Transport Phenomena in

Metallurgical processes

- Dr. SANKET A. MEHAR

 Reference Books:
1. J.P. Hollman,White PRS: Heat Transfer, McGraw Hill Company

2. Incropera and Dewitt: fundamentals of heat and mass transfer

3. S.P. Sukhatme: A textbook on heat transfer

4. E.R.G. Eckert, Robert M. Drake: Anlaysis of Heat and Mass Transfer,

McGraw Hill

5. R.B. Bird, W.E. Stewart and E.N.Lightfoot, Transport Phenomena,

Wiley, 1994.

6. G.H. Geiger and D.R. Poirier, Transport Phenomena in Materials

Processing, Addison Wesley, 1994.
Practical examples where these
situations are encountered →
Solidification Open hearth furnace
 Manual metal arc welding

Mass Transfer: Diffusion

Fluid Flow
 Importance of heat transfer
I. Metallurgical Engineering
1. Furnaces:

➢ Requirement of energy/heat : Fuel/ Electricity

➢ Heat requirement to carry out processes/ chemical reactions
➢ Endothermic/exothermic reactions
➢ Heat losses ----- doors, roofs, furnace walls, holes
------ cooling water

➢ Selection of suitable insulating material; K-conductivity

➢ Determination of thermal efficiency: heat input, output, losses
➢ Design of furnaces, heat exchangers- heat transfer area, heat capacity
2. Metal casting
➢ Solidification of molten metal
➢ Cooling rates – important for batchwise processes

3. Heat treatment
➢ Heating rate/ cooling rate
➢ Homogenization of temperature
➢ Transformation temperature
➢ Thermal stresses
➢ Quenching medium - water, air
4. Reheating of semi-finished products
➢ Heating rate
➢ Size and shape of stock
➢ Temperature gradients- thermal stresses
➢ Step heating

5. Metal cutting/machining
➢ Heat generation/lubrication

6. Welding
➢ Solidification of weldments
➢ Power requirements
𝑽𝑰 𝑿 𝟔𝟎
➢ Heat input = KJ/mm; Where, V= volts(v), I= current (A), S= travel speed
𝑺 𝑿 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎
(mm/min)
II. Energy production and conversion
Design of Boilers, steam turbines, condensers, cooling towers, IC
engines, Nuclear reactors, Refrigeration and Air conditioning

III. Electric machines

Electric motors, Transformers and Generators: Dissipation of heat,
cooling systems

IV. Civil engineering

Construction of dams, heavy structures, design of buildings

V. Chemical engineering
Condensation, evaporation, distillation, heat transfer analysis of
chemical processes
Adverse effect of incorrect heating temperature:

➢ Grain growth, overheating and burning

➢ Rapid oxidation of steel

➢ Therefore, lower and upper limit of temperature of heating/reheating is

very important

COMPOSITION MAX TEMP OF HEATING

(˚C)
1.1% C Steel 1100
0.7 C Steel 1180
0.5C steel 1250
0.2C steel 1320
0.1C steel 1350
HSS 1280
Rate of Heating is also an important parameter:

➢ Objective: Equalization of temperature of the workpiece across the

surface and the core
➢ Measure of uniformity of heating is temperature difference between
the surface and the centre

Important in heat treatment/reheating. WHY?

Incorrect rate of heating/reheating:

1. Thermal stresses, cracking
2. Overheating, burning, oxidation
FACTORS AFFECTING RATE OF HEATING:

➢ Chemical composition
➢ Thermal properties
➢ Geometry of the stock
➢ Type of furnace

➢ For thick workpiece : Use of soaking/step heating

➢ Soaking is final equalization of the temperature within workpiece

The temperature lag between the

surface & Centre determines the
soaking time
 Step heating practice: two stage/three stage

➢ Heating in stages employed for uniform temperature

distribution through the workpiece

➢ Used for alloy steels/ materials with lower thermal

conductivity

➢ Reduced thermal stresses and thermal cracking

 Conduction heat Transfer :
Steady state and Unsteady state

✓ This is the mode of energy transfer as heat due to

temperature difference within a body or between bodies in
thermal contact without the involvement of mass flow and
mixing.

✓ This is the mode of heat transfer through solid barriers and

is encountered extensively in heat transfer equipment
design as well as in heating and cooling of various materials
as in the case of heat treatment.
FOURIERS LAW OF HEAT CONDUCTION
➢States that the heat flow by conduction in any direction is proportional to the
temperature gradient and area perpendicular to the flow direction and is in the
direction of the negative gradient.

❖ dQ/dA is heat flux, (W/m2)

dQ dT
 ❖ dT - temperature difference ( °C or K)
dA dx ❖ dx - distance measured (in m),
dQ
= −K
dT ❖ K- Proportionality constant, Thermal
dA dx conductivity (W/moC)

➢Negative sign indicates that direction of heat flow is down the

temperature gradient.

➢Fourier’s law of heat conduction is applicable for steady state

conduction where there is no change of temperature with time,
dT/dt = 0
Thermal conductivity values of some metals & non metals

Sr. Metals / Non metals Thermal conductivity

No. / Liquids / Gases W/mK
1 Silver 410
2 Copper 385
3 Brass (70-30) 120
4 Aluminum 202
5 Nickel 93
6 Iron 73
7 1% carbon steel 43
8 18-8 stainless steel 16.3

1 Alumina 30
2 Magnesite 4.15
3 Marble 2.00-2.94
4 Sand stone 1.83
5 Glass 0.78
6 Sawdust 0.059
7 Glasswool 0.038
Thermal conductivity values of some liquids and gases

Sr. Metals / Non metals Thermal conductivity

No / Liquids / Gases W/m K
1 Mercury 8.21
2 Water 0.556
3 Ammonia 0.540
4 Lubricating oil 0.147
5 Freon 12 0.073

1 Hydrogen 0.175
2 Helium 0.141
3 Air 0.024
4 Water vapor 0.0206
5 Carbon dioxide 0.0146
➢ In solids, thermal energy is conducted by : lattice vibration and transport of
free electrons. In good electrical conductors a large number of electrons move
about in the lattice structure of a material. As electrons carry electric charge,
they also carry thermal energy from a high temperature region to a low
temperature region.

➢ Energy may be transmitted as vibration energy in the lattice structure of a

material. In general, good electrical conductors are almost always good heat
conductors and good electrical insulators are good heat insulators.
 Thermal conductivity, K (W/m°C)

• Factors affecting K:
1. Temperature:
With temperature, K decreases as :
Metals > Non metals > Liquids > Gases

2. Purity and Alloying:

➢ Alloying Additions in metals – decreases K

➢ Important in design of heating and cooling cycles of semi finished products for mechanical
processing.

➢ In deciding welding parameters during welding of carbon and alloy steels.

3. Anisotropy:
Varying K in different directions in anisotropic materials
 STEADY STATE HEAT CONDUCTION THROUGH A SLAB

T1 dx

T2

x1 x2

A = Area of slab , dA= area of small element with thickness dx,

dQ = heat flowing through dx , Q= Total heat flow, ∆x= x2-x1

Consider a flat slab assuming that area of slab is very large as compared to thickness. There is no accumulation or depletion
of heat with time, i.e. steady state heat conduction is occurring in x direction.

ΔX/KA is called as the

(T1 − T2 )
Q = KA thermal resistance Rt
x Q= ΔT/Rt
Q.1 ) Determine the heat flow across a plane wall of 10 cm thickness with a constant
thermal conductivity of 8.5 W/mK when the surface temperatures are steady at 100°C
and 30°C. The wall area is 3m2. Also find the temperature gradient in the flow direction.
Q2) A plane slab of thickness 60 cm is made of a
material of thermal conductivity K = 17.5 W/m°C.
The left side of the slab absorbs a net amount of
energy from a radiant source at the rate Q=
2
530W/m . If the right hand face of the slab is at a
constant temperature of 38 °C, calculate the
maximum temperature of a slab and also the
temperature at the mid plane of a slab.

Ans: 56.17°C, 47.08°C

 The general solution procedure consists of the following steps:

1. Known: State briefly and concisely what is known about the problem.
2. Find: State briefly what are quantities that must be found.

3. Schematic: Draw a schematic diagram of the physical system.

4. Assumptions: List all simplifying assumptions.

5. Properties: Compile property values needed for calculations.

6. Analysis: Apply appropriate laws and introduce equations as needed.
Substituting numerical values. Check the units before substituting any numerical
value. Perform the calculations needed to obtain the desired result.

7. Comments: Discuss your results

COMPOSITE WALL : RESISTANCES IN SERIES

T1

T2

T3

T4
K1 K2 K3
∆X1 ∆X2 ∆X3

Q=
(T1 − T4 ) x x x
; where.....Rt = ( 1 + 2 + 3 ) Rt = R1 + R2 + R3
Rt K1 A K 3 A K 3 A

:
• An exterior wall of a house may be approximated by 10 cm layer of common brick (k
= 0.75 W/m-deg) followed by 4 cm layer of gypsum plaster (k = 0.5 W/m-deg). What
thickness of loosely packed rock wool insulation (k = 0.065 W/m-deg) should be
added to reduce the heat loss or gain through the wall by 75%?
A furnace is constructed with 0.2 m of firebrick, 10 cm of insulating brick and
0.2m building brick. The inside and outside temperatures of the furnace are
1200˚C and 330 ˚C, calculate the heat loss per unit area and interface
temperatures. Given, KFB= 1.4 w/m ˚C, KIB= 0.11 W/m ˚C, KBB= 0.7 W/m ˚C.

Answer: Heat loss= 650.41W/m2, T2= 1107° C, T3= 515.8°C

 Heat flow in a cylindrical shell, tube or pipe

r2
T2 T2
dr
T1
T dr
r1 r2
r

T1 r1

r1=internal radius;
r2=outer radius;
r ═ radius of very thin cylinder concentric with main cylinder with
thickness dr at temp T
L=length of cylinder
 (T1 − T2 )
Q= ,
Rt

(ln r2 / r1 )
where; Rt =
2KL
 Radial heat flow in a spherical shell

r2
T2
r1
T
r
T1

4K (T1 − T2 )r1r2

Q=
(r2 − r1 )

(T1 − T2 ) r2 − r1
Q= ,.....where.....Rt =
Rt 4Kr1r2
The following data pertains to a hollow cylinder and a hollow sphere made of the
same material and having the same temperature drop over the wall thickness.
Inside radius = 0.1 m and outside surface area = 1 m2
If the outside radius for both the geometries is same, calculate the ratio of heat flow in
the cylinder to that in the sphere.

Answer: Ratio: 1.76

 Composite plain wall with convective boundaries

Ti
T1

T2
T3

T4
A B C
hi KA KB KC To
ho
XA XB XC

A plain wall comprising of three layers A, B, C and surrounded by fluid medium

on inside and outside surface (convective boundaries) having hi and ho as
convection heat transfer coefficients.
 Total number of thermal resistances: 5
3 conductive and 2 convective resistances.
All the resistances are in series : heat flow through each is same.

Q = hiA(Ti − T1 )

T1 − T2 T2 − T3 T3 − T4
Q = KAA Q = KB A Q = KC A
XA XB XC

Q = hO A(T4 − TO )

Ti − To
Q=
1 XA XB XC 1
+ + + +
hiA K A A K B A K C A hO A
Ques: A plain composite wall is made with two materials, with Ka
= 75 W/mC and KB= 40 W/mC with thickness of xA= 5 cm and
xB = 2.5 cm. Material A is in contact with hot fluid at 150°C and
material B adjoins a cold fluid at 30°C. The convection heat
transfer coefficients are hi = 10 W/m2C and ho = 20 W/m2C.
Calculate heat loss per unit area by conduction and interface
temperatures.
 Composite cylindrical shell/pipe with convective boundaries
To ho

K3 r3

K2 r2

K1 r1
KP r0
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Ti Fluid hi ri

ri=internal radius; ro=outer radius;

r1, r2 and r3=radius of insulation 1,2 and 3 put on outside surface of pipe.

hi & ho=convection heat transfer coefficient of fluid medium in contact with inside surface and outside surface of tube.

L= Total length of cylinder

Ti − TO
Q=
1 ln ro / ri ln r1 / r0 ln r2 / r1 ln r3 / r2 1
+ + + + +
hi Ai 2K P L 2K1 L 2K 2 L 2K 3 L ho Ao
A pipe carrying steam at 230°C has an internal diameter of 12 cm and
the pipe thickness is 7.5 mm. The conductivity of the pipe material is 49
W/mK. The convective heat transfer coefficient on the inside is 85
W/m2K. The pipe is insulated by two layers of insulation; one of 5 cm
thickness of conductivity 0.15 W/mK and over it another 5 cm thickness
of conductivity 0.48 W/mK. The outside is exposed to air at 35°C with a
convection coefficient of 18 W/m2K.

Determine the heat loss for 5 m length. Also determine the interface
temperatures.
Answer:
Q= 1234.6 W

T1= 222.3°C
T2= 222.2
T3=77.04
T4=48.03
 Contact Resistance:

➢ When two different layers of

conducting materials are placed in
thermal contact, a thermal resistance
develops at the interface. This is
termed as contact resistance.

➢ A significant temperature drop

develops at the interface and this has
to be taken into account in heat
transfer calculation.

➢ When the surfaces are brought

together the contact is partial and air
may be trapped between the other
points as shown in Fig.
Ques: A furnace wall is of three layers, first layer of insulation brick of 12 cm
thickness of conductivity 0.6 W/mK. The face is exposed to gases at 870°C with a
convection coefficient of 110 W/m2K. This layer is backed by a 10 cm layer of
firebrick of conductivity 0.8 W/mK. There is a contact resistance between the
layers of 2.6 × 10-4m2 °C/W. The third layer is the plate backing of 10 mm
thickness of conductivity 49 W/mK. The contact resistance between the second
and third layers is 1.5 × 10-4m2 °C/W. The plate is exposed to air at 30°C with a
convection coefficient of 15 W/ m2K. Determine the heat flow, the surface
temperatures and the overall heat transfer coefficient ( assume area = 1m2)
Answer:
Q= 2092.8W/m2
U= 2.491 W/m2°C

T1= 850.97 °C
T21= 432.40
T22= 431.86
T31= 170.26
T32= 169.95
T4= 169.52
A spherical vessel of ID 0.3 m and thickness of 20 mm is made of steel with
conductivity of 40 W/mK. The vessel is insulated with two layers of 60 mm thickness
of conductivity 0.05 and 0.15 W/mK. The inside surface is at – 196°C. The outside is
exposed to air at 30°C with convection coefficient of 35 W/m2K. There is a contact
resistance of 1 × 10-3m2°C/W between the two insulations. Determine the heat gain
and also the surface temperatures and the overall heat transfer coefficient based on the
outside surface area of the metallic vessel.

Answer:
Q= -76.6 W
U= 0.932W/m2°C

T3= -195.88
T4= -8.75
T41= -8.64
T2= 27.93
 CRITICAL RADIUS OF INSULATION; rc

➢ Generally, adding insulation will increase the resistance. But when the total
resistance is made up of both conduction resistance and convection resistance,
the addition of insulation in some cases may reduce the convection resistance
due to the increase in surface area (as in the case of a cylinder and sphere) and
the total resistance may actually decrease resulting in increased heat flow.

➢ It may be shown that the heat flow actually increases and then decreases in
certain cases. The thickness up to which heat flow increases and after which
heat flow decreases is termed as critical radius.

➢ An expression for the same can be obtained by finding the rate of change of
the total resistance with change in radius and equating the same to zero i.e.
zero slope condition.
 CRITICAL RADIUS OF INSULATION; rc

r1
ro

insulation

ro=outer radius of pipe, r1=radius of insulation

To=temperature of outer surface of pipe,

T∞=temperature of surrounding fluid,

Ki=thermal conductivity of insulation, L=length of pipe,

h=convective heat transfer coefficient
 Heat flow Q from the outer surface of the pipe -

To − T
Q= To − T
ln r1 / ro
+
1 Q=
2K i L 2r1 Lh Rcond + Rconv

Addition of insulation may either decrease or increase heat flow depending upon variation
of Rcond and Rconv. With increase in thickness of insulation, Rcond increases and Rconv
decreases due to increase in surface area.

Qmax

Q↑
ro ˂ r c ro ˃ rc

Radius of insulation →
For heat flow to be maximum –

d  1 r1 1 
  ln +  =0
 dr1  2K1 L r0 2r1 Lh  ro =constant

Ki
r1 = = rc
h

➢ At r1=rc, rate of increase of Rcond is equal to rate of decrease of Rconv

giving a minimum value of sum of resistance.
Calculate the critical radius of insulation for asbestos ( K=0.17 W/mC)
surrounding a pipe and exposed to air at 20°C with convection heat transfer
coefficient of 3 W/m2C. Also calculate the heat loss from the pipe ( outer
diameter= 50 mm, Length = 1m) when covered with critical radius of
insulation and without insulation. Temperature of the pipe surface is 200°C.

Ans: rc 0.0567 m, Q w/o insulation = 84.8 W/m, Q with insulation = 105.7 W/m
• A copper wire of 5 mm diameter, 1m Length carrying
current generates 294 W. It is exposed to convection at 30°C
with h = 25 W/m2K. Investigate the effect of adding an
insulation on the wire surface temperature (insulation k =
0.5 W/mK having 7.5 mm, 12.5mm, 17.5mm, 22.5 mm
thicknesses. Analyze the result and comment.
3D Conduction Model:
Considering the sub-volume with dimensions dx, dy and dz in the cartesian
coordinate system and taking a time interval dτ, and noting that temperature is a
function of all the four, the following steps lead to the general differential
equation

An elemental volume considered in cartesian coordinates

 THERMAL DIFFUSIVITY, α (m2/s)

➢ It is a ratio of thermal conductivity of the material to the volumetric

heat storage capacity of the material.

𝐾
𝛼=
𝜌𝐶

➢ High α – Rapid energy transfer rate

➢ Substances with high thermal diffusivity rapidly adjust their

temperature to that of their surroundings, because they conduct heat
quickly in comparison to their heat capacity.
 General heat conduction Equations

1. For isotropic material with constant K with internal heat

generation under 3 D non steady state heat transfer conditions

 2T  2T  2T Q| 1 T
+ 2 + 2 + = ........... = K / C
x 2
y z K  t

2. For isotropic material with constant K without internal heat

generation under 3 D non steady state heat transfer conditions

 2T  2T  2T 1 T
+ 2 + 2 =
x 2
y z  t

3. 3 D steady state conditions with internal heat generation

 2T  2T  2T Q|
+ 2 + 2 + =0
x 2
y z K
4. 2 D, steady state without internal heat generation

T T
2 2
+ 2 =0
x 2
y
5. 1 D, steady state with internal heat generation

 2T Q|
+ =0
x 2
K

6. 1 D, steady state without internal heat generation

T 2
=0
x 2

7. 1 D, non steady state without internal heat generation

 2T 1 T
=
x 2
 t
• A plain slab has a thickness of 200 mm with k = 1.2 W/m°C and
area = 15 m2. Two sides of slab are maintained at 120° and 50° C
resp. Using general heat conduction equation, find temperature
distribution in slab and temperature at mid point of slab and
rate of heat conduction through slab under steady state.

Answers:
• T= -350x + 120
• Tmid = 85°C
• Q = 6300 W
 Conduction with heat generation

➢ The additional factor of heat generation within the body is to be considered. Heat
generation is met with in electrical conductors carrying current.

➢ The resistance heating has to be dissipated in such a way that the conductor does not fail.
The maximum temperature in the wire has to be limited.

➢ A more serious case is the heat generation in nuclear reactor fuel rods. Here the generation
rate is very high and accidents will be catastrophic.

➢ The heat generated has to be collected at the required rates at the boundary to avoid
failure. Microwave heating is another example.

➢ Exothermic reaction in chemical processes also may cause problems if proper care is not
taken to maintain the temperature at or below the allowable level.
STEADY STATE ONE DIMENSIONAL CONDUCTION IN A SLAB WITH
UNIFORM HEAT GENERATION
In terms of h
Heat is generated in a slab of 120 mm thickness with a conductivity of 200 W/
m.K at a rate of 106W/m3. Determine the temperature at the mid and quarter planes
if the surface of the solid on both sides are exposed to convection at 30°C with a
convection coefficient of 500 W/m2K. Also find the heat flow rate at these
planes and the temperature gradients at these planes.

Heat generated from mid plane to quarter

section : 30000 W/m2
Temp. gradient: -150°C/m

Heat generated from quarter section

to end boundary : 60000 W/m2
Temp. gradient: -300°C/m
 Transient heat conduction ( Unsteady state)

dT
❖ Variation of temperature of the body with time. 0
dt

❖ Examples: Heat treatment of steels, cooling of IC engines, rocket

nozzles, cooling and freezing of food.
❖ Time taken to attain certain temperature when the body is subjected
to sudden change in temperature.

❖ Steady state: T=f(x, y, z)

Unsteady state: T=f(x, y, z, t)

❖ Periodic heat flow: Temperature varies on regular basis

❖ Non periodic heat flow: Non linear variation of temperature with
time.
➢ There are two distinguishable ways in which things may heat up or cool down.

(i) The temperature within the body remains the same at all locations at any one
time but this value will vary continuously with time .

This can be observed in heating up or cooling down of materials with high

conductivity, small size or low surface convection.

The temperature gradient within the body is nearly zero all over the body or the
temperature at any location and at any instant is nearly the same.

(ii) The other type is when there is an observable and large temperature variation
within a body.
(a) Cooling down without large temperature gradient in the body.
(b) Cooling down with a large temperature gradient within the body.
➢ In the first type, conduction within the body is not a problem. The body as a
whole can be considered to be at a given temperature at any instant. The
model for this study is known as “Lumped parameter” model.

➢ It is also known as lumped heat capacity system. This model is applicable

when a body with a known or specified temperature level is
exposed suddenly to surroundings at a different temperature level
and when the temperature level in the body as a whole increases
or decreases without any difference of temperature within the
body. i.e., T = f( τ) only.

➢ Heat is received from or given to the surroundings at the surface and this
causes a temperature change instantly all through the body.
 Heat convected over the boundary over a time period dt =
change in internal energy during this time

𝜽 −𝒉𝑨 𝜽 𝑻 − 𝑻 𝑻𝒇𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒍 − 𝑻𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒓

𝒕 ∞
= 𝒆 𝝆𝑪𝑽 , 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆. . . . . = =
𝜽𝒊 𝜽𝒊 𝑻𝒊 − 𝑻∞ 𝑻𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒂𝒍 − 𝑻𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒓
 (a) Cooling, (b) Heating.

This shows that the Temperature decays or builds up exponentially

𝒉𝑨
and the rate depends on the parameter as shown in the figure.
𝝆𝑪𝑽
𝜃 −𝐵𝑖 x 𝐹𝑜 ′
ℎ𝐿
=𝑒 , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒. . . . . 𝐵𝑖 = 𝐵𝑖𝑜𝑡 𝑠 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 =
𝜃𝑖 𝐾

′
𝛼𝑡
𝐹𝑜 = 𝐹𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑟 𝑠 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 = 2
𝐿
where L is the characteristics dimension of the solid

V 4 / 3r 3 r
L= = = − − − − − Sphere
A 4r 2
3
V r 2 L r
L= = = − − − − − −Cylinder
A 2rL 2
𝑉 𝐿3
𝐿 = = 2 = 𝐿/6 −−−− −𝐶𝑢𝑏𝑒
𝐴 6𝐿
➢ If this number is small then ∆Ts will be small and so the temperature
difference in the body is small and so it can be taken as the check for the
applicability of lumped parameter model.

➢ If Biot number is less than 0.1, it has been proved that this model can be
used without appreciable error.
 ➢To Calculate the instantaneous heat flow:

𝑄𝑖 = −ℎ𝐴 𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇∞ exp −𝐵𝑖 x 𝐹0

➢To Calculate total heat energy transferred:

𝑄𝑡 = 𝜌𝐶𝑉 𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇∞ [exp −𝐵𝑖 x 𝐹0 − 1