CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION
1.1 WELDING
Welding is a fabrication or sculptural process that joins
materials, usually metals or thermoplastics, by using high heat to melt the
parts together and allowing them to cool causing fusion. Welding is distinct
from lower temperature metal-joining techniques such as brazing and
soldering, which do not melt the base metal

1.2 TYPES OF WELDING

1. Arc welding
i. Gas tungsten arc welding(GTAW)
2. Gas welding
i. Oxy-Acetylene Welding
ii. Hydrogen Welding
3. Resistance welding
4. Energy beam welding

i) Arc welding
Arc welding is a welding process that is used to join metal to
metal by using electricity to create enough heat to melt metal, and
the melted metals when cool result in a binding of the metals. It is a
type of welding that uses a welding power supply to create an
electric arc between a metal stick ("electrode") and the base material
to melt the metals at the point-of-contact. Arc welders can use either
direct (DC) or alternating (AC) current, and consumable or non-
consumable electrodes.

1
ii) Gas welding
Gas welding is a most important type of welding process. It is
done by burning of fuel gases with the help of oxygen which forms
a concentrated flame of high temperature. This flame directly
strikes the weld area and melts the weld surface and filler material.
The melted part of welding plates diffused in one another and
creates a weld joint after cooling. This welding method can be used
to join most of common metals used in daily life.
iii) Resistance welding
Resistance welding is conducted as follows: Apply force and
current through electrodes contacted metal parts to be welded; and
resistance heat is generated at the interface of metal parts and makes
a nugget, resulting in melt joint. Though a large current flows, there
is no danger of an electric shock because only low voltage is
impressed.
iv) Energy beam welding
Electron-beam welding (EBW) is a fusion welding process in
which a beam of high-velocity electrons is applied to two materials
to be joined. The work pieces melt and flow together as the kinetic
energy of the electrons is transformed into heat upon impact. EBW
is often performed under vacuum conditions to prevent dissipation
of the electron beam.

2
1.3 DISSIMILAR METALS WELDING

Dissimilar metal welding, as compared to traditional laser welding, is

the joining of two separate metals which wouldn’t ordinarily weld together
as they have differing chemical and mechanical qualities, and are from
different alloy systems.

It’s important to note that two metals that appear the same and may
even have the same name can be joined together in what is still the
dissimilar metal welding process. If their core properties are different but
they share the same name, they are still dissimilar in nature.

1.4 GAS TUNGSTEN ARC WELDING

Gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW), also known as tungsten inert gas
(TIG) welding, is an arc welding process that uses a non-consumable
tungsten electrode to produce the weld. The weld area and electrode is
protected from oxidation or other atmospheric contamination by an inert
shielding gas (argon or helium), and a filler metal is normally used, though
some welds, known as autogenously welds, do not require it.

A constant-current welding power supply produces electrical energy,

which is conducted across the arc through a column of highly ionized gas and
metal vapors known as plasma. GTAW is most commonly used to weld thin
sections of stainless steel and non-ferrous metals such as aluminum,
magnesium, and copper alloys. In figure 1.1 we can see the gas tungsten arc
welding setup between dissimilar materials the figure shown below.

3
 Figure 1.1 GTAW Welding.

GTAW is most commonly used to weld thin sections of stainless steel

and non-ferrous metals such as aluminum, magnesium, and copper alloys.
The process grants the operator greater control over the weld than
competing processes such as shielded metal arc welding and gas metal arc
welding, allowing for stronger, higher quality welds.

Manual gas tungsten arc welding is a relatively difficult welding

method, due to the coordination required by the welder. Similar to torch
welding, GTAW normally requires two hands, since most applications
require that the welder manually feed a filler metal into the weld area with
one hand while manipulating the welding torch in the other. Maintaining a
short arc length, while preventing contact between the electrode and the
work piece.

To strike the welding arc, a high frequency generator (similar to a

Tesla coil) provides an electric spark. This spark is a conductive path for the

4
Welding current through the shielding gas and allows the arc to be initiated
while the electrode and the work piece are separated, typically about 1.5–3
mm (0.06–0.12 in) apart.

1.5 STUDY OF MICROSTRUCTURE PROPERTIES

• Macro structure
• Micro structure
i) Macrostructure

The structure (as of metal, a body part, or the soil) revealed by visual
examination with little or no magnification. The macro etched sample
examined visually and followed by stereo microscope under 10x
magnification.

ii) Microstructure

Microstructure is the very small scale structure of a material, defined as

the structure of a prepared surface of material as revealed by a microscope
above 25× magnification. Microstructure at scales smaller than can be
viewed with optical microscopes is often called nanostructure.

1.6 STUDY OF MECHANICAL PROPERTIES

• Ductility
• Elasticity
• Fatigue
• Hardness
• Stiffness
• Impact

5
 • Bending
• Tensile

i) Tensile properties

Tensile properties indicate how the material will react to forces

being applied in tension. A tensile test is a fundamental mechanical test
where a carefully prepared specimen is loaded in a very controlled
manner while measuring the applied load and the elongation of the
specimen over some distance. Tensile tests are used to determine the
modulus of elasticity, elastic limit, elongation, proportional limit, and
reduction in area, tensile strength, yield point, yield strength and other
tensile properties.

ii) Impact properties

The resistance of a material (as metal or ceramic ware) to fracture

by a blow, expressed in terms of the amount of energy absorbed before
fracture.

iii) Bending properties

Flexural strength, also known as modulus of rupture, or bend strength,

or transverse rupture strength is a material property, defined as the stress
in a material just before it yields in a flexure test.

iv) Hardness properties

A material’s ability to withstand friction, essentially abrasion

resistance, is known as hardness. Diamonds are among the hardest
substances known to man, it is incredibly difficult to scratch a diamond.

6
 However, while a diamond is hard it is not tough. If you took a hammer to a
diamond it would shatter, which demonstrates that not all materials that are
hard are also tough. In the world of metal tools, drill bits and grinding discs
must be extremely hard to be able to handle high amounts of friction.

1.7 STUDY OF CORROSION PROPERTIES

• weight loss method

• salt spray
• stress cracking corrosion
i) weight loss method

A simple test for measuring corrosion is the weight loss method. The
method involves exposing a clean weighed piece of the metal or alloy to the
corrosive environment for a specified time followed by cleaning to remove
corrosion products and weighing the piece to determine the loss of weight.
The rate of corrosion (R) is calculated as:

R=kW / ρ At

Where k is a constant, W is the weight loss of the metal in time t, A is

the surface area of the metal exposed, and ρ is the density of the metal (in
g/cm³).

ii) salt spray

The salt spray (or salt fog) test is a standardized and popular corrosion test
method, used to check corrosion resistance of materials and surface coatings.
Usually, the materials to be tested are metallic (although stone, ceramics, and
polymers may also be tested) and finished with a surface coating which is
intended to provide a degree of corrosion protection to the underlying metal.

7
 Salt spray testing is an accelerated corrosion test that produces a
corrosive attack to coated samples in order to evaluate (mostly
comparatively) the suitability of the coating for use as a protective finish.
The appearance of corrosion products (rust or other oxides) is evaluated after
a pre-determined period of time. Test duration depends on the corrosion
resistance of the coating; generally, the more corrosion resistant the coating
is, the longer the period of testing before the appearance of corrosion/ rust.

iii) Stress cracking corrosion

Stress corrosion cracking (SCC) is the growth of crack formation in a

corrosive environment. It can lead to unexpected sudden failure of normally
ductile metals subjected to a tensile stress, especially at elevated temperature.
SCC is highly chemically specific in that certain alloys are likely to undergo
SCC only when exposed to a small number of chemical environments. The
chemical environment that causes SCC for a given alloy is often one which is
only mildly corrosive to the metal. Hence, metal parts with severe SCC can
appear bright and shiny, while being filled with microscopic cracks.

Application

➢
The aerospace industry is one of the primary users of gas
tungsten arc welding.
➢
Many industries use GTAW for welding thin work pieces,
especially nonferrous metals.
➢
It is used extensively in the manufacture of space
vehicles, and is also frequently employed to weld small-
diameter, thin-wall tubing such as those used in the
bicycle industry.

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 ➢
No other welding process permits the welding of so many
alloys in so many product configurations, only GTAW is
used.

Advantages

➢
GTAW welding offers a solution for welding critical
joints, and for situations where small or exceptionally
precise welds are required.
➢
It produces a high-quality and high-purity weld compared
with other joining processes.
➢
The price of GTAW welding services is also usually
quite affordable.
➢
It is one of the most efficient way to join two metals.

Disadvantages

➢
GTAW welding can be performed with most metals,
there are some metals that cannot be welded.
➢
GTAW welding should only be performed on clean
metals, as welding dirty metals will result in a
weaker weld quality.
➢
It also takes a high level of skill and dexterity to
perform GTAW welding when compared with other
types of welding.
➢
Once two products have been welded, they typically can’t
or shouldn’t be reused for another application.

9
 CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE SURVEY

G Britto Joseph et, al (2013) Interpret that experiences in the welding

of Austenitic and Ferritic stainless steel with combination of welding
process GTAW and SMAW. This investigation characterized the mechanical
and chemical properties of weld metal in the Austenitic and Ferritic stainless
steel.

Abdollah bahador et, al (2015) Interpret that an investigation on the

effect of using three different filler metals to weld two dissimilar metals
namely, stainless steel 316L and low alloy carbon steel A516 gr 70. Manual
Gas Tungsten Arc welding (GTAW) with three filler metals including ER
80S-Ni1, ER309L, ER NiCrMo-3 were selected to weld the two metals.
Radiography and penetrant tests were performed on the welded metals to
ensure the surface and internal soundness of the welds based on the tensile
tests results, all the specimens failed at the carbon steel A516 gr 70 base
metals with fully ductile fracture mode (cup and cone).

G. Madhusudhan reddy et, al (2017) interpret that Dissimilar metal

welding of austenitic (AISI 304)-ferritic (AISI 430) stainless steel has been
taken up to understand the influence of the welding process on
microstructure and mechanical properties. Fusion welding processes,
namely, gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW), electron beam welding (EBW),
and friction welding, have been employed.

Wichan chuaithan et, al (2012) interpret that the feasibility of dissimilar

welding between AISI 304 stainless steel and AISI 1020 carbon steel plates
with the thickness of 15 mm. The processes applied in this work were gas

10
tungsten arc welding (GTAW) and shield metal arc welding (SMAW).
Microstructure of weld metal produced by GTAW consists of delta ferrite
network in austenite matrix, while the dendrite of delta ferrite finely
distributed in austenite matrix was found in the weld produced by SMAW.
Hardness values of weld metals produced using these two techniques were
superior to those of stainless steel and carbon steel base metals respectively.
Weld metals produced by these two processes were qualified under tension
and bending.

Stephan Egerland et, al (2015) interpret that Gas Shielded Tungsten Arc
Welding (GTAW) – a process well-known providing highest quality weld
results joined though by lower performance. Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW)
is frequently chosen to increase productivity along with broadly accepted
quality. Those industry segments, especially required to produce high quality
corrosion resistant weld surfacing e.g. applying nickel base filler materials, are
regularly in consistent demand to comply with “zero defect” criteria. In this
conjunction weld performance limitations are overcome employing advanced
‘hot-wire’ GTAW systems. This paper, from a Welding Automation
perspective, describes the technology of such devices and deals with the current
status is this field-namely the application of dual-cathode hot-wire electrode
GTAW cladding; considerably broadening achievable limits.

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 CHAPTER 3

SCOPE AND METHODOLOGY

Study of material

Material selection

410 Ferritic 2507 super duplex

stainless steel stainless steel

Machining and edge preparation

Gas tungsten arc welding

with ER2594

Testing methods

Mechanical testing Microstructure testing Corrosion testing

Tensile test Microstructure Salt spray

testing
Bending test
Macrostructure
testing
Hardness test

Impact test

Result and discussion

12
SCOPE

In dissimilar welding we can increase the strength but in this project

we can increase the corrosion property of the welded material. By filler rod
ER2594 basically it is super duplex stainless steel so it has high strength and
toughness and good corrosion property. GTAW is often used to weld carbon
steel, low and high alloy steel, stainless steel, cast iron, and ductile iron.
While less popular for nonferrous materials, it can be used on nickel and
copper and their alloys and, in rare cases, on aluminium. The thickness of
the material being welded is bounded on the low end primarily by the skill
of the welder, but rarely does it drop below 1.5 mm (0.06 in). No upper
bound exists: with proper joint preparation and use of multiple passes,
materials of virtually unlimited thicknesses can be joined.

OBJECTIVES OF THE PROJECT

➢ To analyses the mechanical properties such as micro hardness &

tensile strength of GTAW using Vickers hardness Testing machine
and Universal Tensile Test machine.

➢ To analyses the metallurgical properties such as microstructure & grain

size of GTAW welded specimens using TRINOCULAR Microscope.

13
 CHAPTER 4

MATERIALS AND METHODS

4.1 MATERIAL PURCHASING

i) 410 Ferritic stainless steel

Figure 4.1 Ferritic stainless steel.

410 stainless steel plate is the general purpose 12% chromium

Ferritic stainless steel that can be heat treated to obtain a wide range of
mechanical properties. 410 stainless steel plate possesses high strength
and hardness coupled with good corrosion resistance. 410 stainless steel
plate is ductile and can be formed. It is magnetic in all conditions. It is
shown in figure 4.1.

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ii) 2507 super duplex stainless steel

Figure 4.2 Super duplex stainless steel.

2507 has 25% chromium, 4% molybdenum, and 7% nickel. This

high molybdenum, chromium and nitrogen content results in excellent
resistance to chloride pitting and crevice corrosion attack and the duplex
structure provides 2507 with exceptional resistance to chloride stress
corrosion cracking. It shown in figure 4.2.

iii) Filler rod ER2594

Figure 4.3 Filler rod.

15
 Alloy ER 2594 is a super duplex welding wire. The Pitting Resistance
Equivalent Number (PREN) is at least 40, thereby allowing the weld metal
to be called a super duplex stainless steel. This welding wire is over alloyed
2-3 percent in Nickel to provide optimum ferrite/austenite ratio in the
finished weld. It shown in figure 4.3.

In AWS the standard specification is AWS A5.9, and diameter is 1mm.

iv) Edge preparation

Figure 4.4 Edge preparation.

Edge preparation consists of removing material along edges of metal

surfaces. You must prepare edges for welding when parts and assemblies
require certain strength. To achieve full welding penetration, you must cut
the edges of the metal. The weld replaces the removed material and makes a
complete bridge between the joining parts. It shown in figure 4.4.

16
4.2 MECHANICAL TESTING SPECIMANS

i) Tensile test

Tensile test is done in UTM testing machine. A Universal Testing

Machine (UTM) is used to test both the tensile and compressive strength of
materials. Universal Testing Machines are named as such because they can
perform many different varieties of tests on an equally diverse range of
materials, components, and structures.

Test specimen dimensions and tolerances per standard ASTM E8 as

shown in figure 4.5.

Figure 4.5 ASTM E8 specification.

17
UTM machine Specifications
• High Speed Latest Micro controller based Technology.
• 20000 Load Counts in one Range, Load Resolution = Machine
• Capacity / 20000 Optional On board Extensometer facility with 1
micron resolution & up to 20 mm travel. 20 data set storage ( 00
to 19) 75 Results.

Figure 4.6 Test specimen for tensile test.

In figure 4.6 we can see the machined specimen. Properties that are
directly measured via a tensile test are ultimate tensile strength, breaking
strength, maximum elongation and reduction in area. From these
measurements the following properties can also be determined: Young's
modulus, Poisson's ratio, yield strength, and strain-hardening characteristics.

ii) Bending test

Bend test machines are typically universal testing machines specially

configured to evaluate material ductility, bend strength, fracture strength, and
resistance to fracture. Bend tests tend to be associated with ductile metals and

18
metal products. This bending test is also used in same UTM machine.
Testing specimen 200mm length× 6mm thickness× 25mm width. In figure
4.7 we can see the test specimen.

Figure 4.7 Test specimen for bending test.

iii) Hardness test

The Vickers test can be used for all metals and has one of the widest
scales among hardness tests. The unit of hardness given by the test is
known as the Vickers Pyramid Number (HV) or Diamond Pyramid
Hardness (DPH). Work specimen is shown in figure 4.8.

Test specimen dimensions and tolerances per standard ASTM E384

Figure 4.8 Test specimen for hardness test

19
Specifications for Vickers testing machine

• Testing range is very wide from soft metal such as lead up to

hardest like hardened steel.
• Same hardness number is obtained on the same specimen, regardless
of the load applied.
• The indentation is tiny and allows testing of a precision finished part.
• Loading & Unloading cycle is motorised.
• Thin sheet metal is perfectly tested.

iv) Impact test

The impact test is a method for evaluating the toughness and notch
sensitivity of engineering materials. It is usually used to test the toughness of
metals, but similar tests are used for polymers, ceramics and composites.
Metal industry sectors include Oil and Gas, Aerospace, Power Generation,
Automotive, and Nuclear.

Figure 4.9 Standard dimension for Izord testing.

20
a) Super duplex stainless steel (ASTM E23)

Figure 4.10 Test specimen of sdss impact test.

b) Ferritic stainless steel

Figure 4.11 Test specimen of Fss Impact test.

21
 c) Welded material

Figure 4.12 Test specimen in welded joint impact test.

4.2 MICROSTRUCTURE TESTING SPECIMENS

• Macro structure
• Micro structure
i) Macro structure

The macro etched sample examined visually and followed by stereo

microscope under 10x magnification reveals, complete fusion between weld
and base metal. Pin hole has observed in weld area.

22
 Figure 4.13 Test specimen in macrostructure.

ii) Micro structure

A trinocular microscope has two eyepieces like a binocular microscope

and an additional third eye tube for connecting a microscope camera. The
best models of this microscope will have at least three positions, allowing
100 percent of light to the binocular, 80 percent to camera and 20 percent to
the binocular or simply a 100 percent to the camera.

Figure 4.14 Test specimen in microstructure.

23
4.3 CORROSION TESTING SPECIMEN
Welding a joint may affect the corrosion resistance of that joint. Even
with careful filler metal matching, a welded joint may be subject to
differential corrosion. That is, the weld metal and/or heat affected zone
(HAZ) may corrode faster than the base metal or the base metal may corrode
faster than the weld metal and/or HAZ. This is true because the weld zone
varies in chemical composition, metallurgical structure, and residual stress
levels. There are means by which to test the corrosion of welded joints.

Figure 4.15 Test specimen for corrosion test.

Specification for Salt spray

• 5 parts by mass of NaCl in 95 parts of distilled water.

• Specimen cleaned gently prior to loading for removal of dust, oil

and other contaminates.

• Specimen washed gently in clean running water salt deposits

from their surface and their dried immediately.

• Total exposure period is 24hours.

• Temperature of exposure zone of salt spray chamber is 35+1℃.

24
 CHAPTER 5

RESULT AND DISCUSSION

5.1 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES RESULTS

i) Tensile test

Tensile test Strength

Tensile strength in Mpa 516.77
Yield strength in Mpa 437.19
Elongation in % 19.09
Fracture location Broken at outside of weld

Figure 5.1 after tensile test.

From the testing specimen broken outside the weld ductile facture is
measured in this test. We can see it in figure 5.1. The graph is plotted
between the force (N) and stroke (mm). We can get tensile strength, % of
elongation, yield strength. We can see it in figure 5.2.

25
Figure 5.2 Tensile test graph.

26
 ii) Hardness test

Figure 5.3 Hardness tested material.

hardness area Hardness in weld

Ferritic stainless steel 239 HV1 @1kg load

Super duplex stainless steel 252 HV1 @1kg load

Welded area 276 HV1 @1kg load
From figure 5.3 we can see the tested material for hardness.

iii) Bending test

a) Face bend

Figure 5.4 Face bend material.

27
Bending load in (k N) 8.42 ( no cracks observed)

Figure 5.5 graph plotted for face bend.

28
 From figure 5.4 we can see the face bend tested material. In figure 5.5
we can see the graph plotted for face bend force (N) with stroke (mm).

b) Root bend

Figure 5.6 Root bend material.

Bending load in (kN) 11.99 (crack observed)

Figure 5.7 Crack absorbed in the material.

Root bend is operates opposite side of the weld. It shows at figure 5.6 and
in figure 5.7 we can see the crack absorbed in the material.

29
Figure 5.8 Graph plotted for root bend.

30
iv) Impact test
a) Sdss material

Figure 5.9 Sdss tested material.

b)Fss material

Figure 5.10 Fss tested material.

31
 c) Welded area material

Figure 5.11 Welded tested material.

Sample ID Impact values in Joules

Weld 150,160,138 ( average : 149.33)
SDSS 98,124,130 ( average : 117.33)
FSS 128,120,138 ( average : 128.66)

From the figures 5.9, 5.10, 5.11, we can see the impact tested material
for super duplex stainless steel, Ferritc stainless steel, and welded material.

5.2 MICROSTRUCTURE PROPERTIES RESULTS

i) Micro structure

Microstructure is tested in trinocular microscope. We have picture

result in 50×, 100×, 200×, 500×. In 200× we can also see the heat affected
zone between the weld and material. In 200x figure we can see the heat
affected in the material.

32
Figure 5.12 Separation on sdss and Fss.

Figure 5.13 Welded part.

33
 Figure 5.14 Heat affect zone.

Figure 5.15 500x magnification.

34
 From the above diagrams we can see the magnification of the welded
part. From figure 5.12 shows the clear separation of the welding. Figure 5.13
we can see the slight heat affected zone (HAZ) at 100x magnification. From
figure 5.14 we can see the full effect of heat affected zone (HAZ). From figure
5.15 at 500x magnification we can see the separation of the welded part.

5.3 CORROSION PROPERTIES RESULT

Figure 5.16 Corrosion affected in the material.

From the figure 5.16 we can see the corrosion is affected to the material and
red rust is form in the welded part.

35
 CHAPTER 6

CONCLUTION

From the investigation, the following important conclusion is have been

derived.

 From the tensile test it broken at the outside of weld, form this
we know the weld is having more tensile and elongation is
516.77Mpa and 19.09% but compare previous journal the tensile
strength is low.

 From the hardness test we have high hardness as 276 HV1

compare to literature survey it is high.

 From bending test we know the load capability of face of

weld and root of the weld material, from thus we can apply load in
face bending side because it absorb the load up to 8.42 kN
without no crack was absorb.

 From the impact test compare to Ferritc stainless steel

super duplex stainless steel is having 90% impact strength. But
after welding the impact strength is only 65.66%.

 From the macrostructure testing, the macro etched sample

examined visually and followed by stereo microscope under 10x
magnification reveals, complete fusion between weld and base
metal. Pin hole has observed in weld area.

 From microstructure analysis we can absorb the welded length,

heat affected zone.

 From the corrosion test red rust absorbed in the base metal, it
is exposure for 24hrs in the 5parts of NaCl in 95 part of distilled
water.

36
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