University of Gondar

2011 (2018/19)
BSc Program in civil engineering

Construction Materials
(by Yitayew.M)

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 CHAPTER ONE
1. NATURE AND TYPES OF CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS
1.1 INTRODUCTION
• Material: a substance or thing from which some thing else can be made.
Examples:Cement,brick,aluminium,soil,water…
 In Engineering, materials are employed to:-
design and build structures or elements.
 Material science examines why’s and how's of materials,
(making it Possible to advance the development of new materials.)
 Material Engineering
 refers to the understanding and review of properties
 uses of materials commonly used in engineering

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 1.2 Material Types

Amorphous Materials:
Materials in which atoms are arranged randomly.
or those that do not have crystalline structure.
Are strong but brittle Examples: soot(impure carbon),glass
Crystalline materials can be converted in to an amorphous material by quenching.
i.e. heating the material to its melting temperature followed by rapid cooling so that the
material has no time to return to its crystalline arrangement

Brittle Materials:
 Brittleness denotes relatively little or
 no elongation or increase in length at fracture.
Examples:
Cast-iron
Concrete
Glass…
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Building Materials:
Materials that are used in the building industry.
Examples cement,steel,brick,plastics,wood,glass.
Cementations materials:
Materials in which the principal binder is Portland cement.
( or another type of hydraulic cements . )
example; cement…..
Ceramic Materials:
The word ceramic comes from Greek, meaning “burned earth”.
…ceramic materials are nonmetallic materials based on clay(silicate mineral)
…They are usually crystalline and brittle ,do not conduct electricity very well ,and can withstand high temperatures.

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• Construction Materials:

• any material used in construction industry.

Examples: cement ,soil,aggregates,asphalt,etc

• Ductile Materials:

Ductility is the property that makes the material to be drawn out or stretched to a

considerable extent before rupture.

It is usually measured as the percentage of elongation (increase in length) or as the

percentage of the reduction in the cross-sectional area ,when the material is subjected to

tension.
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Examples :steel ,aluminum etc
• Elastic Materials:
Elasticity is the ability of a material to deform under load without a permanent set or deformation
up on release of the load.

It can also be defined as that property of material by virtue of which deformations from the a load
or stress disappear after removal of the load.

A perfectly elastic material recover completely its original shape and dimensions when loads are
removed.

None of the materials remain perfectly elastic throughout the range of stress leading up to failure.

But all exhibit elastic properties up to some stress level.

An elastic material behaves in elastically when the stresses exceeds the elastic limit, beyond which
changes in volume ,shape are permanent. 6
• Crystalline materials: Materials in which atoms are arranged in a discernible
repeated pattern in three dimensions.

• Thermoplastic Materials: Materials that turn plastic (soft)when subjected to

heat. e.g. petroleum pitch

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 2.Classification & Properties of Materials

2.1 Classification of Materials

Materials that are used for construction purpose can be broadly classified based on
their:

Metallic Property
Physical nature
Mode of production
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Classification Based on Metallic Property
1.Metallic : in general metals can be classified in to :Ferrous and Non-
ferrous.
a. Ferrous: is the metal in which the principal element is iron.
Examples:steel,wrought iron & cast iron
b. Non-ferrous : is the metal in which the principal element is not iron
Examples: copper,aluminium,lead,zinc,etc
2.Non metallic:
Examples;concrete,timber,stone,lime etc.

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Classification Based on Physical Nature of Materials

solid
Physical
nature

liquid

Gas

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 Classification Based on Mode of Production

a) Naturally Occurring Materials

.stone
.timber
b) Industrially produced materials
.Cement
.glass
C) Materials produced at construction site
.Concrete
.mortar

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2.2 Properties of Materials

Properties Which relate to materials are:

1. Physical properties
 Density & specific gravity
 Thermal property
 Acoustic /sound permeability
 Fire resistance
 Porosity

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2, Chemical properties
Corrosion Resistance
Combustibility
Toxicity
Decay Resistance

3.Mechanical Properties
The resistance of material to:
The action of external static forces (compressive, tensile,
bending, shear, torsion strength)

The action of dynamic external forces(impact and vibratory

loads)

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Behavior of materials under load

Application of external force on solid body in equilibrium results in:

….Internal resisting forces are developed in the body which balances the externally applied force.

….The body is deformed to varying degree

….The intensity of internal force is stress and the deformation per unit is strain.

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Depending on the arrangement & direction of the external forces,
the stress produced in the body may be :
Tensile
Compressive
Shear
Bending
Torsion
Various combinations of the above.

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2.3 Testing of Materials for Mechanical Properties

..Mechanical properties are conducted to examine the

performance of construction materials under the action of
external forces.
..Mechanical tests are classified :
A. With reference to the arrangement & direction of the
external forces;
 Tension Test
Specimen under tension test is subjected to an axial tensile
force
Tensile stress is developed on cross-sectional area
perpendicular
to the line of action of the force.
The specimen increase in length.
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Compression Test
 Specimen is subjected to an axial compressive force
 Compressive stress is produced.
 The specimen decrease in length.
Shear test
In this test, shearing stress is determined on the x-sectional area parallel to the line
of action of the external forces.
Bending Test.
 Specimen is subjected to forces that give rise to bending moments
 The resulting stresses are compressive on one side of the neutral axis & tensile on the
other side.
 Shear stress exist throughout the beam.
Torsion Test
 This test is conducted to determine the shearing strength of a material
 The specimens for torsion test are generally cylindrical in shape.

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 B. With reference to the rate & duration of the load application.

 Static Tests
 Made with gradually increasing load.
e.g. ordinary tests in tension & compression etc.
 Dynamic Tests
 Made with suddenly applied loads.
 Wear Tests
 Made to determine the resistance to abrasion & impact.
 Long time Tests
 These are made with the loads applied to the object for long period of time.
 Fatigue Tests
 These tests are made with fluctuating stresses repeated a large number of times.

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 C.With Reference to the effect on the specimen.

 Destructive Test
 The specimens are either crushed or ruptured and made useless at the end of the tests.
 Tests conducted on the following materials are best examples
..Ultimate strength of steel
..Compressive strength of concrete
 Non-destructive Tests
 Are used to test the strength of members of existing structures without affecting their
performance.
 Example: hammer test

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2.4 Stress-Strain Properties in Simple Tension Test
In standard conventional tension test, specimen is subjected to a
gradually increasing axial tensile force ‘P’ by means of testing
machine.
At various increments of load ,the change in length ∆L of the
specimen is measured.
∆L=L-Lo where L= new length

Lo =original length
It is assumed that the stress is uniformly distributed for all points on
each x-section. This stress is computed as follow;
σt =p/Ao where σt =tensile stress
Ao=X-sectional area
P= applied load

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The uniform stress will produce a uniform elongation
∆L.The elongation per unit length is strain & expressed
as: ε= ∆L / Lo Where ε =strain
∆L=elongation
Lo=original length of the specimen

with the values of strain & stress known for various

tensile loads ,a diagram showing the relation between
stress & strain ,called stress-strain diagram can be plotted

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 d
c
Stress b
(σt ) a Plastic range

ge
anr
tic
s
Ela Strain(ε )
Fig 1. Stress-strain diagram for ductile materials

a= proportional limit c=Yield strength

b=elastic limit d= ultimate strength

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 Properties in the elastic range
 The parameters which are used to describe the mechanical properties
of a material in the elastic range are:
 proportional limit,
 elastic limit,
 modulus of elasticity, stiffness etc

1.Proportional Limit : is the g reatest stress which a material is capable of withstanding witho ut deviation fro m the law of proportion ality of stress to strain.
(point a of fig 1)
2.Elastic Limit : is the greatest stress which a material is capable of withstanding without a permanent deformation remaining up on the release of stress.
(point b of fig 1)

3.Yield Point :is the stress at which there occurs a considerable increase in strain without an increase in stress. Only ductile materials have both lower & upper yield points. (pointc of fig 1)

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 4.Modulus of Elasticity(young’s modulus)

is the slope of the initial linear part of stress-strain diagram.

The greater the modulus of elasticity, the smaller the elastic
strain resulting from the application of a given values.

Methods of determining modulus of elasticity, E.

i. For ductile materials, with linear stress – strain portion,
E= ∆ σt ∕ ∆ ε

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 ii. For materials with non-linear stress-strain curves

• The slope of the stress- strain curve varies and the modulus of
elasticity cannot be readily determined.
• The following three methods are employed to define E:

a. Initial-Tangent modulus: The slope of the stress –strain curve at

the origin which has a value of E 1 =tanф1

Stress
(σt )

ф1

Strain(ε )

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b. Secant modulus : the slope of the line joining the origin
and the selected point on the stress-strain curve with the
value of E 2 =tanф2

Stress
(σt )

ф2
Strain(ε )

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c. Tangent modulus: The slope of the tangent to the stress –strain
curve at the selected point with the value of E 3 =tanф3

Stress
ф3
(σt )

Strain(ε )

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5.Stiffness
is the measure of the ability of material to resist deformation.
The higher the modulus of elasticity, the stiffer the material.
A material has a higher stiffness value when its deformation in the elastic range
is relatively small.
Comparing steel alloys with E=210Gpa and aluminium alloys with E=70Gpa,the
steel alloys are about three times as stiff as the aluminium alloys i.e steel alloys
will deform about one-third as much as aluminium alloys for the same stress.

6.Poisson’s Ratio
Is the ratio of the unit deformations or strains in transverse direction to the
longitudinal direction within proportional limit.
µ= ε’∕ ε where ε’ = transverse strain, ε =longitudinal strain
Poisson’s ratio is a measure of the stiffness of the material in the direction at
right angle to applied load.

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 Properties for the plastic range
The characteristic at the plastic range is that there is a permanent
deformation in the stressed body after complete removal of the
load.
The parameters which are used to describe the mechanical
properties for the plastic range are; ultimate strength, ductility and
toughness.

1.Ultimate Strength:-is the maximum strength a material can

possibly resist before failure.
Depending on the stress strain relationship of a particular material,
the plastic strength will correspond to the ultimate strength or to
the fracture(rupture)strength.

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Stress
(σt ) Stress
Fracture Ultimate (σt ) Ultimate or fracture
strength strength strength

Strain(ε )
Strain(ε )

Ductile material Brittle material

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2.Ductility:-
represents its ability to deform in the plastic range.
Ductile materials show relatively higher plastic deformation, i.e they are
capable of being drawn-out ,before rupture occurs.
Ductility is measured by the percentage elongation or percentage
reduction in area.
De= Lf –Lo *100 Da =Ao-Af *100
Lo Ao

3.Toughness
Is the ability of material to absorb energy in the plastic range.
A material with high toughness can absorb high values of strain energy in
the plastic range.
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Thank you!!
Let God bless
Ethiopia

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CHAPTER TWO
Cementing Materials
Introduction
Cementing materials
 are inorganic substances(mineral fine powders)
(that are capable of producing a plastic pasty mass)
when mixed with water and hardens under the effect of different
physical and chemical processes.
Engineering meaning of cement:
Adhesive substances + H20 = Paste refer what are adhesives?
(temporarily plastic, mouldable and later set and hardens to a rigid mass)
Cementing Materials
Cements of this kind are known as calcareous cements.
(whose principal constituents are compounds of lime which might
include certain allied compounds of Mg.)

Non-hydraulic cements
Calcareous cements – e.g. Gypsum plasters & non –hydraulic lime

Hydraulic- cements.
e.g. Portland cement.
Cementing Materials

Non-hydraulic cements - are cements which are either not able to set and harden in water (e.g. non –hydraulic lime)
or which are not stable in water (e.g. Gypsum plasters)

Hydraulic cements - are cements, which are able to set and harden in water, and give a solid mass that does not disintegrate -
(remain stable in water) e.g. Portland cement.

Lime, gypsum and Portland cement are used in the construction of buildings and engineering works either as components for binding
materials or as constituents of building materials (such as concrete)

By yitayew.m
Cementing Materials

2.1 Lime
• is mainly composed of calcium oxide (CaO)

Pure Ca O + CO2 White CaCo3 (Lime stone)

• Found in most parts of the world in its natural form as a rock of varying
hardness.
• lime deposits are generally found mixed with impurities w/h give d/t
colours-impurities in lime include Fe2O3, Mg0, C02
• is basically non - hydraulic but can be made hydraulic
 Cementing Materials
2.1.1. Production of Lime
Raw materials: Lime stone (CaCo3) & chalk
Production process
Burn the raw materials – mostly in the vertical kilns at 1000-1300oC
CaCo3 + Heat Ca O + Co2
 Called quick Lime/ caustic lime/ burnt lime
 White in colour
 Sp. gr. =3.40 (approx.) in its pure form
 High water absorption capacity
Note: over burning injures the setting capacity 11114
Cementing Materials
Hydration of lime (Slaking of lime)
CaO + H2O Ca (OH) 2 + Heat
• Called Slaked or hydrated Lime
• is ready to be made in to plaster or mortar
by adding water & sand to form a temporary plastic mass
Note: During hydration excess water is driven off in the form of steam
and there is a considerable and sudden expansion
There are two types of slaking:
1.Wet slaking.
2. dry slaking depending on the amount of water added.
Cementing Materials
Wet Slaking
 Mixing quick lime, this is delivered in lump form with an excess water to form
slaked lime.
 Un hydrated particles (Slow slaking) must be reduced (avoided) as these un
hydrated particles might hydrate later in the building and cause Popping and
Pitting and disintegration, especially objectionable in the wall plaster or
expansion of brick work.
Thus to reduce un hydrated particles:
1. Slaked lime is made to pass through a fine sieve and/ or
2. Continuous stirring in water tight box or a hole dug in the ground is made in slaked lime
 The tendency of lime and cement to expand is expressed as soundness
Cementing Materials
Dry Slaking
 This operation is carefully controlled as is done in a factory.
 Just sufficient amount of water is added to hydrate the quick lime, the
lumps break down in to a dry powder known as dry hydrate or hydrated
lime.
 The proportion of lime and stirring and water and stirring are
scientifically carried out by mechanical means, and the product is very
dependable.
Cementing Materials
Setting and hardening of Lime
Cementing Materials
Preserving quick Lime
Fresh burnt lime has so much affinity for water that it will quickly
absorb moisture and Ca O from the atmosphere and becomes air
slaked, and loses its cementing qualities. It must therefore be kept in
dry storage and carefully protected from dampness until used.
Hydraulic Lime
This lime, which hardens to some extent by an internal reaction, is
prepared by burning impure limestone that contains clay, producing
Cpds similar to those present in the Portland cement.
Cementing Materials
It is stronger but less fat or plastic than non hydraulic lime
Manufactured in the same way as quick lime but higher temp. and just
sufficient water for slaking is needed.
Hydraulic lime cannot be soaked over night to improve its
workability.
Cementing Materials
High Calcium Lime
 Purest type of lime containing up to 98% Ca O
 Slakes rapidly
 Produces slaked lime with high plasticity and workability
 Sets slowly by carbonation
 Is non hydraulic lime
 Extensively used for plastering
 Burnt at a temp. lower than 1300oC
Cementing Materials
Magnesia Lime
 Contains impurities >5% clay and 5-10% silica and Alumina.
 Slakes less rapidly than high calcium lime
 Lean grey in color (attains its grey color due to the presence of iron)
 Burnt at a temp < 1000oC
 Preferred for Mortar than high calcium lime.
 Used for both plastering and mortar
Cementing Materials
Uses of Lime
• In construction, slaked lime is chiefly used to make mortar for building brick and
stone masonry and for plastering walls of buildings
• In the production of Portland cement mortars

• Lime + Cement + Sand + H2O Compo-mortar

• Lime mortar will not harden under water, and in all cases exposure to air is
necessary for proper setting. Lime mortar with out addition of cement should never
be used in foundations or where exposed to moisture.
• Quick lime and hydrated lime are the most commonly used binding materials in
Ethiopia.
2.2 Gypsum Plasters
 Gypsum plasters are used in the arts and in building construction
• In this country, plaster of Paris and stucco are used to a certain extent. In
all these powders, gypsum in a more or less dehydrated state is the
essential element.
Gypsum
• Gypsum is a combination of sulphate of lime with water of crystallization.
• It occurs naturally as - hydrous sulphate of lime (CaSO4. 2H2O)
- anhydrite (CaSO4)
Cementing Materials
The gypsum rock usually contains silica, alumina, lime carbonate,
carbonate of magnesia, Iron oxide, and other impurities. To be classed
as gypsum rock at least 65% by weight must be CaSO4. 2H2O.
Pure gypsum is known as alabaster –
 it is white translucent crystalline mineral,
so soft that it can be scratched with the fingernail.
When heated pure gypsum loses its lustre and its specific gravity is
increased from 2.3 to approximately 2.95 due to the loss of water of
crystallization.
Cementing Materials
Manufacture of Plasters
Gypsum plasters are manufactures by heating the raw material gypsum at either
moderate or high temperatures the result being plaster of pairs or hard finish plaster.
Plaster Of Paris
CaSO4. 2H2O + Moderate heat CaSO4. 1/2 H2O + 3/2 H2O
• Plaster of pairs
• is white powder having sp.gr = 2.57
• also called low - temperature
• gypsum derivative or semi-
• hydrated plaster (hemi hydrate)
Cementing Materials
Crushed gypsum fed in to containers called kettles, is heated for about 2
hrs at a T0 of 1700C unit 3/4 of water of crystallization have been driven
off Plaster of pairs.

Plaster of Paris + sufficient water form plastic paste which sets very
rapidly (5-10 minutes)
The setting of gypsum derivative is not a chemical change as in the
setting of carbonate of lime but is due to the recombination of the
dehydrated lime (calcined calcium) sulphate, CaSO4 or CaSO4. 1/2 H2 O,
with water to form the original hydrated sulphate CaSO4. 2H2O.
Cementing Materials

Fig. Complete cycle in gypsum used as plaster

Cementing Materials
Plaster of pairs or stucco set too quickly for normal solid plastering uses, it is necessary
to delay the time of setting.
 accomplished by adding retardants like glue, sawdust, or blood after the plaster has
cooled.
 P of P while setting under water, does not gain strength and ultimately, on continued
water exposure, will disintegrate
In hardening, P of P first shrinks and then expands.
The later property makes the material valuable in making casts, since a sharp
impression of the mould can be secured.
 Owing to the rigidity of set and difficulty in working, its use in structure is limited to
ornamental work. It produces hard surfaces, sharp contours, and is sufficiently strong.
Cementing Materials
Hard - Finish Plaster
By burning gypsum to a considerably higher temperature than in the previous case there may
be produced anhydrous sulphate which is known as anhydrous plaster or high - temp.
Gypsum derivative.

CaSO4. 2H2O + High heat CaSO4 + 2H2O

• hard finish plaster
• called anhydrous gypsum plaster or
• high-temperature plaster.
• is less soluble with subsequent
• reluctance to absorb water in the
• process of re crystallization.
• too slow in setting for practical
• purposes but have a harder
• finish than hemi - hydrate plasters.
Cementing Materials
Plasters must be protected from contact with moisture
 Gypsum plasters should never be mixed with Portland cements
because of the probable formation of calcium and sulpha-aluminates,
which would disrupt the resulting work. Home study
Plaster of different categories should not be mixed together.
 Water used for mixing plasters should be clean.
Cementing Materials
2.3 Portland cement
It is the name given to a cement obtained by intimately mixing together
calcareous or other lime bearing material with if required, and
argillaceous, or other silica, alumina and iron oxide-bearing material,
burning them at a clinkering temperature, and grinding the resulting
material. No material, other than gypsum, water and grinding aids may
be added after burning.
Historical note
 Egyptians – used calcined impure gypsum
 The Greeks and Romans used calcined lime stone and later learned adding sand and crushed
stones or brick and broken tiles to the lime and water the first concrete in history.
 Lime mortar does not harden under water and for construction under water the Romans ground
together lime & a volcanic ash or finely ground burnt clay tiles. The active silica and alumina in
the ash and the tiles combined with the lime to produce what become known as Pozzolanic
Cement from the name of the village of Pozzuoli, near Vesuvius where the volcanic ash was first
found.
 Joseph Asp din in 1824, invented Portland cement. This cement was prepared by heating a
mixture of finely divided clay and hard limestone in a furnace until Co2 had been driven off.
• He named his new cement Portland because of its resemblance to Portland stone) when set.
(Portland is a town in England)
Cementing Materials
Manufacture of Portland cement
The raw materials:
 Lime stone or chalk Calcareous materials
 Clay or shale Argillaceous materials (Alumina & silica)
• These raw materials are found in all countries & Cement plants
operate all over the world.
Cementing Materials
The process of manufacture essentially consists of:
 Digging and grinding the raw materials
 Mixing them intimately in certain proportions
 Burning the mixture in a large rotary kiln at a temp of 1300-1500oC when
the materials sinters and fuses in to balls known as clinker.
 The clinker is cooled and ground to fine powder, with some gypsum added
and the resulting product is called Portland cement. The mixing and grinding
of the raw materials can be done
 In water – Wet process
 In a dry condition- Dry process.
Cementing Materials
Wet process:
 Chalk is finely broken up and dispersed in water in a wash mill
 Clay is also broken up & dispersed in water (usually in a similar wash mill)
 The above two mixtures are pumped so as to mix in pre determined
proportions and pass through a series of screens.
 The resulting slurry passes in to storage tanks, (the slurry is a liquid of
creamy consistency, with a water content of b/n 35-50% and about 2% larger
than a 90m sieve size). The sedimentation of the suspended solids in the tank
is being prevented by mechanical stirrers or bubbling by compressed air.
Cementing Materials

• Samples of slurry are taken from storage tanks to adjust proportions of calcareous & argillaceous
constituents.
• The slurry passes in to a rotary kiln (Up to 8m in diam. & 230m in length). Around the intake of
the kiln water is driven off and Co2 liberated and the dried material undergoes a series of chemical
reactions until finally in the hottest part of the kiln some 20-30% of the material becomes liquid,
and lime, silica & alumina recombine. The mass then fuses in to balls, 3-25mm in diam., known as
clinker.
• The clinker is cooled.
• Grinding the cooled clinker with gypsum (Gypsum is added in order to prevent flash set of the
resulting cement) up to the required finesses -about 1.1 x 1012 particles per kilogram.
• Finally we have Ordinary Portland cement (OPC), which is conveyed to storage silos.
• Packing and delivery.
Cementing Materials
Dry process:
Raw materials are:
• Crushed
• Dried in rotary driers
• Proportioned
• Ground in ball mills (steel cylinder containing hard steel or ceramic balls)
• The resulting powder is then burnt in its dry condition in rotary kiln. The
result is OPC.
• The difficulty in the control of dry mixing and blending has made this
method of production of Portland cement much less popular than the wet
process.
Cementing Materials
Proportioning of Raw Materials
In the manufacture of Portland cement, correct proportioning of the raw
materials is of prime importance in securing clinker of proper constitution.
In order to fix the proportions accurately, chemical analysis should be made
on the raw materials. The results of chemical analysis are usually reported
in terms of the oxide of the principal constituent element (table 1.), and this
procedure is the basis for proportioning the raw materials in manufacturing
Portland cement. The proportions may vary depending on the oxide
composition of the raw materials, and indeed different types of cement are
obtained by suitable proportioning of the materials.
Table 1. Approximate Oxide Composition Limits of Raw Materials.
Cementing Materials
Cementing Materials

• The insoluble residue, determined by treating with hydrochloric acid,

is a measure of adulteration of cement, largely arising from impurities
in gypsum.
• The loss on ignition shows the extent of carbonation and hydration of
free lime and free magnesia due to the exposure of cement to the
atmosphere.
Cementing Materials
• Present day trend in the manufacture of Portland cement is towards higher
lime content, above 65%. Cements with lower lime content are slow to
harden. On the other hand, the maximum lime content should be limited in
order to avoid the presence of free lime in the cement since free lime may
cause volume instability (unsoundness) in the hardened cement paste.
• The alumina and iron oxide act as a flux to reduce the burning temperature;
this explains the limit on their lower percentage. On the other hand the
upper limit of these oxides is determined by the need to control the rapidity
the setting of the cement. Iron oxide imparts the grey color to cement.
• In cement chemistry it is customary to represent the oxides by
abbreviations (Table 2.)
Cementing Materials
Cementing Materials
Mineral Composition of Portland Cement.
• We have seen that the raw materials used in the manufacture of
Portland cement consist of mainly of lime, silica, alumina and iron
oxide. These compounds interact with one another in the kiln to form a
series of more complex product. The resulting pulverized cement is a
heterogeneous mixture of several fine-grained minerals. Its chemistry
is very complicated, however its compound compositions has been
identified by cement chemists and is said to include those shown in
Table 3.
• Table 3. Compound Composition of Portland cement.
Cementing Materials
Name of Compound Oxide Composition Abbreviatio
n

I. Major Compounds
• The silicates, C3S and C2S, are the most important compounds, which
are responsible for the strength of hydrated cement paste.
• C4AF is also present in the cement in small quantities, and compared
with the other compounds, it does not affect the behaviour
significantly; however, it reacts with gypsum to form calcium
sulphuric and its presence may accelerate the hydration of the silicates.
• Gypsum+C4AF=CALCIUM SULPHERIC
Cementing Materials
• The amount of gypsum added to the clinker is crucial, and depends
upon the C3A content and the alkali content of cement. Increasing the
fineness of cement has the effect on increasing the quantity of C3A
available at early ages, and this raises gypsum requirement. An excess
of gypsum leads to expansion and consequent disruption of the set
cement paste. The optimum gypsum content is determined on the basis
of the generation of heat of hydration so that a desirable rate of early
reaction occurs, which ensures that there is little C3A available for
reaction after all the gypsum has combined.
Cementing Materials
• Free (un combined) lime may be present in cement either because:
• The raw materials used in the manufacturing process contain more lime than can
combine with the acidic oxide SO2, Al2O3 and Fe2O3 or Insufficient burning at the
clinkering stage.
• Free lime in cement is undesirable since after being hard burnt it is very slow to
hydrate when cement is mixed with water. Consequently its major hydration will
occur after the cement has set. The delayed hydration of free lime under restraint
will lead to a build up of internal pressure since a hydrating (slaking) lime needs
a large space than Ca O. This in turn leads to cracking and inevitable disruption
of the set cement. Cements, which exhibit such expansion, are said to be
“unsound" and the phenomenon is known as “unsoundness” due to lime".
Cementing Materials
• Magnesia, which has a similar hydration to Ca O, may cause unsoundness
if it is presence in the cement in a quantity greater than the upper limit.
• The presence of alkali oxides in cement assumes practical importance
when aggregates containing a reactive form of silica are used in concrete
production. The siliceous mineral in these types of aggregate, which are
known as alkali-reactive aggregates are attacked by the alkaline
hydroxides derived from the alkalis in the cement. As a result an alkali-
silica gel is formed which involves expansive forces. This leads to
cracking and deterioration of the concrete.
• It should, therefore, be pointed out that the term ' minor compounds' refers
primarily to their quantity and not necessarily to their importance.
Cementing Materials
Hydration of Cement
• So far, we have discussed cement in powder form but the material to
interest in practice is the set cement paste. This is the product of
reaction of cement with water. What happens is that, in the presence of
water the silicates and aluminates of Portland cement form products of
hydration and hydrates, which in time produce a firm and hard mass
the hardened cement paste.
Cementing Materials
The reaction of cement with water:
• Is a reaction of the individual compounds. The reaction may occur in
two ways:
1. Recombination of the dehydrated compounds with water.
e.g.CaSO4.1/2 H2O + 3/2 H2O CaSO4.2 H2O (true rxn of hydration)
2. Hydrolysis
Ca O + H2O Ca (OH) 2 + 2 H2O (leads to chemical rxn)
Cementing Materials
Mechanism of Hydration and Setting
There are two groups of compounds in cement
• The one that reacts slowly in water Casio2
• The one that reacts quickly in water tricaso4,tri calcium Aluminates ,tri calcium
silicate.
• The whole process result in two phases
• Liquid phase- fresh water and cement compounds (chemical reaction), temporary
• Plastic matter.
• Solid phase -after setting time.
• In common with many chemical reactions, the hydration of cement compounds is
exothermic, and there is heat liberated.
Cementing Materials
 Fig. Schematic representation of setting and hardening of cement
Addition of water
Cementing Materials
Heat Evolution in Setting Cement
• The hydration of cement cpds is exothermic, and the quantity of heat
(in joules) per gram-unhydrated cement, evolved up on complete
hydration at a given temperature is defined as the heat of hydration.
• Table: Heat of hydration of pure compounds
Cementing Materials
Thus, C3A liberates the largest quantity of heat in its pure form.
The rate of heat evolution of cement, as well as the total heat, is
greatly affected by its C3A and C3S content.
• So in very hot countries, cements that are used for making concrete
should have reduced proportions of the constituents that hydrate
rapidly (C3A and C3S)to reduce the accompanying high rate of heat
liberation.
Cementing Materials
Factors affecting the rate of hydration include:
• Cement composition
• Fineness of cement
• Water cement ratio
• Age of paste
• Ambient conditions, etc.
The temperature at which hydration occurs greatly affects the rate of heat
development, which for practical purposes is more important than the total
heat of hydration, the same total heat produced over a longer period can be
dissipated to a greater degree with a consequent smaller rise in temperature
Cementing Materials
For the usual range of Portland cements, about one-half of the total heat
is liberated between 1 and 3 days, about three-quarters in 7 days, and
nearly 90% in 6 months. In fact, the heat of hydration depends on the
chemical composition of the cement and is approximately equal to the
sum of the heats of hydration of the individual pure compounds when
their respective proportions by mass are hydrated separately.
Types of Portland cement
•Properties of cement are influenced by the dominant properties of the
individual cpds. (C3S, C2S, C3A, C4AF). Thus, by varying the
percentage of these cpds, one can obtain PC of different characteristics.
The main types of Portland cement include:
Name ASTM description
Ordinary cement Type I
Modified cement Type II
Rapid hardening cement Type III
Extra Rapid hardening cement -
Low heat cement Type IV
Sulphate Resisting cement Type V
Portland Pozzolana cement Type IP
White cement -
The rate of development of strength of concrete made with cements of different types is shown in
the figure below.
Heat evolution in concrete made of different types of cement is shown in the figure
below.
Cementing Materials
Ordinary Portland cement (Type I)
• Most commonly used for general purpose concrete construction where
special properties are not required.
• 95-100% PC clinker & 0-5% minor additional constituents
• Lime saturation factor = 1.0(Ca O) – 0.7 (SO3) .
2.8(SiO2) + 1.2(Al2O3) + 0.65(Fe2O3)
Should be b/n 0.66&1.02
• Is used where the concrete will not be subjected to sulphate attack
from the soil or water or exposed to severe weathering conditions.
Cementing Materials
Modified Cement (Type II)
• Produces less heat of hydration than type I, hence their use in
structures of mass such as piers, abutments & retaining walls.
• Are used in warm weather concreting b/c of their lower
temperature rise than type I.
• All round cement
Cementing Materials
Rapid hardening Cement (Type III)
• Produces strength more rapidly
• Achieved by increased C3S content & by finer grinding of
the cement clinker. Thus has greater heat of hydration than
type I
• Should not be used in mass concrete construction or in large
structural sections because of its higher rate of heat
development
Low Heat Cement (Type IV)
• Has low percentage of C3A and C3S. Thus produced from materials of
low in lime & alumina.
• The rise in T in the interior of a large concrete mass due to the heat
development by the hydration of cement, coupled with a low thermal
conductivity of concrete, can lead to serious cracking. So use low heat
concrete in large mass placements as gravity dams.
• Because of low C3S content, strength develops slowly than type I
• Because of low C3A content, has improved resistance to sulphate.
Cementing Materials
Sulphate Resisting Cement (Type V)
• has low percentage of C3A
• Used in areas where sulphate attack is possible.
• Note:
• No sharp discontinuities in the properties of d/t types of cement. And
thus, many types of cement can be classified as more than one type.
• Obtaining some special properties of cement may lead to undesirable
features in another respect. Thus optimization is needed.
• The economic aspect should be seen carefully.
Cementing Materials
TESTS ON THE PROPERTIES OF PORTLAND CEMENT
Tests can be:
a) Chemical: -to check the quality of the product
-results are reported in terms of oxides
- Mostly done in the cement plant lab
b) Physical - Setting times, soundness tests, strength tests etc.
Cementing Materials
1. Normal Consistency and Setting Times of Cement
Since different batches of cement differ in fineness, pastes with the
same water content may differ in consistency when first mixed. For this
reason the consistency of the paste is standardized by varying the water
content until the paste has a given resistance to penetration, when it is
first mixed. When testing the Portland cement it is necessary to carry
out trial mixes until a mix of the required consistency is obtained. The
quantity of water required to produce a paste of standard consistency is
needed for the determination of the water content of mortar for tensile
test, soundness test and setting time tests.
Cementing Materials
• It is essential that cement set neither too rapidly nor too slowly. In
the first case there might be insufficient time to transported and place
the concrete before it becomes too rigid. In the second case too long a
setting period tends to slow up the work unduly, also it might postpone
the actual use of the structure because of inadequate strength at the
desired age.
• Setting refers to the stiffening process which cement paste,
undergoes as time elapses. It should not be confused with
hardening, which refers to the gain in mechanical strength after the
paste has solidified
Cementing Materials
• The setting test measures the time taken for the cement paste to offer a
certain degree of resistance to penetration of a special attachment
passed in to it. Two periods of times are used to assess the setting
behavior. These are called the "initial setting time" and the "final
setting time". The Vic at apparatus for testing consistency, initial
setting time and final setting time is shown below.
Cementing Materials
Normal Consistency:
Measured by Vicat apparatus
• Procedure:
1. A trial paste of cement and water is mixed
2. Fill the Vicat mould with cement paste & put centrally under the rod
3. Lower the plunger gently & bring in contact with the surface of the paste
and released it quickly.
4. 30 seconds after releasing the plunger, the penetration is recorded. The
paste is standard (normal) consistency when the rod settles 10 + 1 mm
below the original surface.
Cementing Materials
% Water = weight of water x 100
Mass of cement
Usual ranges of w/c for normal consistency is 26-33%
Setting times:
Determined by Vicat apparatus
Procedure:
1. Fresh concrete paste of normal consistency is prepared
2. About 30 min. after mixing fill the Vicat mould & put centrally under the rod
3. Lower the needle gently & bring in contact with the surface of the paste and released it quickly.
4. Thirty seconds after releasing the needle the penetration is recorded. This is repeated every 15
minutes until a penetration of 25mm or less is obtained in thirty seconds.
5. The results of all penetration tests are recoded, and the time when a penetration of 35mm is
obtained is determined by interpolation. The period elapsing between the time when the water is
added to the cement and the time at which the needle penetrates 25mm is taken as the initial
setting time.
Cementing Materials

• For the determination of the final setting time, the needle with an
annular attachment replaces the needle of the Vicat apparatus (of
initial setting time). The cement shall be considered as finally set
when, upon applying the needle gently to the surface of the test block,
only the needle makes an impression, while the attachment fails do
so.
Cementing Materials
2. Fineness of cement
• Because hydration starts at the surface of the cement particles, it is the
total surface area of cement that represents the material available for
hydration. Thus the rate of hydration depends on the fineness of the
cement particle (the grinding of clinker) and, for a rapid development
of strength, high fineness is necessary; the long-term strength is not
affected. A higher early rate of hydration means, of course, also a
higher rate of early heat evolution.
Cementing Materials
• The cost of grinding to a higher fineness is considerable, and also the
finer the cement the more rapidly it deteriorates on exposure to
atmosphere. Fine cement leads to a stronger reaction with alkali-
reactive aggregate, and make the cement paste, though not necessarily
concrete, exhibit a higher shrinkage and a greater proneness to
cracking. How ever fine cement bleeds less than a course one.
• Thus it is clear that fineness is a vital property of cement and has to be
carefully controlled. To determine the following tests can be done to
determine the fineness of cement.
Cementing Materials
a) Determination of Fineness of Cement Using Standard Sieve
Objective: To determine the fineness of cement sample by Dry sieving
• Apparatus: 90m sieve, trowel, tray, cement, water, brush.
Procedure: a) Weigh accurately 100gm of cement in a tray
b) Place it in a 90m sieve breaking down any air-set lumps in cement sample with
finger
c) Continuously sieve the sample by holding down the sieve in both the hands. Sieve
with a gentle wrist motion for a period of 15minutes, rotating the sieve continuously
throughout the sieving, involving no danger of spilling the cement.
d) Weight the residue after 15 minutes of sieving.
e) Repeat the procedure for two more such samples.
 Cementing Materials
OBSERVATIONS

Result: Fineness of cement by dry sieving is: K %

Cementing Materials
Precautions: 1) Before sieving, air set lumps of cement should be
broken.
2) Sieving should be done by rotating the sieve and not by translation.
• However, the sieve test gives no information on the size of grains
smaller than 90m sieve, and it is the finer particles that play the
greatest part in the early hydration. For this reason, modern standards
prescribe a test for fineness by determination of the specific surface
of cement expressed as the total surface area in square meters per kg
(m2/Kg). The following tests describe this.
Cementing Materials
2. Soundness Test on Cement
• It is essential that cement paste, once it has set, does not undergo a
large change in volume. In particular, there must be no appreciable
expansion, which under conditions of restraint, could result in
disruption of the hardened cement paste. Such expansion may take
place due to the delayed or slow hydration, or other reaction, of
some compounds present in the hardened cement, namely free lime,
magnesia, and calcium sulphate.
Cementing Materials
• If the raw materials fed in to the kiln contain more lime than that can
combine with the acidic oxides, or if burning or cooling are
unsatisfactory, the excess lime will remain in a free condition. This
hard burnt lime hydrates only very slowly and, because slaked lime
occupies a large volume than the original free calcium oxide,
expansion takes place. Cements that exhibit this expansion are
described as unsound.
Cementing Materials
• Free lime cannot be determined by chemical analysis of cement because it is
not possible to distinguish between unreacted Ca O and Ca (OH) 2 produced
by a partial hydration of the calcium silicates when cement is exposed to the
atmosphere. On the other hand, a test on clinker, immediately it has left the
kiln, would show the free lime content, as no hydrated cement is present.
• Cement can also be unsound due to the presence of Mg O, which reacts with
water in a manner similar to Ca O. However, only periclase, that is,” dead-
burnt" crystalline Mg O, is deleteriously reactive, and Mg O present in glass
is harmless. Up to about 2% of periclase (by mass of cement) combines with
the main cement compounds, but excess periclase generally cause expansion
and can lead to slow disruption.
Cementing Materials
• Calcium sulfate is the third compound liable to cause expansion: in
this case, calcium sulfo-aluminum is formed. It may be recalled that a
hydrate of calcium sulfate-gypsum is added to cement clinker in order
to prevent flash set, but if gypsum is present in excess of the amount
that can react with C3A during setting, unsoundness in the form of
slow expansion will result. For this reason, standards limit very strictly
the amount of gypsum that can be added to the clinker; the limits are
well on the safe side as far as the danger of unsoundness is concerned.
Cementing Materials
• One advantage of slow setting cement is that more time is given to hydrate the lime
before the mass becomes rigid.
Verifying Soundness of Cement Using the Lech atelier's Apparatus
• Objective: To determine the soundness of given cement Apparatus: Lech atelier's
Apparatus, two glass plates, temperature control water bath, scale, stopwatch,
balance, cement, water, trowel.
• Lech atelier's Apparatus shown in the figure below consists of a small split cylinder
of spring brass or other suitable metal of 0.5mm thickness, forming a mould of
30mm internal diameter and 30mm high. On the either end of split are attached two
indicators with pointed ends A-A, the distance from these ends to the centre of the
cylinder being 165mm. The mould shall be kept in good condition with not more
than 0.5mm apart.
Cementing Materials
Cementing Materials
• Procedure:
a) The cylinder is placed on a glass plate and then filled with cement paste of standard consistency.
b) Cover the mould with another glass plate, placing a small weight on the covering glass plate and
then the whole assembly is placed in a cabinet at 20 1 o C and a relative humidity of not less than 98%
and kept there for 24hrs.
c) Measure the distance D1 between the indicator points after 24hrs and then again submerge the mould
in water.
d) Bring the water to boiling in 30 minutes and keep it boiling for 3 hrs.
e) Remove the mould from the water, allow it to cool and measure the distance D 2 between the indicator
points.
f) The difference (D2-D1) between the two measurements gives the expansion of the cement.

• The Ethiopian standard limits this expansion for Portland cement to 10mm.
Cementing Materials
• If the expansion exceeds this value, a further test is made after the
cement has been spread and aerated for 7 days. During this time some of
the lime may hydrate or even carbonate, and a physical break down in
size may also take place. At the end of 7-day period, the Lechatelier's
test is repeated and the expansion of aerated cement must not exceed a
specified value of 5mm. Cement, which fails to satisfy at least one of
these tests, should not be used.
• Because unsoundness of cement is not apparent until after a period of
months or years, it is essential to test soundness of cement in an
accelerated manner (=boiling) so that any tendency to expand is
speeded up and can be detected
Cementing Materials
• 2.4 Mortar
• Mortar is the name given to a mixture of sand or similar inert particles
with cementing materials and water, and which has the capacity of
hardening in to a rock like mass.
• Mortar = Cement + Sand + H2O
Uses: - as a binding material in brick and stone masonry.
• -for plastering of walls
• -for making concrete
• -to transfer load from brick to bricks or masonry to masonry
Cementing Materials
Mortar mixes:
• Lime mortar = Lime + Sand + H2O = Mortar------ (Traditional)
-Has good workability
-Economical
• Cement mortar= Cement + Sand + H2O = Mortar
- Develops strength rapidly
- Stronger than lime mortar
- Expensive than lime mortar
• Compo Mortar =Cement + Lime + Sand + H2O
- has increased workability
- is relatively cheaper than cement mortar
Cementing Materials
Properties of Mortar:
Depend on: -Properties of cementiceous material
-ratio of cementiceous material
-grading and quality of sand
-water cement ratio, etc
1. Workability
• For the same proportions, lime-sand mortar has a better workability than
cement-sand mortar. How ever, cement produces higher strength than lime
• In order to increase workability of cement-sand mortars, especially when
they are lean mixes (i.e. containing less amount of cement); plasticizers &
air-entraining agents are used.
Cementing Materials
2. Strength
• Affected by factors like:
-quality of ingredients
-their proportions
-the curing method and age, etc.
• for the same proportions lime-sand mixes gives weaker mortar than
cement-sand mix. this is due mainly to two factors:
1. Cement gives stronger paste than lime
2. Cement gives a better bond b/n the paste & the sand grains
Cementing Materials

• The gradation of sand particles highly affects the strength of mortar. From lab tests, it is
found that for the same proportion of sand and cement, coarse sand gives more
compressive, tension, shear and bending strengths than medium and fine sands .But, the
strength increases as the cement content increases.
• High amount of mixing water reduces strength and density of mortar .reduction in
strength is higher in earlier ages.
• Strength of mortar increases with time. The rate of gaining of strength is higher initially
and slows down gradually. Approximately after a year it attains its full strength. This is
because
-In cement mortar---Hydration of cement occurs slowly
-In Lime mortar-----Absorption of co2 occurs slowly
Cementing Materials
3. Water tightness
In damp conditions:
• Cement should be used in the mortar b/c of its hydraulic property
• The mix should be rich and dense
• Smaller water cement ratio shall be used.
Mixing:
• by hand or
• using mechanical mixers
 THANK YOU

‘LET GOD BLESS ETHIOPIA’’

CHAPTER THREE
Concrete
• The term "Concrete" is used for conglomerates made artificially with
cement, sand, stone chips, water and some times admixtures. Green
concrete is a workable plastic mixture of cement, aggregate & water which
can be cast in to any desired shape or convenient size. Concrete when set
and cured resemble stone in weight, hardness, brightness & strength.
• The property of concrete varies depending on the quality of the constituent,
proportion of the concrete mix, quality of the workmanship & curing. In
concrete each and every aggregate must be completely surrounded by the
paste of cement. The paste binds the aggregate together and forms a solid
mass. The pastes usually occupy 25 - 35% of the volume of the concrete.
• Cement used in concrete mix needs less than 30% by wt. of water for its
hydration process. However, because of the dual function of water, concrete
containing such a small amount would be very dry and very difficult to fully
compact.
• The quantity of water used in concrete mix has; therefore, to be sufficient to
fully satisfy both functions, for this reason water used in concrete mix is
usually much greater than 30% of the cement wt. The total amount of water
required per unit volume of fresh concrete depends on:
• The desired consistency
• The maximum size, particle shape, and grading of aggregate
• The water reducing or air entraining admixtures.
3.1.2. Cement
3.1.3 Aggregates
• Aggregates are the most important constituent on concrete. They give
body to the concrete, reduce shrinkage, and effect economy. The fact
that aggregate occupy 65 - 75 percent of the volume of concrete, their
impact on various mixes and properties of concrete is considerable.
Therefore choosing attention should be given to four general
requirements.
a) Economy of the mixture
b) Potential strength of hardened mass
c ) Probable durability of the concrete structure
d) Workability when fresh
3.1.3.1 Classification of aggregates
• Aggregates can be classified as normal wt. aggregate, light wt
aggregate and heavy wt. aggregate according to their wt. Aggregates
can be further classified as natural aggregate and Artificial Aggregate
based on their source.
• Natural:
• Sand, gravel, crushed rock (granite, quartzes, basalt, sand stone)
• Artificial:
• Broken Brick, air cooled slag
• Aggregate can also be classified on the basis of the size of the
aggregate as coarse aggregate
• ( bigger than about 4.75mm in diameter).and fine aggregate below
4.75mm.
• The chemical reaction takes place rapidly of first with considerable
amount of water lost and then slowly for a long period under
favourable conditions .
3.1. Materials for Concrete.
3.1.1 Water:
• Water is an important ingredient of concrete as it actively participates
in the chemical reaction with cement. Since it helps to form the
strength giving cement paste, the quantity & quality of water is
required to be looked very carefully.
• Generally water used drinking is suitable for making good concrete. In
general water to be used in concrete should be free of the following
substances with some permissible amount.
• Sugar
• Carbonates & bicarbonates of sodium & potassium
• Chlorides & Sulphides
• Salts of manganese, tin, zinc, copper & lead
• Silt & suspended particles.
• Algae
• The use of sea water for mixing concrete lead to corrosion of
reinforcement. Therefore it should be avoided.
• The best way to find out whether a particular source of water is
suitable for concrete making or not, is to make concrete with this
water & compare its 7 days and 28 days strength with cubes made
with distilled water.
• Water has two functions in concrete mix
i) It reacts chemically with cement.
ii) It lubricates all other materials & makes the concrete workable.
• Cement used in concrete mix needs less than 30% by wt. of water for its
hydration process. However, because of the dual function of water, concrete
containing such a small amount would be very dry and very difficult to fully
compact. The quantity of water used in concrete mix has;
• therefore, to be sufficient to fully satisfy both functions, for this reason water
used in concrete mix is usually much greater than 30% of the cement wt.
• The total amount of water required per unit volume of fresh concrete
depends on:
• The desired consistency
• The maximum size, particle shape, and grading of aggregate
• The water reducing or air entraining admixtures
3.1.2. Cement
3.1.3 Aggregates
Aggregates are the most important constituent on concrete. They give body to the
concrete, reduce shrinkage, and effect economy. The fact that aggregate occupy 65 -
75 percent of the volume of concrete, their impact on various mixes and properties of
concrete is considerable. Therefore choosing attention should be given to four
general requirements.
a) Economy of the mixture
b) Potential strength of hardened mass
c ) Probable durability of the concrete structure
d) Workability when fresh
3.1.3.1 Classification of aggregates
• Aggregates can be classified as normal wt. aggregate, light wt. aggregate and heavy
wt. aggregate according to their wt. Aggregates can be further classified as natural
aggregate and Artificial Aggregate based on their source.
Natural:
• Sand, gravel, crushed rock (granite, quartzes, basalt, sand stone)
• Artificial:
• Broken Brick, air cooled slag
• Aggregate can also be classified on the basis of the size of the aggregate as coarse
aggregate
• ( bigger than about 4.75mm in diameter).and fine aggregate below 4.75mm.
3.1.3.2. Source of aggregate:
Almost all natural aggregate materials originate from bed rocks.
There are three kinds of rocks, namely igneous, sedimentary & metamorphic.
Most igneous rocks made highly satisfactory concrete aggregate. The quality of
aggregate desired from sedimentary rocks will vary in quality depending up on
the cementing material and the pressure under which these rocks are originally
compacted. Some siliceous sand stones and lime stones have proved to be good
concrete aggregate.
Metamorphic rocks such as quartzes, sinless have been used for production of
good concrete aggregate. But mica shall not be used as concrete aggregate.
3.1.3.3 Gradation of Aggregate.
One of the important properties of aggregate used for concrete is the
gradation of particles. A suitable gradation of the combined aggregate
in a concrete mix is essential in order to secure good workability and to
secure economy in the use of cement. For mixes of given consistency &
cement content a well graded mixture produces a stronger concrete
than a harsh or poorly graded one, since less water is required to get
the required workability.
• The grading (particle size distribution) of aggregate is determined by
sieve analysis, which is usually made by shaking the material through
a series of sieves (BS or ASTM) or screens, nested in order with the
smallest on the bottom.
Fineness Modulus (FM):- The FM is an empirical factor obtained
by adding the total percentage of an aggregate sample retained on each
of a specified series of sieves and dividing the sum by 100. It is used as
an index to the finesse or coarseness and uniformity of aggregate
supplied, but it is not an indication of the grading, since there could be
an infinite number of gratings which will produce a given F.M. which
will produce a given F.M. In calculating the F. M. The intermediate
sieves No. 200, 1/2 ' 1' and 2" ASTM sieves should be omitted.
• Example: Sieve analysis of fine aggregate
• Total wt. of sand to be taken for sieve analysis is soon
Percent retained %=wt.retaind x100
Total wt.
Cumulative percent coarser (retained) % = the commutative sum of the
percent retained.
Commutative percent passing % = 100 - commutative percent coarser.
Example:2 Sieve analysis of coarse aggregate.
wt. of C.A. to be taken for sieve analysis depends on the maximum size of
aggregate (ASTM).
N.B. The maximum size of aggregate is defined by the largest sieve through
which at least 90% of the aggregate passes.
Combined Aggregate:- Some times aggregate available at sites may not
be of specified or desirable grading in such case two or more aggregate
from different sources may be combined to get the desired grading.
Often mixing of available CA in appropriate percentage may produce
desirable gradients. But some times two or more fraction of C.A. is
mixed first and the combined C.A. is mixed with F.A. to obtain the
desired grading.
Grading requirements: The maximum size and grading are
important factors to be considered because they affect:
a) The relative volume occupied by the aggregate (i.e. the relative
proportions), hence the
economy in producing concrete.
b) The surface area of the aggregate which determine the amount of
water necessary to wet all the solids.
c ) The workability of the mixture
d) The tendency to segregation.
e) Porosity and shrinkage.
This means that from the point of view of selecting proportions (mix
design), it is important to have a well graded CA and FA with maximum
possible size. For the above reason, national standards specify grading
limits for coarse, tine and combined aggregate.
In addition the FA should not have more than 45% retained b/n any two
consecutive sieves and the FM should not be less than 2 or more than
3.5 with tolerance ± 0.2.
Grading chart: The result obtained as percentage passing or percent
coarser can be shown graphically in grading charts. The chart consists
of sieve opening in the horizontal axis and percent passing or percent
coarser in the vertical scale.
3.1.3.4. Quality of Aggregates
An aggregate for concrete must be clean, sound, hard and strong and durable. Harmful substances
which may present in aggregate may be classified as follows.
a) Substance causing an adverse chemical reaction.
E.g. organic materials such as loam, humus, sugar, etc.
b) Substances which undergo disruptive expansion example, shale, colloidal silica (chert), iron Oxide
etc. …
c) Clay and surface coatings
- Dust increase water requirement and clay prevents good bond between cement paste and Aggregate.
d) Particles having an unduly flat oven elongated shape (offsets workability).
e) Structurally soft or weak particles.
- Give lower strength and increase drying, shrinkage, abrasion.
Reactive aggregate: the alkalis No2O in some cement react with certain
minerals present in the aggregate and course disruption of concrete.
Numerous tests have shown Opaline silica to be a serious of tender
other known reactive substances are chalcedy, tridymite, critubolic
zeolite, rhyolite, decites and as desires.
The extremely fine fraction of aggregate materials are commonly
classified as silt and clay and should not permitted in large amounts
because of their tendency to increase the water requirements of a mix
and thus contribute to decrease strength or durability.
3.1.3.5 SPECIFIC GRAVITY & UNIT WT OF AGGREGATE.
Specific gravity:- The specific gravity of a substance is the ratio
between the wt. of the substance and that of the same volume of
water. This definition assumes that the substance is solid through out.
But aggregate usually contain pores and hence the specific gravity has
to be carefully defined.
I. absolute sp.gr:- It is the ratio of the mass of a unit volume of material to
the mass of the same volume of gas free distilled water.
ii. apparent sp.gr.:- is the various of the wt. air of a materials of a given
volume solid matter plus impermeable pores or voids to the wt. in air of an
equal volume of distilled water.
App. sp.gr = A/A-C
iii. Bulk Sp. GR:- is defined as the ratio of the wt in air of a given volume of
a permeable material ( including both its permeable & impermeable voids)
to the wt. in air of equal volume of water.
Bulk sp.gr = A/B - C
On saturated surface any basis the bulk specific gravity is defined as in ratio
of the wt. in air of permeable material in a saturated surface dry (SSD)
condition to the wt. in air of an equal volume of water.
Where A = wt. of the over dry sample in air
B = wt. of SSD sample in air
C = wt. of saturated sample in water.
In the computation of quantities for concrete mixes it is the specific
gravity the SSD aggregate that is always used.
When the sample is tested in separate size fractions the average value
for bulk specific gravity can be computed as the weighted average of the
values as computed in the above equations using the following
equations.
Bulk specific gravity (SSD) = A/B+A-C.
Where A = wt . of SSD sample (usually 500g)
B = wt of pycnometer filled with water (g)
C = wt. of pycnometer with specimen and water to calibration mark. g.
Average specific gravity of rocks varies from 2.5 - 2.9.
UNIT - WT (BULK DENSITY):- The unit wt of aggregate is the
wt. of a unit volume of aggregate usually stated in kg/m3. It is helpful in
batching by volume.
VOIDS:- The term void (w.r.t. amass of aggregate) refers to the space
between the gross overall, volume of the aggregate mass & the space
occupied by the particles alone.
Percentage of voids =Solid unit wt. –unit wt.*100
Solid unit wt.
Solid Unit wt:- is the specific gravity of a material in metric unit (kg/m3)
• Useful in calculating solid void of aggregate.
Eg:- unit wt = 1680 Kg/m3
sp.gr = 2.65
Voids(%)=(2.65*1000)-1680*100
2.65*100 =36.6%
For a given specific gravity the greater the unit wt the smaller the
percentage of voids, and hence the better the gradation of the
particles.
Solid volume Weight
Solid unit wt.
The unit wt. of aggregate is influenced by the specific gravity of the
particles, the moisture condition of the aggregate and the compactness
of the mass.
General unit wt. of some natural aggregate.
Sand 1520 - 1680 Kg/m3
Gravel 1280 - 1440 " Compacted unit wt.
Crushed stone 4250 - 1400 "
The unit wt. of aggregate may vary a considerable range, depending up
on the type, grading and the source of the material. Aggregate made of
blast furnace slag may range in unit wt from 960 kg/m3 to 1360kg/m.
3.1.3.6. ABSORPTION & MOISTURE CONTENT
Some of the aggregate are pores and absorptive. Porosity & absorption
of aggregate will affect water cement ratio and hence the workability of
the concrete. The porosity of aggregate is also affect the durability of
concrete. When the concrete is subjected to freezing and thawing and
also when the concrete is subjected to chemically aggressive liquids.
iopian pumice is about 200 kg/m3.
Aggregate to moisture content, the various states in which an aggregate
moisture exist are
1. OVEN DRY: all moisture, external and internal driven off, usually by
heating at 100-110oc
2. AIR DRY: No surface moisture on particles, some internal moisture, but
particles are not saturated.
3. SATURATED SURFACE DRY: no free or surface moisture on the
particles, but all void between the particles is fill with water.
4. DAMP OR WET: Saturated and with free or surface moisture on
particles.
5.absorption capacity:- The total internal moisture content of an
aggregate in SSD condition
Absorption capacity % =SDDOven dry wt.*100
Oven dry wt.
6. effective absorption:- The amount of water required to bring an
aggregate from the air dry condition to SDD.
Effective absorption (%) = SDD wt  air dry wt*100
Oven dry wt
Surface (free) moisture (%) = Damp wt  SDD*100
SDD
It should be noted that if the aggregate are dry they absorb water from
the mixing water and they affect the workability, and on the other
hand, if an aggregate contains surface moisture they contribute extra
water to the mix and their increase w/C ratio. Hence adjustment on the
quantities of the materials have to be made based on SSD condition of
the aggregate since of this state the aggregate will neither absorb nor
contribute water to the mix.
In the case of weight batching, determination of free moisture content of the
aggregate is necessary & correction of w/C ratio to be affected on this regard,
but when volume batching is adapted, the determination of moisture content
of the fine aggregate does not become necessary but the cons equate
batching of sand & correction of volume of sand to give allowance for balking
is necessary.
1.1.3.7. BULKING OF SAND
In the aggregate free moisture holds the particles a part and present then
from adjusting themselves. to occupy a minimum volume, hence they may
result a marked decrease in wt of aggregate in a given measured volume and
measure in the percentage of voids. These phenomena known as "bulking".
The bulking increases with the increase in moisture content up to a
certain limit and beyond that the further increase in moisture content
results in the decrease in the volume and at a moisture content
representing saturation pt. the fine aggregate shows bulking
Coarse aggregate also bulks but the bulking is so little that it is always
neglected the extent of bulking can be estimated by a simple field test.
A sample of moisture fine aggregate is filled in to a measuring cylinder
note down the level say m, pour water in to the measuring cylinder and
completing inundate the sand and shake it .
Since the volume of the saturated sand is the same as that of the dry
sand; the inundated completely offsets the bulking effect Note down
the level of the sand say h2. Then h1 - h2 shows the bulking of the
sample under rest.
Percentage of bulking = (r/o) h1-h2*100
h2
Mostly, mix proportions by volume given specifications are based on
dry sand - Hence, if the specified quantity is followed, and moist sand is
used, the mix will contain less sand ( and more cement) than
interested, and it will be harsh and difficult to work. There fore
whenever volume batching is used, bulking of moisture sand has to be
allowed for by increasing its total volume. In this case the volume of
sand obtained from the proportions in the saturated state, is multiplied
by the bulking factor.
Bulking factor 1+h1-h2 =h1/h2
h2
3.1.3.8. TEST ON AGGREGATES
1) Sieve analysis 5) Determination dust or clay content
2) Unit wt. determinate is 6) Organic impurities of sand
3) Specific gravity 7) Soundness
4) Absorption test
8. Abrasión test ( Los Ángeles abrasión)
- Abrasion is the resistance to wear.
3.1.4. ADMIXTURES
Admixtures are defined as materials other than cement, water &
aggregate that is used as an ingredient of concrete and is added to the
batch immediately before or during mixing.
This day’s concrete is being used for so many purposes in different
conditions in these conditions ordinary concrete may fail to exhibit the
required quality or durability or workability. In much cases admixtures
is used to modify the property of the ordinary concrete. So as to make
it most suitable for any conditions.
As per the report of ACI committee 212 admixtures have been classified into 15
groups according to the type of materials consisting the admixtures, use. The
some groups are listed below.
1. Air entraining agents 8. Damp proofing & permeability
2. Pozzolona 9. Workability agents.
3. Accelerators 10. Grouting agency
4. Retarders 11. Corrosion in habiting agents.
5. Air determining a gents 12. Bonding agents
6. Air determining agents 13. Fungicidal, germicidal & in sectional agents
7. Alkali aggregate expansion inhibitors
3.2. FRESH CONCRETE
• Fresh concrete or plastic concrete is a freshly mixed material which
can be moulded in to any shape. The relative quantities of cement,
aggregate and wall mixed together control the properties in wet state
as well as in hardened state.
3.2.1 PROPERTIES OF FRESH CONCRETE
1. WORKABILITY:- is the property of fresh mixed concrete which
determines the easy and homogeneity with which it can be mixed,
Placed, compacted and furnish and serve the purpose it is intended for
when hardened.
2. CONSISTANCY:- is a general term to indicate he degree of fluidity or the degree
of mobility of the freshly mixed concrete.
A concrete which has a high consistence and which is a more mobile, need not be
of right workability for a particular job, every job regimes a particular workability.
concrete of suitable consistency water should be added very carefully.
The following are factors that affect workability and consistency of fresh
concrete.
* Water content * size, shape & textures of aggregate
* use of admixture.
* Mix proportions * grading of aggregate ( maximum influence)
Among the methods for checking the consistency of fresh concrete, the
slump test is the most commonly used and can be employed both in
the laboratory and at site work.
There are three patterns of slump.
SEGEREGATION:- Can be defined as the separation of the constituent
materials of concrete. A good concrete is one in which all the
ingredients are properly distributed to make a homogenous mixture.
BLEEDING:- The tendency of water to rise in freshly placed concrete
when the solids settle through the body of water is called bleeding. It
results from the inability of constituent materials to hold all the mixing
water as the relatively heavy solids settle.
The rising water tends to carry with it many fine properties which
weakness the top portion.
3.2.2. BATCHING:- Prior to the mixing of ingredients it is essential to
measure the materials accurately to ensure the right proportions. The
concrete may be batched either by weight or by volume.
When concrete is batched by volume there is always variation between
one batch & another. This is due to the fact that the quantities of solid
materials in a container very much depend on its degree of compaction,
more over volume of most sand in a loose solution weight much less
than the same volume of dry compacted sand. Because of this batch, wt
batching is prefer than volume batch especially on important works,
however, because it is simple & convenient volume batching is used at
most construction sites.
Cement is always measured by wt. Generally, for each batch mix, one
bag of cement (50kg) is used. The volume of one bag of cement is taken
as 35 lit.
Gauge boxes are used for measuring the fine coarse aggregate
whenever volume batching is adapted correction for the effect of
bulking should be made when the fine aggregate is moist.
Water is usually measured by volume in a calibrated tank or by means
of flow tile water meters.
3.2.3 CONCRETE MIXING
Through mixing of materials is essential for the production of uniform
concrete. The mixing should ensure that the mass becomes
homogeneous, uniform in colors & consistency. There are two methods
adapted for mixing concrete.
a) Hand mixing
b) Machine mixing
Hand mixing is practiced for small scale unimportant concrete works. As
the mixing can not be through & efficient, It is desirable to add 10% more
cement to compensate the inferior concrete produced by this method.
Machine mixing obviously gives better and uniform mixes than hand
mixing and because of this reason, it is generally recommended. There
are different types of concrete mixers such as, Tilting drum mixer, non-
tilting drum type, pan mixer type, truck mixer, plant mixer etc …
It is seen from experiment that the strength of concrete will increase
with increasing time of mixing, but for mixing time beyond 2 min, the
important in compressive strength is not very significant.
The minimum mixing time recommend by US. bureau of reclamation,
after all ingredients, except the last of the water, are in the mixer is as
follows.
3.2.4. CONCRETE CONVEYING
Depending up on the type of work & equipment, various methods
employed to transport fresh concrete from the mixer to the site where
it is caste. This include the use of wheel borrows carts, chutes, dump,
buckets, truck mixers, Belt conveyers etc.
It is important that the concrete be handled with out segregation of the
constituent materials, the condition which may easily occur.
3.2.5. PLACING OF CONCRETE
Concrete is a plastic material when fresh and it needs form molds until
it sets& harden. The forms are made from timber or steel.
Before placing the concrete, the forms and subscribe should be cleaned
moisten especially in hot weather. When wooden form have been
exposed to the sand or some time, it may be necessary to saturate the
wood to tighten the joints. In order to prevent the concrete from the
adhering to the surface; forms should be thoroughly oiled when
concrete to be placed on a hardened concrete, a few mm thick layer of
material is necessary to prevent formation of stone pockets & secure
tight joints. The mould should be made from concrete mix to be cost
but with out its coarse aggregate.
Concrete should be placed as soon as possible, in no case more than 30
min after mixing period. It should be deposited in layers usually hot
exceeding 25cm. Each layer should be compacted before the next layer
is placed.
Rein forcing steel should be clean & free from loose or harden mortar.
Rein forcing bar surface must never be oiled.
3.2.6. COMPACTION
Compaction of concrete is a process adapted for expelling the entrap
air from the concrete & to achieve max density which leads to higher
strength. Compaction is done by hand by vibrator.
When compacting by hand, the concrete should be loaded, tamped &
so as to make it settle thoroughly every where in the forms & produce a
density mass.
The use of vibrator which enables stiffer mix by compaction has two
possible advantages compared to hand compaction.
I. Much stronger concrete can be produced for given cement content
by reducing the water Content & therefore water cement ratio.
II. The same strength can be produced with less cement
3.3. HARDEND CONCRETE
3.3.1. Strength & Properties of hardened concrete.
The strength & Properties of concrete depends on the following factors.
1. Quantity of the binding materials & aggregate.
2. Size, grading & proportioning of ingredients.
3. W/C ratio & consistency.
4. Quality of work man ship.
5. Method of mixing & measuring adapted.
6. Method of consolidation of concrete.
7. Site condition & temperature.
8. Method of curing.
Concrete should be tested for crashing (comp) strength, After 28 days
curing.
For testing, 15cm cube or cylinders of 15cm diameter, 30cm high are
used the cube test generally give 25% high values than the cylinder
test. Strength of concrete test specimen decrease in increase in size.

P= Crushing load.
A= sectional area.
Concrete is relatively strong in compression and weak in tension. In
forced concrete members, little dependence is placed on tensile
strength of concrete. Since steel reinforcing bars are provided to resist
all tensile force. However, tensile stresses are likely to develop in
concrete due to dry shrinkage & rusting of steel reinforcement
(temperature gradients & many other reasons) there fore, the
knowledge of tensile strength of concrete is of importance.
DIRECT MEASUREMENT OF TENSILE strength of concrete is difficult
there fore, indirect tests such as the flexural test and cylinder splitting
tests are used. In the flexural test the specimen may be subjected to
center pt loading or 3rd point loading. In both cases the modulus of
rupture (extreme fibers stress in bending) is calculated in flexural form.
The standard size of specimen are 15 x 15 x 20 cm. Alternately, if the largest
nominal size of the aggregate does not exceed 20 mm, specimens 10 x 10 x
50cm may be used.
3.3.2 CURING OF CONCRETE
The strength of concrete increases considerably by general chemical action
of cement in setting & for which after casting, concrete demands water to
attain its strength. The process of supplying water to concrete after casting
is called "CURING". When the initial setting of concrete is complete it
should be kept moist at least for four weeks. Curing also helps to prevent
formation of surface cracks, due to quick loss of water while the concrete is
fresh & wet.
• Vertical surfaces may be kept moist by sprinkling and horizontal
surface may be kept damp either by storing water on surface, or by
placing wet straws, wet sand or etc …., over the surface.
3.3.3. W/C RATIO & DEGREE OF COMPACTION.
The strength of concrete at a given age & cured at prescribed
temperature depend on two factors:
* W/C ratio
* Degree of compaction
• W/C ratio determines the porosity of the hardened cement past.
• Both W/C ratio & degree of compaction affect the volume of voids in
concrete.
• The quantity of water used in the mixture has, therefore great
influence on the strength of concrete.
• Definition Abrams established that when concrete is fully compacted
strength may be taken to be inversely proportional to W/C ratio.
3.3.4 SHRINKAGE OF CONCRETE.
• Shrinkage of concrete takes place when it sets & hardness. It should
be kept minimum by curing concrete under wet condition.
• Unnecessary stresses are developed due to shrinkage and it may take
place even over along period of times due to carbonation.
• Carbonation shrinkage probably caused by dissolution of crystals of
calcium hydroxide and deposition of calcium carbonate in its place .
As the new product is less in volume than the produce replace,
shrinkage takes place.
1.3.5. EFFECT OF TEMPRATURE
• Concrete expands & contracts with change in temperature which
results in setting un necessary stresses in concrete.
• With increase in temperature; stress in concrete gradually reduces.
3.3.6. STRENGTH OF CONCRETE WITH AGE
• The design of most of concrete structures is done on the base of 28
days strength.
i.e. the design is made such that the design load may be applied after
28 days from the date of casting.
• It has been observed that even after a month concrete attains strength gradually
with age. The strength of concrete is about 130% after three months, about 150%
after one year & 155% after 10 years.
3.3.7. DURABILITY OF CONCRETE
• In practice, concrete is designed & constructed in order to build permanent
structures.
• However, at times, its services markedly reduced by the disintegrating effect of
either the environment to which it is exposed or by internal cause within its mass.
• The resistance of concrete to the effect of whether, to salt, to chemical attack, to
mechanical damage resulting from abrasion or impact are the different aspects of of
durability of concrete . A concrete which withstands the conditions it is intended for,
with out deteriorating over along period of time is said to be durable.
3.4. MIX DESIGN
• Mix design can be defined as the process of selecting suitable ingredients of concrete &
determining their relative proportions with the object of producing concrete of certain minimum
strength and durability and as economical as possible.
• One of ultimate aim of studying the varies properties of the materials of concrete, plastic concrete
& harden concrete to in able the concrete technology to design a concrete mix for a particular
strength.
• Design of concrete mix needs not only the knowledge of material properties of concrete in plastic
condition; it also needs wider knowledge of experiencing concrete.
• Among the various methods of mix properties the following will be dissolved here after.
• a) TRIAL method of proportioning.
• b) ARBITRARY Methods of proportioning.
• c ) ACI method of mix design.
A) TRIAL METHOD OF PROPTIONING.
This method is based on abrasion law, i.e, the strength of concrete depends up on the net
ratio of the mixing water to the cement.
Steps:-
1. Select W/C ratio from strength - W/C curve (table 8.23)
2. Measure the cement (about 3kg for Lab. trial) and the corresponding area of water.
3. Mix by hand in a pan to form paste.
4. Make the aggregate surface saturated dry condition (SSD) & measure known quantities
from each of aggregate say "M"kg of fine aggregate and "N" kg of coarse aggregate.
5. The aggregate are mixed with intermittent mixing until it brought to the desired
consistency.
The coarse aggregate is the 1st aggregate to be added.
Then the sand is added continuously till enough mortar is produced to
fill the space between piece of coarse aggregate.
6. When the batch is satisfactory the remaining aggregate in the
containers are weight and by the
difference the amount used in the batch is computed.
7. Then the cubes should be prepared from the mix for 7 day & 28 days
compression test.
Examples:
Given: Compressive strength of 25 Mpa. Plastic consistency
Required: Design the mix calculate the quantities per one bag of cement.
SOLUTION
1. W/C: 0.62
2. Cement: 3kg
Water =3 x 0.62 = 1.86 kg.
3. Mix (form a paste).
4. Suppose 10kg of sand and 12kg of C.A. are available.
5. Suppose 4 kg sand and 3 kg of C. A are left in the container
C. A. 12 - 3 = 9kg
F. A. 10 - 4 = 6kg
6. Proportions
C: FA: CA
3: 6: 9 = 1: 2: 3 by wt.
The quantities per one bag of cement.
50: 100: 150
B) ARBITRARY PROPERTIONS
The arbitrary proportions have been established by experience, but this method of
proportioning doesn't secure concrete of certain strength because the mount of
W/C ratio is not defined.
In Arbitrary proportioning strength is rapidly contributed by varying each content.
Such as - rich mix 1:1:2
- Lean mix 1:3:6
Example: 2
Given a concrete mix in which the proportions of cement to fine aggregate to
coarse aggregate are 1: 2: 3 by wt. and using a W/C of 0.60 by wt.
a) The yield (The amount of concrete per one bag of cement)
b) The cement factors (cement content in bags per one meter cube of
concrete)
c ) The materials per cubic meter of concrete.
Given data:
S.p.gr of cement = 3.15
S.p.gr pf FA = 2.65
S.P.gr CA = 2.65
Solution: wt. proportions per sack are
50:100:150
The volume of one bag batch
Solid volume
- Absolute volume of cement
- Volume of water = 50 x 0.6 = 30 liters
- Absolute volume of FA
• Absolute volume CA =
a) Yield = 140.21 liter = 0.144m3.
b) Cement factor = 1/0.1404 = 7.14 bags
c ) Materials per cubic meter of concrete.
Cement = 7.14 bags = 375 kg/m3
Fine aggregate = 2 x 375 = 714 kg/m3
Coarse aggregate = 3 x 375 = 1077 kg/m3
Water = 0.6 x 375 = 2.15 kg/m3.
Example:3
Given: C: FA: CA: 1: 2: 3 by volume
W/C = 0.85 by volume.
Required. a) The yield c) material per cubic meter of concrete
b) Cement factor
Take: Unit wt of FA = 1700 kg/m3
Unit wt of CA = 1400 kg/m3
Sp. gr of cement = 3.15
Sp.gr of FA & CA = 2.65
Volume of one bag (sack) of cement = 35 liter.
Solution:
The proportions by volume per one bag of cement.
35: 70: 105
The volume of one bag batch
 abs. volume of cement = 50/3.15 = 15.8 liter
 abs. vol. of
abs. vol. of CA
Volume of water

a) Yield = 145.99 litre = 0.146 m3.

b) Cement factor
c ) materials per m3 of concrete.
Cement = 6.89 bags = 240 liter
FA = 2 x 240 = 480 liter
CA = 3 x 240 = 720 liter
Water = 0.85 x 240 = 204 liter
ACI - method of mix Design.
Procedure
1. Data to be collected.
i) Fines modulus of selected FA.
ii) Unit wt. of dry roaded CA
iii) Sp.gr of CA and FA
iv) Absorption characteristics of both CA and FA
v) Sp.gr cement (3.15)
2. From the minimum strength specified estimate the average design strength (table 8.27)
3. Specify the minimum cement content (table 8.27)
4. Choice of clump (table 8.21 or table 8.28)
5. Determine the max. Size of CA.
6. Estimate mixing water, and air content (table 8.28)
7. Select W/C (table 8.23) based on strength or ( table 8.24) based on requirement for
durability.
8. Calculate the cement content and compare with step 3  take what ever is larger.
9. Estimate the bulk volume of dry rodded as per unit volume of concrete (table 8.25)
10. Calculate wt. of CA. per m3 of concrete
WCA = bulk vol. x bulk density
11. Calculate the solid volume of CA in one m3 of concrete
VCA: WCA/1000.sp.gr
12. Similarly the solid volume of cement/water and volume of air is calculated in one m3.
13. Solid volume of sand is then calculated by subtracting from the data volume of concrete
the solid volume of cement, CA, water & entraps air or if the wt of concrete per unit volume
is assumed or can be estimated from experience ( table 8.26), the rigged wt. of
FA is the difference between the wt of fresh one and the total wt of the other ingredients.
14. Adjustments for aggregate moisture.
15. Trial batch adjustments. The calculated mix proportions should be checked by means of
trial batch.