Metals

Mechanical Behavior of Metals

A. Slip(inelastic action)

It is a phenomenon of movement along grinding plane of crystal due to the application

of stress beyond the materials’ elastic limit. When a material undergoes slip, one will observe
slip lines or slip bends (fine lines) across the faces of the member of the crystalline grains of the
over stressed metals.

B. Fatigue (progressive fracture)

For structural parts (axles, machine parts, shafts, etc.) under in frequent vibration of
loads, the outstanding danger of failure by inelastic distortion (slip).
Examination under microscope and the scanning electron microscope of the behavior of
the crystalline constituents of metals under repeated stress has shown that failure of crystals is
caused by a succession of shear slips on parallel planes of vast strength. The failure of the piece
as a whole is due to the successive failures of individual crystals and the development of cracks.
Failure very seldom occurs at crystalline boundaries.
It is a process of gradual or progressive fracture of the crystals due to repeated stress
variations.

C. Impact

It is the resistance of a material to fail due to brittleness under service conditions in a

structure.

In selecting materials for members in a structure that must resist impact, two factors
must be considered.

1. Total stress allowable

2. Total strain allowable

Resistance to impact is a function of both of these factors and both must be taken into
consideration.

For materials that must withstand heavy accidental impact without actual rupture,
toughness of the material is of primary concern. Toughness of the material maybe measured by
the area under the stress strain curve of the material.
 The ability of a material to resist impact without permanent distortion is measured by
the area under stress – strain diagram up to the elastic limit.

D. Flow or Creep
It is the very slow flow of a material at elevated temperatures under sustainable stress.

E. Stress Rupture
It is the property of a material to withstand stress at high temperatures.

F. Corrosion and wear

Five Classification of Corrosion of Metals
1. Atmospheric
2. Water Immersion
3. Soil
4. Chemicals other than water
5. Electrolytic

Testing and Evaluation of Metals

A. Tensional Testing (ASTM E8)

Test performed for the purpose of determining the following structural and mechanical
properties such as:

a. Ultimate strength
b. Ductility
c. Modulus of elasticity
d. Yield point
e. Offset yield strength
f. Proportional limit
g. Elastic and inelastic range

Tensile Strength
It is the maximum axial load (ultimate load) observed in a tension test divided by the
original cross - sectional area.
Ductility
It is the ability of a material to undergo large deformation without fracture.

Modulus of Elasticity
It is the slope of the straight-line portion of the stress strain diagram.

Yield Point
It is the first load at which these is marked increase in strain without an increase in
stress.

Offset Yield Point

It is defined as the stress corresponding to the permanent deformation, usually 0.10% or
0.20%

Proportional Limit
It is the greatest stress that a material is capable of without deviating from Hooke’s Law

Elastic & Inelastic Limit

It is the largest stress that can be developed without a permanent set remaining after
the load is removed.

Modulus of Rigidity (shearing Modulus) (G)

V
G=
γ
E
G=
2 ( 1+ μ )
Where:
G = modulus of rigidity
V = unit shearing stress
γ = unit shearing strain
μ = Poisson’s ratio

Modulus of Toughness
It is the ability of the material to absorb large amount of energy. It can be related to the
area under the entire stress – strain curve.

Modulus of Resilience
Resilience of a material is that property of an elastic body by which energy can be stored
up in the body by loads applied to it and given up in recovering its original shape when the
loads are removed.

Modulus of resilience to the area under the straight - line portion of the stress – strain
curve.
B. Brinell Hardness of Metallic Materials (ASTM 10)

The hardness of metal is usually determined by measuring the resistance to penetration

of a ball, cone or pyramid. The results of a hardness test can be directly related to tensile
strength of the material.

The Brinell hardness method is based upon determining the resistance offered to
indentation by a hard ball of specific diameter that is subjected to a given pressure. The
pressure used in testing steel is usually 3000kilograms (6600 lbs) and the diameter of the ball is
0.40in (10mm). When softer metals are utilized a pressure of 500kilograms (1100 lbs) is used.
The Brinell Hardness number can be computed by the following formula:

2P
BH =
πD ( D−√ D2 −d 2 )

Where:
P = pressure, kg
D = diameter of the steel bar
d = average diameter indentation

Test for Rockwell Hardness (ASTM 18)

The Rockwell Hardness Method employs either a ball or a diamond cone in a precision
testing instrument that is design to measure depth of penetration accurately. Two
superimposed impressions are made. The depth to which the major load drivers the ball or
cone below the depth to which the minor load has previously driven it is a measure of the
hardness. For the harder steels, greater accuracy is obtained by use of a diamond cone.

Rockwell superficial hardness machine are used for the testing of very thin shells or thin
surface layers of materials. In this case the minor load is 3kg (6.6 lbs) and the major load varies
from 15 kg to 45 kg (33 to 99lbs)

Notched – Bar Impact (ASTM E23)

Testing of Metallic Materials

Two Types

 Charpy Test
  IZOD Tests

Impact Test are performed primarily for two Reasons

1. To determine the ability of the material to resist impact under service condition.
2. To determine the quality of the metal from a metallurgical standpoint

Fatigue = progressive fracture

Creep of flow

 Time
 Temperature
 Stresses

FERROUS METALS

Two Major Group of Metals

A. Ferrous= principal element is iron (Cast iron, wrought iron and steel)
B. Non - Ferrous = principal element is not iron (Copper, tin, lead, nickel, aluminum and
refractory metals)

Sources of Metals

Most metals occur in the form of ore, in which the metal has to be extracted.

Gangue = mineral associated with the ore which has no commercial use.

Six classifications of Ore

1. Motive Metals- consists of copper and precious metals.

2. Oxides- most input, ore source, in that iron, aluminum and copper may be extracted
from them.
3. Sulfides- includes ore of copper, lead, zinc and nickel.
4. Carbonates- include ore of iron, copper and zinc.
5. Chlorides- includes ore of magnesium.
6. Silicate- includes ore of copper, zinc and beryllium.

Production of Metals
1. Mining the Ore
-open pit borrowing
 -underground mining

Room and Pillar Type

-for horizontal veins
Stepping Type
-for vertical veins

2. Preparing the Ore

-the Ore is crushed and large quantities of gangue are removed by a heavy-media-separation
method.

-may involve roasting and calcining

Roasting- the ore of sulfide is heated to remove the sulfur.

Calcining- the carbonate ores are heated to remove carbon dioxide and water.

3. Extracting the metals from the Ore

-accomplished through chemical process. These chemical processes reduce the
compounds, such as oxides, by releasing the oxygen from chemical combinations and
thus freeing the metals.

Process of Extraction
a. Pyrometallurgy (smelting) – the ore is heated in a furnace producing a
molten solution, from which the metal can be obtained by chemical
separation. The blast furnace or reverberatory furnace is used in their
process.
b. Electrometallurgy- metals are obtained from ores by electrical process
utilizing an electrical furnace or an electrolytic process.

Hydrometallurgy (Seaching) –involves subjecting the ore to an aqueous solution

from which the metals are dissolved and recovered.

4. Refining the metal

-Process of removing impurities in the metal after extraction.
Examples:
 Extraction using Pyrometallurgy
 Refining by oxidizing the impurities in a furnace
 Refining by Liquidation (TIN)
 Refining by distillation (ZINC)
  Refining by Electrolysis (Coppers)
 Refining by addition of a chemical reagent (manganese to molten steel)

FERROUS METALS

1. Cast iron
2. Wrought iron
a. Structural steel
b. Reinforcing steel
c. Forms and pans

Classification of Iron and Steel

1. PIG IRON = is obtained by reducing the iron ore in a blast furnace. This is accompanied
by charging alternate layers of iron ore, coke and limestone in a continuously operating
blast furnace. Blasts of hot air are forced up through the charge to accelerate the
combustion of coke while raising the temperature sufficiently to reduce the iron ore to
molten iron. The limestone is a flux which unites with impurities in the iron ore to form
slag.

Functions of the Blast Furnace

 Reduction of iron ore
 Absorption of carbon
 Separation of impurities

The amount of carbon is pig iron is usually greater than 2.5% but less than 4.5%

2. CAST IRON = It is pig iron re-melted after being cast into pigs or about to be cast in final
form. It does not differ from pig iron in composition and it is not in a malleable form
3. MALLEABLE CAST IRON = It is a cast iron that has undergone special annealing treatment
after casting and has been made malleable or semi malleable.
4. WROUGHT IRON = A form of iron that contains slag, is initially malleable but normally
possesses little to no carbon and will harden quickly when rapidly cooled.
5. INGOT IRON = It is a form of iron (or of low carbon steel) that has been cast from a
molten condition.
6. STEEL = It is an iron – carbon alloy which is cast from a molten mass whose composition
is such that it is malleable in some temperature change.
a. CARBON STEEL = It is a steel that has carbon content of less than 2% and generally of
less than 1.5%, its properties are dependent on the amount of carbon it contains.
 b. ALLOY STEEL = They are steels in which the properties are due to elements other
than carbon.

Manufacture/ Production of Steel

The overall process of steel production is shown in the figure. The process may be
described in three phases:

1. Reduction of iron ore to pig iron

2. Refining of pig iron to steel
3. Forming the steel into products
 Iron Ore Coke Limestone

Blast Furnace slag

Pig Iron Pig iron casting

Open Hearth Bessemer Basic Oxygen Electric Arc

Process Furnace Furnace Furnace

Alloying agents Molten steel

Continues ingots Soaking pits Primary rolling

cracking

Structural rails bars wires pipe plates sheets

shapes s

Structure of Iron and Steel

Carbon Steel

It is an alloy of iron and carbon. The carbon atoms actually replace or enter into
solution among the lattice structure of the iron atoms and limit the slip planes in the lattice
structure. The amount of carbon within the lattice determines the properties of the steel.

Alloys containing less than 0.008% carbon are classed as irons. Steel is an iron carbon
alloy in which the carbon content is less than 2%. These steel products, including structural
steel and reinforcing, can be rolled and molded into shapes. However, as the carbon content
goes above 2%, the material becomes increasingly hard and brittle.

High strength steels are alloys containing less than 0.8% carbon (the eutectoid
composition) and are sometimes referred to as hypo – eutectoid steels. Structural steels are
alloys containing less than 2.0% but more than 0.8% and are referred as hypereutectoid steels.

Phase Diagram Terms

 Cementite = A compound of iron and carbon steel that exists in a stable phase of iron
carbide (Fe3C) contains 6.67% carbon and 93.33% iron and is very hard and brittle.
 Austenite = It is a gamma iron with carbon in solution.
 Eutectic = It is the combination that melts at the lowest temperature.
 Eutectoid = It is an equilibrium diagram for a solid solution in the point at which the
solution on cooling is converted to a mixture of solids.
 Ferrite = It is an iron that has not combined with carbon in the pig iron as steel. This fact
allows the steel to be cold formed.
 Graphite (black lead) = It occurs as small flakes of carbon that become mixed with the
steel.
 Pearlite = It is a lamellar aggregate of ferrite and cementite often running in carbon steel
and in cast iron.

Properties of Cementite, Ferrite and Pearlite

 Cementite is a hard and very brittle material with a Brinell Hardness of 650 and a
diamond hardness of 760.
 Ferrite is a soft, ductile material with a Brinell Hardness of 90 and a diamond hardness
of 170.
 Pearlite is harder and less ductile than ferrite but is softer and less than cementite.
Brinell Hardness is 275 and diamond hardness of 300. It has an elongation of 15% in a 2
inch specimen.

Impurities in Steel
 1. Silicon = The amount of silicon in structural steel is less than 1% and forms a solid
solution with iron.
= This small amount of silicon increases both the ultimate and the elastic limit of
steel which an appreciable change in its ductility
2. Phosphorus = It is in the form of iron phosphide (Fe 3P). For low grade structural steel is
about 0.1% and decreasing to 0.05% for high grade steel. Tool steel is approximately
0.02% phosphorus.
3. Sulfur = It combines with iron to form iron sulphate (FeS). This compound has a low
melting point and segregation may take place.
4. Manganese = It has an affinity for sulfur and combines with such as well as with the
other impurities to form slag. Manganese acts like a cleaner. Manganese is used to
harder steel.

Heat Treatment

 Hardening or Quenching
 Tempering
 Annealing

Heat treatment of Steel

Properties of steel can be altered by applying a variety of heat treatments. For example,
steel can be hardened or softened by using heat treatment; the response of steel to heat
treatment depends upon its alloy composition.

1. Annealing = It is performed by heating the metal to the austenite stable range, usually
10oC (18oF) above the austenite line and holding it at that temperature for the proper
period. The material is then slowly cooled to room temperature. During the cooling
process, pearlite and ferrite or cementite form.

Objectives of Annealing

1. To refine the grains

2. To soften the steel
3. Remove internal stresses
4. Remove gases
5. Increase ductility and toughness
6. Change electrical and magnetic properties
 2. Normalizing = Similar to annealing, with a slight difference in heating temperature.
Steel is normalized by heating it into the austenizing range usually 40 oC (72oF) above the
austenite line. The material is then air cooled. Normalizing produces a uniform, fine –
grained microstructure. Therefore, normalizing is regarded as a corrective treatment
and not a strengthening or hardening treatment. Normalizing is used in structural plate
production to produce high fracture toughness.

3. Hardening = Steel is hardened by heating it to a temperature above the transformation

range and holding it until austenite is formed. The steel is then quenched (cooled
rapidly) by plunging it into water, brine or oil. Quenching hardens the steel and
hardening puts the steel in a state of strain. The strain sometimes causes steel pieces
with sharp angles or grooves to crack immediately after hardening. Thus, hardening
should be followed by tempering.

Three Principles to be applied for the Successful Hardening of Steel.

1. Steel should always be annealed before hardening, to remove forging or cooling strains.
2. Heating for hardening should be slow
3. Steel should be quenched on a rising, not on a falling temperature

Quenching Media vary, but are basically of three types:

1. Brine for maximum hardness

2. Water for rapid cooling of the common steels.
3. Oils (lights, medium, or heavy) For uses with common steel parts or irregular shapes or
for alloy steels.

4. Tempering = It is defined as the process of reheating a hardened steel to a definite

temperature below the critical temperature, holding it at that point for a time, and cooling
it usually by quenching for the purpose of obtaining toughness and ductility in steel.

Physical Properties of Steels

Three factors that influence the strength, ductility and elastic properties of steel

1. The carbon contents

2. The percentage of silicon, sulfur, phosphorus, manganese and other alloying elements
3. The heat treatment and mechanical working
Physical Properties of Steel

Carbon = Carbon acts as both a hardener and a strengthener, but at the same time it reduces
the ductility.

Silicon, Phosphorus, Sulfur and Manganese = The effects of silicon on strength and ductility in
ordinary proportions (less than 0.20%) is very slight. If the silicon content is increased to 0.30
or 0.40% the elastic limit and ultimate strength of steel are raised without reducing the
ductility. This is the procedure used for steel casting.

Sulfur within ordinary limit (0.20 to 0.1%) has no appreciable effect upon the strength or
ductility of steel. It does, however, have a very injurious effect upon the properties of hot
metal, lessening its malleability and weldability, thus causing difficulty in rolling called “red –
shortness”

Phosphorus = It is the most undesirable impurities found in steels. It is detrimental to

toughness and shock – resistance properties, and often detrimental to ductility under static
load.

Manganese = It improves the strength of plain carbon steels. If the manganese content
is less than 0.3%, the steel will be impregnated with oxides that are injurious to the steel. With
a manganese content of 0.30 to 1%, the beneficial effect depends upon the amount of carbon
content. As the manganese content rises above 1.5% the metal becomes brittle and worthless.

Alloy Steels = Alloy steels are steels that owe their distinctive properties to elements
other than carbon. Common alloy include a. chromium b. nickel c. manganese d. molybdenum
e. silicon f. copper g. vanadium and h. tungsten

Two Group of Alloys

1. Those which combine with carbon to form carbides = nickel, silicon and copper
2. Those which do not combine with carbon to form carbides = manganese, chromium,
tungsten, molybdenum and vanadium.

Principal Reasons for adding alloys to steel

1. To increase hardness
2. To increase the strength
3. To add special properties, such as:
a. Toughness
b. Improved magnetic and electrical properties
 c. Corrosion resistance
d. Machinability

By altering the carbon and alloy content and by using different heat treatments, steel can be
produced with a wide variety of characteristics. These are classified as:

1. Low alloy
 Low carbon
Plain
High strength low alloy

 Medium Carbon
Plain
Heat treatables

 High Carbons
Plain
Tools

2. High Alloys
Tools
Stainless

Common alloy agents, their typical percentage and their effects

Alloy Typical Ranges in Alloy Steels Principal Effects

(%)

Aids nitriding, restricts grain

Aluminum < 2% froth, removes oxygen in steel
melting

Adds machinability, reduces

Sulfur <0.50%
weldability and ductility

Chromium 0.30 to 0.40 Increases resistance to corrosion

and oxidation, increases
hardenability, increases high
 temperature strength, can
combine with carbon to form
hard weak resistant
microconstituents.

Promotes an austenites
structure, increases
Nickel 0.30 to 0.50
hardenability, increases
toughness

Promotes tenacious oxide film to

Copper 0.20 to 0.50 acid atmospheric corrosion
resistance

Increases hardenability,
promotes an austenitic structure,
Manganese 0.30 to 2.0
combines with sulfur to reduce
its adverse effect

Removes oxygen in steel

Silicon 0.20 to 2.5 working, improves toughness,
increases hardenability

Promotes grain refinement,

Molybdenum 0.10 to 0.50 increases hardenability, improves
high temperature strength

Promotes grain refinement,

increases hardenability,
Vanadium 0.10 to 0.30
combines with carbon to form
wear resistant microconstituents

Increases the strength, hardness

and toughness of steel. In
conjunction with chromium or
Tungsten
manganese, used for the
production of high-speed tools
steel.
Stainless steel = nickel – chromium steels with aluminum, cobalt copper, manganese, silicon.
Silver or tungsten

Mechanical Testing of Steel

1. Tension Test

For determination of:

a. Proportional limit/elastic limit

b. Yield stress
c. Modulus of elasticity
d. Ultimate stress
e. Total strain
f. Toughness of steel
2. Torsion Test (ASTM E143)
It is used to determine the shear modulus (modulus of rigidity) of structural
materials. The shear modulus is used in the design of members subjected to torsion,
such as rotating shafts and helical compression springs. In this test, a cylindrical or
tubular specimen is loaded either incrementally or continually by applying an external
torque to cause a uniform twist within the gauge length. The amount of applied torque
and the corresponding angle of twist are measured throughout the test. The shear
modulus is the ratio of the maximum shear stress to the corresponding shear strain
below the proportional limit of the material, which is the slope of the straight line
between R (a pre-torque stress) and P (the proportional limit).
Shear Stress (KSi)

P (prop’l limit)

R (pre-torque stress

Shear Strain
 Typical shear stress diagram of steel (torsion test). For a circular cross section, the
maximum shear stress (max), shear strain(γ) and the shear modulus (G) are determined by the
equations:

Tr θr
τ max= ; γ=
J L
τ max TL
G= =
γ Iθ
Where:
T =torque
r =radius
4
πr
J= = polar moment of inertia
2
θ=angel of twist ∈radians
L=gage length

3. Charpy V-Notch Impact Test (ASTM E23)

It is used to measure the toughness of the material or the energy required to
fracture a V – notched simply supported specimen
4. Bend Test
5. Hardness Test (Rockwell)

Steel Corrosion

Corrosion is defined as the destruction of a material by electro chemical reaction to the

environment. It can be simply be defined as the destruction that can be detected by rust
formation.

Corrosion is an electrochemical process, that is, it is a chemical reaction in which there is

a transfer of electron from one chemical species to another. In the case of steel, the transfer is
between iron and oxygen, a process called oxidation – reduction.

Corrosion Requires Four Elements to occur.

1. An anode = the electrode where corrosion occurs

2. A cathode = the other electrode needed to form a corrosion cell
3. A conductor = a metallic pathway for electrons to flow
4. An electrolyte = a liquid that can support the flow of electrons

Methods of Corrosion Resistance

 Since steel contains three of the four elements needed for corrosion, protective coatings
can be used to isolate the steel from moisture, the fourth element.

1. Barrier Coating = works solely by isolating the steel from the moisture. These coatings
have low water and oxygen permeability
2. Inhabitive Primer Coatings= It contains passivating pigments. They are low solubility
pigments that migrate to the steel surface when moisture passes through the film to
passivate the steel surface
3. Sacrificial Primers (Cathodic Protection) = Contains pigments such as elemental zinc

Non – Ferrous Metals

Three Groups

1st Group = Aluminum, copper, lead, magnesium, nickel, tin and zinc

2nd Group = Antimony, bismuth, cadmium, mercury and titanium

3rd Group = Used to form alloy steels, includes chromium, cobalt, molybdenum, tungsten and
vanadium

Non Ferrous Alloys of great Importance

 Alloys of copper with tin – bronze

 Alloys of copper with zinc – brass
 Alloys of aluminum, magnesium, nickel and titanium

Aluminum = Favorable characteristics and wide variety of applications

1. Has one third the density of steel

2. Has good thermal and electrical conductivity
3. Has high strength to weight ratio
4. Can be given a hard surface by anodizing and hard coating
5. Has alloys that are weldable
6. Will not rust
7. High reflectability
8. Can be die cast
9. Is easily machined
10. Has good formability
 11. Non - magnetic
12. Non - toxic

Mining of the aluminum ore, bauxite (commercial grade bauxite contains between 45% to
60% alumina)

The bauxite is crushed, washed to remove clay and silica materials and is kiln dried to
remove most of the water.

The crushed bauxite is mixed with soda ash and lime and passed through a digester,
pressure reducer, and settling tank to produce a concentrated solution of sodium aluminate.
This step removes silica, iron oxide and other impurities from the sodium aluminate solution.
The solution is seeded with hydrated alumina crystals and form groups that are heavy enough
to settle out of solution. The aluminal hydrated crystals are washed to remove all remaining
traces of impurities and are calcined in kilns to remove all waters. The resulting alumina is
ready to be reduced with the Hall – Heroult process. The alumina is melted in a cryolite bath ( a
molten salt of sodium – aluminum – fluoride). An electric current is passed between anodes
and cathodes of carbon to separate the aluminum and oxygen molecules. The molten
aluminum is collected at the cathode at the bottom of the bath. The molten aluminum with
better 99%purity is siphoned off to a crucible. It is then processed in a holding furnace. Hot
gases are passed through the molten material to further remove any remaining impurities.
Alloying elements are then added.

Casting and Forming Methods for Aluminum Products

The molten aluminum is either shipped to a foundry for casting into finished products or
is cast into ingots. The ingots are formed by a direct – chill process that produces huge sheets
for rolling mills, round log like billets for extrusion presses or square billets for the production of
wire, rod and bar stock.

The final Products are made by either casting, which is the oldest process or deforming
solid aluminum stocks.

Casting Methods

1. Sand casting = Sand with a binder is packed around a pattern. The pattern is remolded
and molten aluminum is poured in, reproducing the shape. Produce a rough texture
that can be machined or otherwise surfaced if desired. Economical for low – volume
 production and for making very large parts. Also, applicable when an internal void must
be formed in the product.
2. Permanent Mold Casting = Molten aluminum is poured into a reusable metal mold.
Economical for large volume production.
3. Die Casting = Molten aluminum is forced into a permanent mold under high pressure.
Suitable for mass production of precisely formed castings.

Forming Methods

1. Extrusion = Aluminum heated to 425 oC to 540oC is forced through a die. Complex cross
sections are possible, including incompletely or completely enclosed voids. A variety of
architectural and structural members are formed by extrusion, including tubes, pipes, I –
beams and decorating components such as window or door frames.
2. Rolling = Heated aluminum ingots are compressed and elongated with rollers producing
plates more than 6mm thick, sheet 0.15mm to 6mm thick and foil less than 0.15mm.
3. Roll Forming = Sheet aluminum is passed between a series of special rollers, usually in
stages. Used for mass production of architectural products, such as moldings, gutters,
downspouts, roofing, sidings and frames for windows and screens.
4. Brake Forming = Sheet products are formed with a brake press. Uses simpler tooling
than roll forming, but production rates are lower and the size of the products is limited.
5. Cutting Operations= outline shapes are produced by blanking and cutting. In Blanking, a
punch with the desired shape is pressed through a machine die. Used for mass
production of flat shapes. Holes through a sheet are produced by piercing and
perforating. Stacks of sheets can be trimmed or cut to an outline shape by a router or
sheared in a guillotine – action shear.
6. Embossing = Sheet aluminum is pressed between mated roller or dies producing a raised
pattern on one side and its negative indent on the other side.
7. Drawing = Sheet aluminum is drawn through the gap between two heated dies in a
press.
8. Super Plastic Forming = Sheet aluminum is heated and forced over or into a mold by air
pressure. Complex and deep contour shapes can be produced but the process is slow.

In addition to these conventional processes, very high – strength aluminum parts can be
produced using powder metallurgy methods. A powdered aluminum alloy is compacted in a
mold. The material is heated to a temperature that fuses the particles into a unified solid.
Properties of Aluminum

Very malleable, with a typical elongation over a 50mm gage length of over 40%

It has limited tensile strength, on the order of 28MPa

E = 69GPa

Commercially pure aluminum, more than 99% aluminum content is limited to non –
structural application, such as electrical conductors, chemical equipment and sheet metal work.

Can be strengthened (15% stronger than pure aluminum) by:

1. Adding small amounts of alloying elements (copper, manganese, silicon, magnesium

and zinc)
2. Strain hardening by cold working increases strength by causing a disruption of the
slip planes in the material that resulted from the production process.
3. Heat treatments (annealing, hardening, aging and stabilizing)

Coefficient of thermal expansion is 0.000023/ oC

Strengths of aluminum are considerably affected by temperature at temperature below

room temperature, aluminum becomes stronger and tougher
Crush wash dry Mixed soda, lime and ash
in H2O digester

thicken settle
filter Sodium
aluminate

Precipitation Calcinate Aluminum powder

(1000oC)

3. reduction
Holding and
alloying
furnace crucible

Cryolite bath
Casting 4. recycling saves 75% energy
molds over that for new aluminum

Aluminum products