. Fine aggregate as a percentage of total aggregate
Max. agg. size Fineness modulus

W/c (mm) 2.5 2.7 2.9
10 50% 52% 54%
0.4 20 35 37 39
40 29 31 33
10 53 55 57
0.5 20 38 40 42
40 32 34 36
10 54 56 58
0.6 20 40 42 44
40 33 35 37
10 55 57 59
0.7 20 41 43 45
40 34 36 38
Table 3. Recommended slumps for various types of constructions

Slump (cm)
Types of construction *Max. Min.
Reinforced foundations, walls and footings 8 2
Plain footings, cassoins and substructure walls 8 2
Beams and reinforced walls 10 2
Building columns 10 2
Pavements and slabs 8 2
Heavy mass concrete 8 2
* may be increased by 2cm for methods of consolidation other than vibration
Table 4. Approximate mixing water requirements for different slumps and

maximum sizes of aggregates.
Slump (cm) Water kg/m3 of concrete for indicated max. sizes of agg. in mm *
10 12.5 20 25 40 50+ 70+ 150+
Non –Air entrained concrete
3- 10 205 200 185 180 160 155 145 125
8- 10 225 215 200 195 175 170 160 140
15-18 240 230 210 205 185 180 170 --
Approx. amount of
entrapped air in non 3 25 2 15 1 0.5 0.3 0.2
entrained conc(%)
53
Air entrained concrete

3 to 5 180 175 165 160 145 140 135 120
8 to 10 215 205 190 185 170 165 160 --
Recommended
average total air 8 7 6 5 4.5 4 3.5 3
content (%)
* These quantities of mixing water for use in computing cement factors for trial batches. They are
maxima for reasonably well shaped angular course agg graded with in limit of accepted
specifications.
+
The slump values for concrete containing agg larger than 40mm are based on slump tests after
removal of larger than 40mm by wet screening.
Table 5. Maximum permissible water cement ratios for concrete in severe
Exposure
Structure wet continuously or frequently Structure exposed to
Type of structure and exposed to freezing and thawing sea water or surfaces
Thin sections (railing
curbs, sills, ledges,
ornamental work) and
sections with less than
3cm cover over steel 0.45 0.40
All other structures 0.50 0.45
* Based on the report on ACI committee 201 “Durability of concrete in severe previously cited
concrete should also be air entrained”
 If sulphate-resisting cement (type II or Type V of ASTMC 150) is used permissibly water-cement
ratio may be increased by 0.50.
Table 6. Volume of coarse Aggregate per unit Volume of concrete
Volume of dry rodded coarse aggregate per unit volume of concrete fo

Maximum size different fineness modulus
of aggregate 2.4 2.6 2.8 3.0
10 0.50 0.46 0.44

12.5 0.59 0.55 0.53
20 0.66 0.62 0.60
25 0.71 0.67 0.65
40 0.76 0.72 0.70
50 0.78 0.74 0.72
70 0.81 0.77 0.75
150 0.87 0.83 0.81
 Volumes are based on aggregate in dry rodded condition as described in ASTEC29 for unit
weight of aggregate.
These volumes are selected empirical relationship to produce concrete with a degree of
54
workability suitable for usual reinforced construction. For less workable concrete such as
required for pavement construction they may be increased about 10%. For more workable
concrete, such as required may be required when placement is to be by pumping, they may be
reduced up to10%.
Table 7. First Estimate of Weight of Fresh Concrete.
Maximum size of First estimate of concrete weight, Kg/m3

aggregate, mm Non-air entrained concrete Air- entrained concrete
10 2285 2190
12.5 2315 2235
20 2355 2280
25 2375 2315
40 2420 2355
50 2445 2375
70 2465 2400
150 2505 2435
Table 8. Requirement for Concrete cast under different control condition
Class of Control Good Fair Poor

1) Requirements for material
Cement Weight Volume
Batching 1% accuracy 2% accuracy Leveled boxes
Water Measuring tank or 1% Flow type meter Estimated visually
Batching accuracy 3 % accuracy
Standard at least 2 fractions
Aggregate Weight 3% accuracy or Volume, gauge
Quality and batching Washed and screed at least volume gauge boxes boxes, boxes, wheel
3 fractions weight barrows
2. Control of mixes, Under full supervision of an By an experienced foremen No special
placing, compaction inspector experienced in with knowledge in good supervision.
concrete technology. concrete. Adjustment of Amount of mixing
Continuous of adjustment of mixes when visible changes water adjusted
mixes by a field laboratory. in size and moisture content visually by mix man
of aggregate occur, when when consistency of
consistency of concrete concrete changes.
changes.
3. Method of compaction By vibration By hand or vibration By hand
4. Requirement for average
strength at 28 days
expressed in % of nominal
strength.
Mix design 120% 135% 150%
Field acceptance 115% 125% 140%
55
5. Minimum cement*
content for reinforced
concrete Kg/m3.
Unexposed to weather 240 260 280
Exposed 260 280 300
 This standard includes a separate minimum limit on cement in addition on cement in addition
to requirements for strength and durability the mixture must be based on whichever criterion
leads to a larger amount of cement.
Table 9. Approximate requirements of mixing water (W0) for different types of
structures and maximum sizes of aggregates.
Types of Methods of Max. Slump Water (lit/m3 concrete) for indicated

cements compaction consistency maximum size of angular course aggregate
and natural.
15 20 25 30 40 50
Un reinforced or By hand Plastic, 10mm 215 200 195 190 180 17
lightly reinforced 0
foundations or slabs Vibrator Stiff, 5mm 195 180 175 170 160 15
0
Reinforced By hand Plastic flowing, 225 210 205 200 190 -
foundations or slabs, 12.5mm
un reinforced or Vibrator Plastic stiff, 205 190 185 180 170 -
slightly reinforced 75mm
walls or columns
Reinforced columns, By hand Flowing, 18mm 235 220 215 210 200 -
beams, walls, hollow Vibrator Plastic, 10mm 225 200 195 190 180 -
block slabs
Note: 1) For rounded aggregate like pebble etc. reduce 10%
2) For reinforced concrete with water reducing admixtures or entrained concrete reduce 5 to 10%
3) For manufactured sand (sharp angular) add 5 to 10 %
4) For type V cement reduce 5%
Approximate amount of entrapped air (Ao) in normal 20 15 10 10 9 -
concrete (liter)
45 40 35 30 30 -
Recommended max. entrained air (Ao) (liter)
Table 10. Maximum size of aggregate recommended for various types of

constructions
Type of element Dimensions of sections (cm)

10-15 15-20 20-35 35-75
Un reinforced or Maximum size of aggregate (mm)
56
slightly reinforced 25-40 40 40-50 50

foundations or slabs
Reinforced foundations 20-25 25 25-40 40
or slabs, un reinforced
or lightly reinforced
walls or columns
Reinforced beams, 15-20 20-25 25-30 30
columns, walls, hollow
block slabs
N.B. Maximum size should not be greater than 1/5 of minimum dimensions of sections or larger than
¾ of minimum clear spacing between reinforcing bars.
Chapter 4
BUILDING STONES
Stones are naturally occurring rocks that make up the crust of the earth. Those types of stone
possessing such properties, which make them suitable for building construction, are defined as
building stones. Thus selection of building stones involves a study of the properties that are
57
desirable and undesirable.

Stones have been used extensively in construction by virtue of their being:
 Naturally available in abundance
 Very hard, strong and durable
 Suitable for taking shape of blocks, slabs, columns, beams, arches and sills
Many magnificent construction of the past are made up entirely of stones of one type or
another. For instance, the Axum Stele, the Lalibela Castle, etc are made of stone.
Even though stones can be used in any part of a building: foundations, flooring, walls,
columns, stairs, sills, arches, roofing etc they have limited use in the building construction in modern
times because:
 Stones are not easily available every where
 Cost of dressing is high
 They are being replaced by concrete
Classification of Stones
Rocks from which building stones are obtained are classified on the basis of: a) their
geologic origin, b) their chemical composition and, c) their structure.
a) Geological Classification
Rocks are divided in to three classes according to their geologic formation (mode or process
of formation). These are igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic.
1) Igneous rocks: - rocks formed by cooling and crystallization from originally hot
and molten material (magma)
- are most abundant rocks of the crust depth wise.
Based on their depth of solidification, igneous rocks can be classified as:
(a) Extrusive (Volcanic) rocks: - formed on the surface of the earth, even under
water in oceans
- more rapid cooling of the molten material hence are fine grained rocks
- Example: Basalt, Trachyte, etc
(b) Intrusive (Plutonic) rocks:-formed at great depth , generally from 2-10Km below
the surface.
- Slow cooling of the molten material hence are coarse-grained rocks
- Example: Granite, Gabbro, etc
2) Sedimentary rocks: - rocks formed as a result of sedimentation from the
disintegration products derived from decayed rocks (weathered/eroded rocks).
- are widespread, area wise, on the surface of the earth.
- Examples: Sandstone, Limestone, Dolomite, shale, etc
3) Metamorphic rocks: - are either igneous or sedimentary rocks that have been altered
structurally and mineralogically by heat or pressure or both acting together.
- are not mostly abundant hence of minor importance for construction
purposes except marble.
- Examples: Quartzite, Marble, Gneiss, Slate, etc
b) Chemical Classification
Chemically rocks are classified on the basis of their dominant constituent. These are:
1) Siliceous rocks: - major component is silica (SiO2), the predominant ingredient of quartz sand,
as granite and quartzite.
58
- are very strong. Also when free from decomposed minerals and mica,
these rocks are excellent building stones.
- Example: Quartzite, Granite, Gneiss, etc
2) Calcareous rocks: - major component is carbonate (CaCo3, Mg Co3).
- Example: Limestone, Dolomite, Marble, etc.
3) Argillaceous rocks: - major component is clay (alumina Al2O3),
- Sedimentary varieties include: clay stones, siltstones and shale-which are
generally soft & disintegrating easily in the presence of water resulting in
to muddy slush & hence used as building stones.
- Metamorphic varieties include: phyllites and slates-which are quite hard
& brittle but thin layered and of limited use in building construction.
c) Structural (physical) Classification
Rocks are classified in to three broad classes based on the absence or presence of layered structure
and when layered on the nature of layered structures.
1) Un stratified (massive) rocks: - most igneous rocks like granite, gabbro
2) Stratified (layered) rocks: - most sedimentary rocks like limestone, sandstone, shale
3) Foliated rocks: - most metamorphic rocks like slate, gneiss, schist
Some Common Building Stones

Granite: -igneous rock of siliceous composition and un stratified structure.
- coarse grained texture
- light colour and often spotted
- posses high strength and hardness, low absorption value, least porosity, good
resistance to frost and weathering, excellent durability, appealing colour and receive
finishing. Hence it is used as polished floor finishing material or cladding to external
walls
-has poor fire resistance.
- shall never be used in places where it will be subjected to great heat owing to its
tendency to explode due to different rates of expansion of their constituent minerals.
Basalt (Trap): -igneous rock composed of minerals like feldspars and
ferromagnesian minerals like hornblende.
- fine grained texture which sometimes has pores due to escape of gases at
the time of cooling.
- dark or light dark in colour
- posses very high strength, high resistance to weather, less permeability
- common in Ethiopia and mostly used for stone masonry work and as
boulders or crushed stone for road construction & crushed aggregate for
concrete making.
- shall never be used in places where it will be subjected to great heat owing
to its tendency to explode due to different rates of expansion of their
constituent minerals.
Limestone: -sedimentary rock of calcareous composition (CaCo3) and generally
stratified (sometimes massive).
- are invariably fine textured and some may contain fossils.
59
- colour from pure white (chalk) to grey & dark varieties depending on its
content of clay, iron oxide or other impurities
- some lime stones which are rich in clay or soft are practically unfit for
construction. But some others, which are dense, compact, fine textured and free from
cavities and cracks are excellent building stones.
The use of lime stones as facing stones should be avoided in areas where the air is polluted with
industrial gases and also in coastal regions where saltish winds can attack them. In both cases, air
is likely to attack the rock chemically and change its surface to spots of reactive compounds.
Sandstone: -sedimentary rock of siliceous composition (quartz SiO2) and mostly
stratified.
- the cementing material may be siliceous, ferruginous, calcareous or clayey in
nature. And, this is the most important in defining the suitability of sand stone for
building construction is concerned.
- medium to fine grained texture.
- many colors: white, grey, pink, red and dark
- some sandstone varieties which are light colored, rich in quartz, having a siliceous
cement and fine grained uniform texture are excellent building stones. But they must
be free from fine layers or minerals like mica & chlorite
Marble: -metamorphic rocks of calcareous composition and often-layered structures.
- formed from limestone through metamorphism thus contain recrystalized calcite
CaCo3.
- fine grained texture with a uniform granular (sugar like grains).
- occurs in all colors: from white to dense.
- quite strong, uniform in texture, least porous and take excellent polish. Thus are
suitable for both as ornamental & for general construction.
Tests on Building Stones
In practice building stones are used for construction purposes as quarried and are rarely tested. How
ever, it is at times useful to know some of the characteristics of a particular stone & some or all of
the following tests can be done.
1) Test for Compressive Strength

5 cm Cube of 5 cm width
Test Samples:
Test procedure: Test shall be carried on saturated as well as on dry samples

Saturated: immerse samples in water at 20-30oC for 72 hrs and then test in saturated condition.
Dry: oven dried at 105+5oC for 24 hrs. Then cooled in a desiccator to room temperature.
Loading: Load increased gradually till the sample yields, i.e. first crack appears in it.
Compressive strength: c=P/A where P= load at failure, A= area of the sample
60
2) Test for Transverse Strength
Test Samples: Square of 5 cm width
20cm
 Properly dried and smoothened.
Test procedure: Test shall be carried on saturated as well as on dry samples
Loading: One point loading.
Modulus of rupture: R=3PL/2bd2
3) Test for Water Absorption and Bulk specific gravity
Test Samples: Cubes, prisms, cylinders or any regular form with dimensions >50 & < 75mm
and (0.3 < V/surface area ratio < 0.5)
Absorption capacity by weight (%) = [(B-A) /A] x100
Where: A= wt of specimen after oven drying at 105+2oC for 24 hrs
B=Weight of SSD specimen (saturation in water at 20+5oC for 48 hrs)
Bulk specific Gravity = A/(B-C)
Where: A= wt of specimen after oven drying at 105+2oC for 24 hrs
B=Weight of SSD specimen in air (saturation in water for 1hr on the specimen which
has been oven dried for 24 hrs)
C=Weight of Soaked specimen in water.
It is generally observed that the strength of building stones increase with increasing sp.gr.
Also the higher the sp.gr., the grater the stability of a hydraulic structure built on stone.
Table: Physical properties of some selected stones
Type of stone Specific gravity Absorption Compressive
strength, Mpa
Basalt 2.7-2.9 100-200
Granite 2.7-2.9 100-200
Trachyte - -
Pumice - -
Scoria - -
Limestone 2.0-2.7 10-60
Sandstone 2.5- 15-150
Marble 2.6-2.7 80-150
Test for weathering resistance (temp. change, salt crystals in pores) and for durability can
also be made using chemicals in the same way as aggregates.
CHAPTER 5
61
CLAY AND CLAY PRODUCTS

Clays: - are finely grained soils resulted from decay of rocks. (They could be residual clays formed
from the decay of the underlying rocks, or sedimentary if removed from the parent rock, transported
and deposited somewhere else by water or wind.
 Chemical constituents of clay
- The formation of hydrate of alumina silicate (A1203. 2Sio2.2H20) is, in fact,
one of the commonest minerals in clay.
- Silica (Si O2)
- Ferric Oxide (Fe2O3)
- Lime (Cao)
- Magnesia (Mgo)
- Carbon dioxide (Co2)
- Alkalies, water, etc.
On account of the different phases they might have gone through and their history of formation,
clays are generally found mixed with other materials (impurities) which influence their properties.
BRICKS
 Are building materials manufactured from clays (raw material)
 Are most extensively used materials of construction because of their strength, durability, insulating
property against heat and sound, & their being handy to work with and most availability near
building sites at relatively cheap price.
Raw material
 A clay soil for brick making should be such that when prepared with water, it can be molded, dried
and burnt with out cracking or changing its shape or wrapping. Such material should preferably
have the following composition:
Clay 20 - 40%
Sand 30 - 50%
Others (lime, silt, cement, etc.) - 20 - 35%
Each of the components and their constituents play different rolls in the manufacture of bricks and
influence the characteristics of the final product.
Functions Of Constituent Materials
a) Alumina: - is a fine-grained mineral, which makes the major part.

- Becomes plastic when mixed with water and is capable of being molded to the
desired shape. On drying it loses its plasticity and becomes hard. This can be
accompanied with shrinkage, which might result in warping & cracking
depending on the speed and magnitude of drying.
- When burnt, alumina becomes stronger and harder as a result of the homogeneity
created by fusion. Bricks of very high alumina content are likely to be refractory.
- Thus form hard material when burnt & mixed with other constituents.
b) Silica: - course grained mineral, which can be present either in the form of pure
62
sand or compound of silicate of alumina.

- is useful in reducing shrinkage & wrapping in burning.
- its presence in bricks produce hardness and durability; however, a
large percentage of uncombined silica is undesirable because it leads
to brittleness of the product.
- silica fuses only at very high temperature (which is lowered in the presence of
alumina and iron oxide) and hence increases the refractoriness of low alumina
clay and makes bricks resistant to heat. In fire bricks silica content may rise to
98%.
c) Lime: - When present in small quantities, lime acts as a flux and lower the
fusion point of silica.
 It also acts as a binder to the clay & silica particles leading to greater strength.
 Excess of lime may cause the bricks to melt & loose their shape.
d) Iron Oxide:- Lowers fusion point of silica & the clay and hence helps the
fusion of brick particles.
- Imparts the colour of the clay and the burnt product. (Light yellow to
red depending on its percentage) .Higher % make bricks dark blue.
- The appropriate iron type should be used - eg. if iron present in the form of
pyrites (sulphides of iron), it can get oxidized, crystallize and split the bricks to
pieces.
e) Magnesia:- Usually present in small quantity (1%) in clay and together with
the iron oxide, it gives the brick darker or even black colour.
- It also lessens wrapping of bricks in burning.
MANUFACTURE OF BRICKS
- Raw material (clay) should be - excavated and crushed.
- made free of stones, boulders, coarse sand or lime.
- mixed with water to the desired consistency.
 Sandy soil and or lime may be added to the dry raw material if it is found deficient in silica
and lime.
- mix until the whole mass becomes homogenous and plastic(=tempering).
- the tempered clay is then fed in to moulds made of timber or metal & pressed (hand
moulding) or extruded through a rectangular hole( mechanical moulding) and cut to
desired length. The brick at this stages called green brick.
- Drying green brick: giving strength to be handled &staked in kilns with out being
damaged which is done in the open - air driers (open shades) or in drying zone of a
continuous kiln.
- Burning: - (900 - 12000c) in a kiln. Is required to make bricks stronger, harder, more
durable and less absorbent. During burning - dehydration completed before 1000c,
oxidation completed at about 9000c, sintering if To is raised to 12000c.At these T0
hard - burnt bricks are produced which contain melted components acting as binder to
the non melted minerals.
Hard burnt bricks: - are stronger and harder.
-more durable
- less absorptive on wetting with water.
63
- Cooling: two to three days for kiln burnt bricks

- Then we have the brick.
Quality Of Bricks Depend On:

- Constituent materials.
- efficiency of the kiln eg. bricks burnt at low T0 will contain salts which when become
in contact with water the salt dissolve & brought to surface and when the water
evaporates the salt remain on surface. This is called efflorescence.
- mix proportioning (proportion of H2O, Sand, Lime and additives).
- burning temperature.
TYPES OF BRICKS
Two types of clay bricks are manufactured in Ethiopia at present.
These are 1) Solid clay bricks
2) Hollow clay bricks and beam tiles.
 Solid clay bricks: a) brick without holes or depression.
L
h
b
b) brick with holes up to 20mm  each and Area of holes  25%
bl
c) brick with depression not exceeding 25% of the base area

and having a max. depth of depression  10 mm.
Nominal dimensions: 6 x 12 x 25 cm
Tolerance  0.25,  0.5,  0.81 cm
 Hollow clay bricks and beam tiles

a) with two faces keyed ( combed, or scared) for plastering or rendering.
64
b) with two faces smooth and suitable for use with out plastering or rendering on either
side.
c) with one face smooth and other face keyed for plastering.
L = 25 cm
12 cm = h
L = 30 cm
b = 25 cm
h = 16 cm
Fig. Hollow clay bricks
b = 40 cm
Fig Hollow Clay beam tile
For nominal dimensions refer.
CLASSES OF BRICKS
 Adobe brick - brick that is not burnt in a kiln at all.
- traditional
- adding lime increases bonding
 Sand-lime brick - not burnt at high temperature.
- cement can sometimes be used.
 Kiln burned brick - brick burnt at high T0.
 Concrete bricks - is like a concrete block
- relatively coarser agg. (6mm ) is used.
- are lighter in wt than concrete blocks - lees density.
- are fire resistant.
- less sound transmission.
TYPES OF BRICKS (DEPENDING ON FUNCTION)

 Common bricks - for general building purpose.
 Facing bricks - with a better quality control - for better appearance.
 Glazed face bricks - have shiny characteristic due to spraying of some
salts which results a shiny luster after burning.
65
 Firebricks - bricks for fire resistance.

- dark in colour.
 Paving bricks - used in walkways, pavements.
 Engineering bricks - for use where high strength and / or low water
absorption are required.
 Efflorescence : white salts brought to the surface by water and
deposited after evaporation.
- These salts may: o have an external origin (for example soil
water in contact with the brick work).
o be derived from mortar.
o be derived frequently in bricks them selves.
 may be disfiguring but often not harmful and disappears after a few
seasons.
 Efflorescence salts usually contain substantial amounts of sulphates & there may be
possibility of sulphate attack on susceptible mortar joints.
Testing And Classification Of Bricks
Tests - visual inspection - as shape, colour, blister, checks, cracks.

- Checking of dimension and plainness, compressive strength.
- Compressive strength.
- Water absorption
- Saturation coefficient
- Efflorescence - assed by repeated wetting and drying of test bricks.
paint
Chapter 7
TIMBER
It is said that as much as 40% percent of Ethiopia was covered with forest as recently as the turn of
the century. However much of the trees making this forestland have been consumed either as
building material or firewood. Today different types of trees make the source material for the
66
construction of doors, windows, roof trusses, floors, etc.

Wood suitable for building and other engineering use is called timber. Tree trunks and
branches that have fallen are out into logs from which planks or lumbers are sawn.
Hardwoods and Softwoods

Woods used in construction are generally classified broadly as hardwoods and softwoods.
The terms are misleading n that there is no direct relationship between these designations and the
hardness or softness of wood. South American Balsa, one of the softest woods known, is classed as a
hardwood. The designations actually refer to certain growth and foliage characteristics. Softwoods
come from trees classed as evergreens or conifers. These trees have needle like leaves, which are
generally not shed at the end of each growing season. Hardwoods are obtained from trees classed as
the end of each growing season.
In general, softwoods are characterized by their straight and regularly arranged fibers, more uniform
texture and light color. They are relatively light with densities varying from 350 to 700 Kg/m 3 when
air dry (15-20% moisture content). Hardwoods consist of a greater variety of fibers; they are
generally dark in color and dense, with densities varying from 400 to 1250 Kg/m3 when air dry, and
have narrow annual rings. Softwoods are strong in tension but rather weak in shear, whereas hard
woods are capable of resisting all stress equally well. Because of the minerals they contain, such as
silica, hardwoods are at times difficult to saw.
Trees may be divided in to two classes:

1. Flowering
2. Non Flowering
Flowering trees may be divided in to:
 Exogenous – out ward growing trees which make the bulk of the
commercially available material for building purpose.
 Endogenous – inward growing trees. Such as palms and bamboos which
have so far little use in engineering
The exogenous trees are divided in to:
 Conifers – ever green
 Deciduous- hard wood.
Deciduous trees are mostly the source of timber for engineering construction.
Hard timbers are close- grained, dark colored, strong, and heavy, durable and have no distinct
annular rings.
All exogenous trees (both conifers and broad leaf trees) grow in diameter as well as in height
through the addition of yearly layers of wood, each of which forms immediately under the skin or
bark. The fast growth of the wood during the spring produces springwood, which is light-coloured
and rather porous. The slow growth during the summer produces summerwood, which is usually
darker and denser.
Structure of timber
Annular rings
Heartwood
Bark 67
Pitch
Sapwood
Fig. Transverse section
 The number of annular rings indicates the age of a tree.

 Heart wood is used for engineering construction
 Period of manufacturing of a timber tree ranges from 50 to 100 years.
 In past matured trees the wood becomes brittle and in elastic.
 After attaining full maturity, decay starts in valuable heartwood.
 Therefore a timber should be felled immediately after it has attained its full growth as
failing before maturity results in more sap wood and less quality of heartwood.
Advantages of Timber construction

1. Can be easily worked, required shape can be obtained.
2. Joints, Joinery works and structural connections can be easily made.
3. Suitable for attractive interior decorations.
4. It is light in weight, strong and durable, if well protected
5. It is resistant to material
6. Economical (when locally available)
Disadvantages of Timber construction
1. Costly if not locally available
2. Subjected to fire risks
3. Not suitable for dump or wet places.
4. Is liable to crack, wrap and decay if not properly seasoned or not treated with
preservatives
5. Needs regular care and maintenance
Defects in Timber
- could arise from:- irregularities in the growth of grains, or take the form of knots,
shakes and splits.
- changes in climatic conditions, nature of the soil where the tree grows
Common Defects include:

 Heart shake- caused by heart shrinkage (decay of heart because of accumulated
mixture)
 Ring shake: caused due to unequal growth of parts ruptured in heavy wind and
sudden increase in supply of moisture by roots after the storm.
 Radial shake: split caused by severe frost or severe heat of the sun.
 Knots: are dark hard pieces occurring as signs of branches broken or cut off.
-break continuity of timber hence sources of weakness
-make surface finishing difficult.
68
 Timber containing too many knots , shakes or splits should not be used for structural purposes.
Seasoning of Timber
The process of removing or drying surplus moisture from freshly converted timber is known as
seasoning of timber. In this process, the moisture content in the timber is reduced to such an extent
that moisture content of seasoned timber corresponds to the prevailing atmospheric moisture where
the timber is to be used.
Merits of seasoning timber

1. Seasoned timber is light in weight and hence easy to transport.
2. Improves strength and other mechanical properties
3. Less liable to be attacked by fungus and insects.
4. Reduce the tendency of timber to shrinkage, wrap and crack.
5. Seasoned timber is easy to be worked, is suitable for impregnation (treatment with
preservatives), sawing, gluing, polishing and painting.
Methods of seasoning
Two methods of drying are generally used
1.Air seasoning Normal seasoning
2.Kilnk drying or artificial seasoning
1. Air drying –timber is stacked in the shade (under a roof) for several weeks or months in
such away that there is afresh air all around each piece. Here,
 The stack is prepared by laying layers of sawn pieces in cross-
wise direction in alternate layers .
 For a successful seasoning the freshly converted timber should not be
exposed to direct sunrays or severe wind.
 No skilled supervision is needed
 Cheap & simple method of seasoning.
 Very slow
 Strong and durable timber is obtained
 Split of log at ends may happen.
2. Artificial seasoning
a. Boiling
b. Kiln seasoning –Done on a heated, ventilated an humidified kiln
c. Chemical seasoning
d. Seasoning by streaming
e. Smoke drying (bone fire of straw)
 Advantages
-rate of drying can be regulated (there is good control of air , temp. and
moisture)
- no chance to be attacked by insects & fungus.
-takes a short time.
- no split of longs at the ends(uniform drying)
-thus it gives better seasoned timer in relatively short time.
69
 Disadvantages
- more expensive(as it involves longer initial investment and
running cost.)
- skilled man power needed
- relatively weaker timber is obtained
Preservation of Timber
Timber used for construction purposes should be preserved and protected from:
 Bacterial and fungal attack
 Termites and insects such as pole-borers, worms
 Fire
Proper seasoning, natural or artificial, is most effective means of preservation.
The resistance to decay and preservation of seasoned timber is further improved by:
 Impregnation with preservative chemicals
 Brush treatment with paint or varnish
 Damp proofing when appropriate
 Providing free circulation of air.
Strength properties of timber

 Generally, strength property varies widely among species even between trees in a particular
species. Strength increases with the density of species and more particularly with in a given
species.
 Among the factors that seriously affect strength, moisture content takes the prominent place.
 Variation in strength also occur b/n different parts of a tree: with temp, size and shape of
specimen, amount of defects.
 Strength of timber varies according to the type of loading, direction of loading as it is isotropic
material.
E.g.: tensile strength along the grain may be = 2 to 4 X compressive strength.
= as much as 30X that across the grain.
Compressive strength along the grain may be several times that across the grains.
S 100
C= compression
t 80 B= bending
r B
C T= tension
e 60
n T
g 40
t
h 20
%
0 15 30 45 60
Angle b/n specimen axis and grain direction (degree)
Conversion of Timber
70
Besides its usage as structural member in buildings, timber can be used to prepare architectural or
finishing materials such as veneers, ply wood, etc.
Cutting of logs in to suitable cross section or pieces is called conversion of timber.
Examples of converted timber:

 Planks, purlins, ceiling battens, various types of floor finish
 Veneers – are thin sheets of wood 0.5-5mm thick peeled off, sliced, cut or sawn from log of
wood.
used : - as finishing material or cover to timber surface of inferior quality
- in making ply wood, lamin board, black board.
 Ply wood – veneers used for making ply wood are known as plies.
- an odd number of plies is used to make a ply wood and gluing is done under
pressure.
- thickness can be 3-6mm
 Chip wood - produced from saw mills, inferior timber or small logs converted in to fibers.
Then mixed with binders (synthetic resins) and pressed in to 10 to 25 mm thick boards in
hydraulic press.
- used as ceiling boards, partition walls etc.
- .
71
Chapter 7
72

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BAHIRDAR UNIVERSITY CED CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS

Bahir Dar University

5. Clay & clay products

Text and References:

Text book: -Construction materials by Mikyas Abayneh

Materials produced at the construction site

Strength properties of materials depends

- Rate & frequency of loading

Properties of the Elastic Range

F/ Modulus of Elasticity (young's modulus)

Properties of plastic range

Deterioration of const. material can be caused by

CaCo3 + Heat Ca O + Co2

 It is stronger but less fat or plastic than non hydraulic lime

 Purest type of lime containing up to 98% Ca O

 Contains impurities >5% clay and 5-10% silica and Alumina.

2.2 Gypsum Plasters

 Gypsum plasters are used in the arts and in building construction

 CaSO4. 2H2O + Moderate heat CaSO4. 1/2 H2O + 3/2 H2O

CaSO4 .1/ 2H2O

Hard - Finish Plaster

 CaSO4. 2H2O + High heat CaSO4 + 2H2O

2.3 Portland cement

 The raw materials:

 Chalk is finely broken up and dispersed in water in a wash mill

 Raw materials are:

Table 1. Approximate Oxide Composition Limits of Raw Materials.

Oxide Content (wt.%)

Example: Typical Portland cement composition

 The insoluble residue, determined by treating with hydrochloric acid, is a measure of

Table 2. Abbreviations for Common Oxides.

Table 3. Compound Composition of Portland cement.

Name of Compound Oxide Composition Abbreviation

Free (uncombined) lime may be present in cement either because:

Magnesia, which has a similar hydration to Ca O, may cause unsoundness if it is presence in

There are two groups of compounds in cement

Dormant period Initial setting time

Fig. Schematic representation of setting and hardening of cement

Heat Evolution in Setting Cement

Table: Heat of hydration of pure compounds

Compound Heat of hydration

accompanying high rate of heat liberation.

Type of cement ASTM Potential composition

Ordinary Portland cement (Type I)

Modified Cement (Type II)

Rapid hardening Cement (Type III)

Low Heat Cement (Type IV)

Sulphate Resisting Cement (Type V)

TESTS ON THE PROPERTIES OF PORTLAND CEMENT

1. Normal Consistency and Setting Times of Cement

Determined by Vicat apparatus

Objective: To determine the fineness of cement sample by Dry sieving

Sample No. Weight of sample(g.) Weight of residue (g.) Fineness

Result: Fineness of cement by dry sieving is: K %

2. Soundness Test on Cement

mass becomes rigid.

Uses: - as a binding material in brick and stone masonry.

1. Cement gives stronger paste than lime

3.1. Materials for Concrete.

i) It reacts chemically with cement.

a) Economy of the mixture

3.1.3.1 Classification of aggregates