Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design

Richard G. Budynas and J. Keith Nisbett

Materials
in
Mechanical Engineering Design
Prepared by
Prof. Dr. Mehmet Fırat
Department of Mechanical Engineering
University of Sakarya

Prof. Dr. Mehmet Fırat 1

 Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design 9th Edition in SI units
Richard G. Budynas and J. Keith Nisbett

Chapter Outline 2-1 Material Strength and Stiffness

2-2 The Statistical Significance of Material Properties
Materials Strength and Cold Work
2-3
2-4 Hardness
2-5 Impact Properties
2-6 Temperature Effects
2-7 Numbering Systems
2-8 Sand Casting
2-9 Shell Molding
2-10 Investment Casting
2-11 Powder-Metallurgy Process
2-12 Hot-Working Processes
2-13 Cold-Working Processes
2-14 The Heat Treatment of Steel
2-15 Alloy Steels
2-16 Corrosion-Resistant Steels
2-17 Casting Materials
2-18 Nonferrous Metals
2-19 Plastics
2-20 Composite Materials
2-21 Materials Selection

Prof. Dr. Mehmet Fırat 2

 Selection of a material for a machine part or a structural member is one
of the most important decisions the designer is called on to make. The decision is
usually made before the dimensions of the part are established.
After choosing the process of creating the desired geometry and the
material (the two cannot be divorced), the designer can scale the dimensions of
the member so that loss of function can be avoided or the chance of loss of
function can be held to an acceptable risk.
Estimating stresses and deflections of machine element is
based on the properties of the material from which the member will
be made.
Design considerations other than the stress / deflection criterion:
•to fill up space or just for aesthetic qualities.
•frequently be designed to also resist corrosion or,
•temperature effects
•Cost of material / process
•Many other factors

Prof. Dr. Mehmet Fırat 3

Material Strength and Stiffness
Standard tensile test is used to obtain a variety of material characteristics and
strengths that are used in design.

Prof. Dr. Mehmet Fırat 4

Material Strength and Stiffness : Standard tensile test

Prof. Dr. Mehmet Fırat 5

Material Strength and Stiffness : Standard tensile test

The constant of proportionality E, the slope of the linear part of the stress-strain
curve, is called Young’s modulus or the modulus of elasticity.
E is a measure of the stiffness of a material, and
since strain is dimensionless, the units of E are the same as stress.

For example:
Steel has a modulus of elasticity of about 207 GPa regardless of heat
treatment, carbon content, or alloying.

Point el is called the elastic limit. If the specimen is loaded beyond this point, the
deformation is said to be plastic and the material will take on a permanent set
when the load is removed. Between pl and el the diagram is not a perfectly
straight line, even though the specimen is elastic.

Prof. Dr. Mehmet Fırat 6

Material Strength and Stiffness : Standard tensile test

During the tension test,

many materials reach a point at which the strain begins to increase very
rapidly without a corresponding increase in stress. This point is called the yield
point.

Not all materials have an obvious yield point, especially for brittle materials.
Therefore, yield strength Sy is often defined by an offset method
corresponding to a definite or stated amount of permanent set, usually 0.2 percent
of the original gauge length ( = 0.002).

The ultimate, or tensile, strength Su or Sut corresponds to point where the

maximum stress is reached on the stress-strain diagram.
•Some materials exhibit a downward trend after the maximum stress is
reached and fracture at point f on the diagram.
•Others, such as some of the cast irons and high-strength steels, fracture
while the stress-strain trace is still rising where points u and f are identical.

Prof. Dr. Mehmet Fırat 7

Material Strength and Stiffness : Compression test

Compression tests are more difficult to conduct, and the geometry of the test
specimens differs from the geometry of those used in tension tests. The reason
for this is that the specimen may buckle during testing or it may be difficult to
distribute the stresses evenly. Other difficulties occur because ductile materials
will bulge after yielding.

For most ductile materials the compressive strengths are about the same
as the tensile strengths.

When substantial differences occur between tensile and compressive strengths,

as is the case with the cast irons,
the tensile and compressive strengths should be stated separately, Sut,
Suc, where Suc is reported as a positive quantity.

Prof. Dr. Mehmet Fırat 8

Material Strength and Stiffness : Torsion test of circular bars

Prof. Dr. Mehmet Fırat 9

Engineering Stress-Strain Curve

• P oint elis called the elastic lim it.

• Sy is the yield point.
• P oint a is usually 0.2 percent of the originalgauge length.
• Su or Sut is the ultim ate,or tensile,strength.

Prof. Dr. Mehmet Fırat 10

True Stress-Strength Diagram

• The stress calculated in Eq.(2-1) is based

on the originalarea before the load is
applied.
• In reality,as load is applied the area reduces
so that the actualor true stress is large
than the engineering stress.
• To obtain the true stress for the diagram
the load and the cross-sectionalarea m ust
be m easured sim ultaneously during test.
• The true stress continually increases allthe
w ay to fracture.

Prof. Dr. Mehmet Fırat 11

Material Strength and Stiffness
Strength is a built-in property of a material, or of a mechanical element, because
of the selection of a particular material or process or both.

The strength of a connecting rod at the critical location in the geometry

and condition of use, for example, is the same no matter whether it is
already an element in an operating machine or whether it is lying on a
workbench awaiting assembly with other parts.

Stress is something that occurs in a part, usually as a result of its being

assembled into a machine and loaded.

However, stresses may be built into a part by processing or handling. For

example, shot peening produces a compressive stress in the outer
surface of a part, and also improves the fatigue strength of the part.

Thus, we must be very careful in distinguishing between strength and

stress in machine design.

Prof. Dr. Mehmet Fırat 12

Energy-absorbing characteristics of a material
In addition to providing strength values for a material, the stress-strain diagram
provides insight into the energy-absorbing characteristics of a material. This is
because the stress-strain diagram involves both loads and deflections, which are
directly related to energy.

The capacity of a material to absorb energy within its elastic range is called
resilience. The modulus of resilience uR of a material is defined as the energy
absorbed per unit volume without permanent deformation, and is equal to the area
under the stress-strain curve up to the elastic limit.

This relationship indicates that for two materials with the same yield
strength, the less stiff material (lower E), will have a greater resilience,
that is, an ability to absorb more energy without yielding.

Prof. Dr. Mehmet Fırat 13

Energy-absorbing characteristics of a material
The capacity of a material to absorb energy without fracture is called toughness.
The modulus of toughness uT of a material is defined as the energy absorbed per
unit volume without fracture, which is equal to the total area under the stress-
strain curve up to the fracture point,

The units of toughness and resilience are energy per unit volume (J/m3),
which are numerically equivalent to Pa.

These definitions of toughness and resilience assume the low strain rates that are
suitable for obtaining the stress-strain diagram. For higher strain rates, these are
related to and obtained from impact properties.

Prof. Dr. Mehmet Fırat 14

The Statistical Significance of Material Properties

The stress-strain diagram depicts the result of a

single tension test.If there w ere 1000 nom inally
identicalspecim ens,the values of strength
obtained w ould be distributed betw een som e
m inim um and m axim um values.
The bar chart in Fig.2-5 depicts the histogram of the probability density.If the data
is in the form of a G aussian or norm aldistribution,the probability density
function determ ined by

1  1  x  438.3  2 
f ( x)  exp     
17.9 2  2  17.9  

has the m ean stress 438.3 M P a and the standard deviation 17.9 M P a,denoted as

Sut  N  438.3,17.92 
Engineers, when ordering property tests, should couch the instructions so the
data generated are enough for them to observe the statistical parameters
and to identify the distributional characteristic.
Prof. Dr. Mehmet Fırat 15
Normal Distribution

Prof. Dr. Mehmet Fırat 16

 Strain-hardening
If a m aterialhas been stressed beyond the yield strength
at y to som e point i,in the plastic region,and them
the load rem oved,the m aterialhas a perm anent
plastic deform ation .
If the load corresponding to point iis now reapplied,the
m aterialw illbe elastically deform ed by the
am ount .
The totalunit strain at point iconsists of the tw o
com ponents and

This m aterialcan be unloaded and reloaded any num ber of tim es from and to point i,
and the action alw ays occurs along the straight line that is approxim ately
parallelto the initialelastic line O y.

The m aterialnow has a higher yield point,is less ductile as a result of a reduction in
strain capacity,and is said to be strain-hardened.
Prof. Dr. Mehmet Fırat 17
Cold work

C old w orking is he process of plastic straining below

the recrystallizaiton tem perature in the plastic
region of the stress-strain diagram .
Fig 2-6(b) show s the area deform ation and the
ordinate is the applied load.
The reduction in area m easure of ductile
corresponding to the load P f ,is defined as

The cold-w ork factor W is defined from Fig 2-6b as

w here Ai corresponds to the area after the load P i has been released.
'

Prof. Dr. Mehmet Fırat 18

 Effects of Cold work on Stress-Strain Diagram
The plastic region of the true stress-strain diagram by the equation

where   trues tress

 0  a strength coefficient, or strain-strngthening coeffient
  true plastic strain
m  strain-strengthing exponent, equals to m= u on a stationary point

If the point i is to the left of point u ,that is ,P i< P u,then the new yield strength is

The ultim ate strength also changes,and is

w hich is valid only w hen point iis to the left of u

For the points to the right of u,the yield strength is approaching the ultim ate strength,and,
w ith sm allloss in accuracy.

Prof. Dr. Mehmet Fırat 19

Hardness

The resistance of a m aterialto penetration by a pointed toolis called

hardness.
Tw o m ost com m on used hardness m easuring system s :
 R ockw ellhardness,the indenters are described as a diam ond,a 1.6-m m -
diam eter ball,and a diam ond for scales A ,B ,and C ,respectively,w here the
load applied is either 60,100,or 150 kg.
 B rinellhardness,the indenting toolthrough w hich force is applied is a ball
and the hardness num ber H B is found as a num ber equalto the applied load
divided by the sphericalsurface area of the indentation .
For steels,the relationship betw een the m inim um ultim ate strength and the
B rinellhardness num ber for 200  HisB found
 450 to be
Su  1.58 H B  86MPa by the A STM or Su  1.64 H B  110MPa by
the SA E.

Prof. Dr. Mehmet Fırat 20

Impact Properties

A n extra force applied to a structure or part

is called an im pact load if the tim e of
application is less than one-third the
low est naturalperiod of vibration of the
part or structure.
The effect of tem perature on im pact values
is show n in Fig.2-7 for a m aterialshow ing
a ductile-brittle transition.
W ith the increase of the strain rate,as it is
under im pact conditions,the strength
increase,as show n in Fig.2-8.

Prof. Dr. Mehmet Fırat 21

Temperature Effect

• Strength and ductility,or brittleness,are

properties affected by the tem perature for
the operating environm ent.
• The effect of tem perature on the static
properties of steels is typified by the strength
versus tem perate chart of Fig.2-9.
• There is a substantialincrease in ductility,as
m ight be expected,at the higher
tem peratures.

• W hen specim ens w ere found to be perm anently deform ed during the tests,even
though at tim es the actualstresses w ere less than the yield strength of the
m aterialobtained from short-tim e tests m ade at the sam e tem perature.

Prof. Dr. Mehmet Fırat 22

 Numbering Systems

• UNS
 G : C arbon & A lloy steel
 A : A lum im um alloy for special
 situations

 C : C opper-based alloys
 S : S tainless steel G 52986
• A N SI N om inalC arbon C ontent
C om position

A N S I 52100
Prof. Dr. Mehmet Fırat 23
 Manufacturing Process

1. S and C asting is a basic low -cost process by pouring m olten m etalinto sand m olds.
R ules in the design of any sand casting include :
1) A llsections should be designed w ith a uniform thickness.
2) The casting should be designed so as to produce a gradualchange from
section to section w here the is necessary.
3) A djoining sections should be designed w ith generous fillets or radii.
4) A com plicated part should be designed as tw o or m ore sim ple castings to
be assem bled by fasteners or by w elding.
2. S hellM olding process em ploys a heated m etalpattern in a shell-m olding m achine
containing a m ixture of dry sand and therm osetting resin.
3. Investm ent C asting uses a pattern that m ay be m ade from w ax,plastic,or other
m aterial.
4. P ow der-M etallurgy process is a quantity-production process that uses pow ders
from a single m etal,severalm etals,or a m ixture of m etals and nonm etals.

Prof. Dr. Mehmet Fırat 24

 Hot-Working Process

H ot w orking are processes as rolling,forging,hot extrusion,and hot pressing,in w hich the

m etalis heated above its recrystallation tem perature.

• Hot rolling is usually used to create a bar of material of a particular shape

and dimension.
• Tubing can be manufactured by hot-rolling strip or plate.
• Extrusion is the process by which great pressure is applied to a heated metal
billet or blank, causing it to flow through a restricted orifice.

Prof. Dr. Mehmet Fırat 25

Cold-Working Process

• C old-w orking is the form ing of the m etal

w hile at a low tem perature (usually in room
tem perature).
• C old rolling is used m ostly for the
production of w ide flats and sheets.
• C old rolling and cold draw ing have the sam e
effect upon the m echanicalproperties:they
do not change the grain size but m erely
distorts it.

Prof. Dr. Mehmet Fırat 26

 Heat Treatment of Steel

H eat treatm ent of steelrefers to tim e-and-tem perature- controlled processes

that relieve residualstresses and/or m odifies m aterialproperties.

Prof. Dr. Mehmet Fırat 27

Alloy Steels
A lloy steelhas one or m ore elem ents other than carbon in sufficient
quantities.

Prof. Dr. Mehmet Fırat 28

Corrosion-Resistant Steels

• Iron-base alloys containing at least 12 percent chrom ium are called

stainless steels,four types of stainless steels are available ferritic
chrom ium steels,austenitic chrom ium -nickelsteels,and the m artensitic
and precipitation-hardenable stainless steels.
• The ferritic chrom ium steels have a chrom ium content ranging from 12
to 27 percent.
• The chrom ium -nickelstainless steels retain the austenitic structure at
room tem perature;hence,they are nor am enable to heat treatm ent.

Prof. Dr. Mehmet Fırat 29

Casting Materials

Prof. Dr. Mehmet Fırat 30

Aluminum

• A lum inum and its alloys have good strength-w eight ratio,good
resistance to corrosion,and high therm aland electricalconductivity.
• A lum inum can be processed by sand casting,die casting,hot or cold
w orking,or extruding.Its alloys can be m achined press-w orked,soldered,
brazed,or w elded.
• The corrosion resistance of the alum inum alloys depends upon the
form ation of a thin oxide coating.
• The m ost usefulalloying elem ents for alum inum are copper,silicon,
m anganese,m agnesium ,and zinc.

Prof. Dr. Mehmet Fırat 31

Nonferrous Metals

• M agnesium :the lightest of allcom m ercialm etals,its greatest use is in the

aircraft and autom otive industries.M agnesium alloys find their greatest use in
applications w hen strength is not an im portant consideration.
• Titanium :Titanium and its alloys are sim ilar in strength to m oderate-strength
steelbut w eigh half as m uch as steel.The m aterialexhibits very good resistance
to corrosion,has low therm alconductivity,is nonm agnetic,and has high-
tem perature strength.
• C opper-base A lloys :

Prof. Dr. Mehmet Fırat 32

Plastics

• The term therm oplastics is used to m ean any plastic that flow s or is
m oldable w hen heat is applied to it;the term is som etim es applied to
plastics m oldable under pressure.
• A therm oset is a plastic for w hich the polym erization process is finished
in a hot m olding press w here the plastic is liquefied under pressure.
Therm oset plastics cannot be rem olded.

Prof. Dr. Mehmet Fırat 33

Plastics

Prof. Dr. Mehmet Fırat 34

Composite Materials
• C om posite m aterials are form ed from tw o or m ore dissim ilar m aterials,
each of w hich contributes to the finalproperties.
• M ost engineering com posites consist of tw o m aterials :a reinforcem ent
called a filler and a m atrix.The filler provides stiffness and strength;the
m atrix holds the m aterialtogether and serves to transfer load am ong
the discontinuous reinforcem ents.
• Structures of com posite m aterials are norm ally constructured of
m ultiple plies (lam inates) w here each ply is oriented to achieve optim al
structuralstiffness and strength perform ance.
• H igh strength-to-w eight ratios,and high stiffness-to-w eight ratios.
• The directionality of properties of com posite m aterials increases the
com plexity of structuralanalyses.

Prof. Dr. Mehmet Fırat 35

Material Selection Process

1. The selection of a m aterialfor a m achine part or structuralm em ber is

one of the m ost im portant decisions the designer is called on to m ake.
2. The selection process can be as physical,econom ical,and processing
param eters.
3. O ne of the basic technique is to list allim portant m aterialproperties
associated w ith the design,e.g.,strength,stiffness,and cost.
4. N ext,for each property,list allavailable m aterials and rank them in
order beginning w ith the best m aterial.
5. O nce the lists are form ed,select a m anageable am ount of m aterials
from the top of each list.

Prof. Dr. Mehmet Fırat 36

Material Selection Chart : Young’s Modulus

Prof. Dr. Mehmet Fırat 37

Selection Chart : Young’s Modulus-Density

Prof. Dr. Mehmet Fırat 38

Material Selection Chart : Strength-density

Prof. Dr. Mehmet Fırat 39