Self-driving car

A self-driving car, also known as an autonomous car, driver-less car, or

robotic car (robo-car),[1][2][3] is a car incorporating vehicular automation,
that is, a ground vehicle that is capable of sensing its environment and moving
safely with little or no human input.[4][5]

Self-driving cars combine a variety of sensors to perceive their surroundings,

such as thermographic cameras, radar, lidar, sonar, GPS, odometry and inertial
measurement units.[1][4] Advanced control systems interpret sensory Waymo Chrysler Pacifica Hybrid
information to identify appropriate navigation paths, as well as obstacles and undergoing testing in the San
relevant signage.[6][7][8][9] Francisco Bay Area

Autonomy in vehicles is often categorized in six levels,[10] according to a

system developed by SAE International (SAE J3016, revised periodically).[11]
The SAE levels can be roughly understood as Level 0 - no automation; Level
1 - hands on/shared control; Level 2 - hands off; Level 3 - eyes off; Level 4 -
mind off, and Level 5 - steering wheel optional.

As of March 2022, vehicles operating at Level 3 and above remain a marginal

portion of the market. In December 2020, Waymo became the first service
Roborace autonomous racing car on
provider to offer driver-less taxi rides to the general public, in a part of
display at the 2017 New York City
Phoenix, Arizona. In March 2021, Honda became the first manufacturer to
ePrix
provide a legally approved Level 3 car,[12][13][14] and Toyota operated a
potentially Level 4 service around the Tokyo 2020 Olympic Village.[15] Nuro
has been allowed to start autonomous commercial delivery operations in California in 2021.[16] In December 2021,
Mercedes-Benz became the second manufacturer to receive legal approval for a Level 3 car complying with legal
requirements.[17] In February 2022, Cruise became the second service provider to offer driver-less taxi rides to the
general public, in San Francisco in the US.[18]

In China, two publicly accessible trials of robotaxis have been launched, in 2020 in Shenzhen's Pingshan District by
Chinese firm AutoX[19] and in 2021 at Shougang Park in Beijing by Baidu, a venue for the 2022 Winter
Olympics.[20]

Contents
History
Definitions
Terminology and safety considerations
Autonomous vs. automated
Autonomous versus cooperative
Classifications
Self-driving car
SAE classification
Levels of driving automation
Criticism of SAE
Technology
General perspectives
Hybrid navigation
 Drive by wire
Driver monitoring system
Vehicular communication
Re-programmable
Modularity
Homogenization
Challenges
Obstacles
Concerns
Human factors
Moral issues
Testing
Approaches
Disengagements in 2010s
In 2020s
Applications
Autonomous trucks and vans
Transport systems
Incidents
Tesla Autopilot
Waymo
Uber ATG
Navya Arma driving system
NIO Navigate on Pilot
Toyota e-Palette operation
Public opinion surveys
Regulation
Conventions on Road Traffic
UNECE WP.29 GRVA
Legislation and regulation in Japan
Legal status in the United States
Federal policies
State policies
Legislation in the United Kingdom
Legislation in Europe
Legislation in North America
Legislation in Asia
Legislation in Oceania
Legislation in Middle East
Liability
Anticipated launch of cars
Anticipated Level 2
Anticipated Level 3
Anticipated Level 4
See also
References
Further reading
History
Experiments have been conducted on automated driving systems (ADS) since at least the 1920s;[21] trials began in the
1950s. The first semi-automated car was developed in 1977, by Japan's Tsukuba Mechanical Engineering Laboratory,
which required specially marked streets that were interpreted by two cameras on the vehicle and an Analog computer.
The vehicle reached speeds up to 30 kilometres per hour (19 mph) with the support of an elevated rail.[22][23]

A landmark autonomous car appeared in the 1980s, with Carnegie Mellon University's Navlab[24] and ALV[25][26]
projects funded by the United States' Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) starting in 1984 and
Mercedes-Benz and Bundeswehr University Munich's EUREKA Prometheus Project in 1987.[27] By 1985, the ALV
had demonstrated self-driving speeds on two-lane roads of 31 kilometres per hour (19 mph), with obstacle avoidance
added in 1986, and off-road driving in day and night time conditions by 1987.[28] A major milestone was achieved in
1995, with CMU's NavLab 5 completing the first autonomous coast-to-coast drive of the United States. Of the
2,849  mi (4,585  km) between Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania and San Diego, California, 2,797  mi (4,501  km) were
autonomous (98.2%), completed with an average speed of 63.8  mph (102.7  km/h).[29][30][31][32] From the 1960s
through the second DARPA Grand Challenge in 2005, automated vehicle research in the United States was primarily
funded by DARPA, the US Army, and the US Navy, yielding incremental advances in speeds, driving competence in
more complex conditions, controls, and sensor systems.[33] Companies and research organizations have developed
prototypes.[27][34][35][36][37][38][39][40][41]

The US allocated US$650 million in 1991 for research on the National Automated Highway System, which
demonstrated automated driving through a combination of automation embedded in the highway with automated
technology in vehicles, and cooperative networking between the vehicles and with the highway infrastructure. The
programme concluded with a successful demonstration in 1997 but without clear direction or funding to implement the
system on a larger scale.[42] Partly funded by the National Automated Highway System and DARPA, the Carnegie
Mellon University Navlab drove 4,584 kilometres (2,848 mi) across America in 1995, 4,501 kilometres (2,797 mi) or
98% of it autonomously.[43] Navlab's record achievement stood unmatched for two decades until 2015, when Delphi
improved it by piloting an Audi, augmented with Delphi technology, over 5,472 kilometres (3,400  mi) through 15
states while remaining in self-driving mode 99% of the time.[44] In 2015, the US states of Nevada, Florida, California,
Virginia, and Michigan, together with Washington, DC, allowed the testing of automated cars on public roads.[45]

From 2016 to 2018, the European Commission funded an innovation strategy development for connected and
automated driving through the Coordination Actions CARTRE and SCOUT.[46] Moreover, the Strategic Transport
Research and Innovation Agenda (STRIA) Roadmap for Connected and Automated Transport was published in
2019.[47]

In November 2017, Waymo announced that it had begun testing driver-less cars without a safety driver in the driver
position;[48] however, there was still an employee in the car.[49] An October 2017 report by the Brookings Institution
found that the $80 billion had been reported as invested in all facets of self driving technology up to that point, but that
it was "reasonable to presume that total global investment in autonomous vehicle technology is significantly more than
this."[50]

In October 2018, Waymo announced that its test vehicles had travelled in automated mode for over 10,000,000 miles
(16,000,000  km), increasing by about 1,000,000 miles (1,600,000 kilometres) per month.[51] In December 2018,
Waymo was the first to commercialize a fully autonomous taxi service in the US, in Phoenix, Arizona.[52] In October
2020, Waymo launched a geo-fenced driver-less ride hailing service in Phoenix.[53][54] The cars are being monitored
in real-time by a team of remote engineers, and there are cases where the remote engineers need to intervene.[55][54]

In March 2019, ahead of the autonomous racing series Roborace, Robocar set the Guinness World Record for being
the fastest autonomous car in the world. In pushing the limits of self-driving vehicles, Robocar reached 282.42 km/h
(175.49 mph) – an average confirmed by the UK Timing Association at Elvington in Yorkshire, UK.[56]

In 2020, a National Transportation Safety Board chairman stated that no self-driving cars (SAE level 3+) were
available for consumers to purchase in the US in 2020:
 There is not a vehicle currently available to US consumers that is self-driving. Period. Every vehicle sold
to US consumers still requires the driver to be actively engaged in the driving task, even when advanced
driver assistance systems are activated. If you are selling a car with an advanced driver assistance system,
you’re not selling a self-driving car. If you are driving a car with an advanced driver assistance system,
you don’t own a self-driving car.[57]

On 5 March 2021, Honda began leasing in Japan a limited edition of 100 Legend Hybrid EX sedans equipped with
the newly approved Level 3 automated driving equipment which had been granted the safety certification by Japanese
government to their autonomous "Traffic Jam Pilot" driving technology, and legally allow drivers to take their eyes off
the road.[12][13][58][14]

Definitions
There is some inconsistency in the terminology used in the self-driving car industry. Various organizations have
proposed to define an accurate and consistent vocabulary.

In 2014, such confusion has been documented in SAE J3016 which states that "some vernacular usages associate
autonomous specifically with full driving automation (Level 5), while other usages apply it to all levels of driving
automation, and some state legislation has defined it to correspond approximately to any ADS [automated driving
system] at or above Level 3 (or to any vehicle equipped with such an ADS)."

Terminology and safety considerations

Modern vehicles provide features such as keeping the car within its lane, speed controls, or emergency braking. Those
features alone are just considered as driver assistance technologies because they still require a human driver control
while fully automated vehicles drive themselves without human driver input.

According to Fortune, some newer vehicles' technology names—such as AutonoDrive, PilotAssist, Full-Self Driving
or DrivePilot—might confuse the driver, who may believe no driver input is expected when in fact the driver needs to
remain involved in the driving task.[59] According to the BBC, confusion between those concepts leads to deaths.[60]

For this reason, some organizations such as the AAA try to provide standardized naming conventions for features such
as ALKS which aim to have capacity to manage the driving task, but which are not yet approved to be an automated
vehicles in any countries. The Association of British Insurers considers the usage of the word autonomous in
marketing for modern cars to be dangerous because car ads make motorists think 'autonomous' and 'autopilot' mean a
vehicle can drive itself when they still rely on the driver to ensure safety. Technology able to drive a car is still in its
beta stage.

Some car makers suggest or claim vehicles are self-driving when they are not able to manage some driving situations.
Despite being called Full Self-Driving, Tesla stated that its offering should not be considered as a fully autonomous
driving system.[61] This makes drivers risk becoming excessively confident, taking distracted driving behaviour,
leading to crashes. While in Great-Britain, a fully self-driving car is only a car registered in a specific list.[62] There
have also been proposals to adopt the aviation automation safety knowledge into the discussions of safe
implementation of autonomous vehicles, due to the experience that has been gained over the decades by the aviation
sector on safety topics.[63]

According to the SMMT, "There are two clear states – a vehicle is either assisted with a driver being supported by
technology or automated where the technology is effectively and safely replacing the driver."[64]

Autonomous vs. automated

Autonomous means self-governing.[65] Many historical projects related to vehicle automation have been automated
(made automatic) subject to a heavy reliance on artificial aids in their environment, such as magnetic strips.
Autonomous control implies satisfactory performance under significant uncertainties in the environment, and the
ability to compensate for system failures without external intervention.[65]

One approach is to implement communication networks both in the immediate vicinity (for collision avoidance) and
farther away (for congestion management). Such outside influences in the decision process reduce an individual
vehicle's autonomy, while still not requiring human intervention.

As of 2017, most commercial projects focused on automated vehicles that did not communicate with other vehicles or
with an enveloping management regime. Euro NCAP defines autonomous in "Autonomous Emergency Braking" as:
"the system acts independently of the driver to avoid or mitigate the accident", which implies the autonomous system
is not the driver.[66]

In Europe, the words automated and autonomous might be used together. For instance, Regulation (EU) 2019/2144 of
the European Parliament and of the Council of 27 November 2019 on type-approval requirements for motor vehicles
(...) defines "automated vehicle" and "fully automated vehicle" based on their autonomous capacity:[67]

"automated vehicle" means a motor vehicle designed and constructed to move autonomously for
certain periods of time without continuous driver supervision but in respect of which driver intervention
is still expected or required;[67]
"fully automated vehicle" means a motor vehicle that has been designed and constructed to move
autonomously without any driver supervision;[67]

In British English, the word automated alone might have several meaning, such in the sentence: "Thatcham also found
that the automated lane keeping systems could only meet two out of the twelve principles required to guarantee safety,
going on to say they cannot, therefore, be classed as ‘automated driving’, instead it claims the tech should be classed
as ‘assisted driving’.":[68] The first occurrence of the "automated" word refers to an Unece automated system, while
the second occurrence refers to the British legal definition of an automated vehicle. The British law interprets the
meaning of "automated vehicle" based on the interpretation section related to a vehicle "driving itself" and an insured
vehicle.[69]

Autonomous versus cooperative

To enable a car to travel without any driver embedded within the vehicle, some companies use a remote driver.[70]

According to SAE J3016,

Some driving automation systems may indeed be autonomous if they perform all of their functions
independently and self-sufficiently, but if they depend on communication and/or cooperation with outside
entities, they should be considered cooperative rather than autonomous.

Classifications

Self-driving car

PC Magazine defines a self-driving car as "a computer-controlled car that drives itself."[71] The Union of Concerned
Scientists states that self-driving cars are "cars or trucks in which human drivers are never required to take control to
safely operate the vehicle. Also known as autonomous or 'driver-less' cars, they combine sensors and software to
control, navigate, and drive the vehicle."[72]

The British Automated and Electric Vehicles Act 2018 law defines a vehicle as "driving itself" if the vehicle "is
operating in a mode in which it is not being controlled, and does not need to be monitored, by an individual".[73]

SAE classification
A classification system with six levels – ranging from fully manual to fully
automated systems – was published in 2014 by standardization body SAE
International as J3016, Taxonomy and Definitions for Terms Related to On-
Road Motor Vehicle Automated Driving Systems; the details are revised
periodically.[11] This classification is based on the amount of driver
intervention and attentiveness required, rather than the vehicle's capabilities,
although these are loosely related. In the United States in 2013, the National
Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) had released its original
formal classification system. After SAE updated its classification in 2016,
called J3016_201609,[76] NHTSA adopted the SAE standard,[77] and SAE Tesla Autopilot is classified as an
classification became widely accepted.[78] SAE Level 2 system.[74][75]

Levels of driving automation

In SAE's automation level definitions, "driving mode" means "a type of driving scenario with characteristic dynamic
driving task requirements (e.g., expressway merging, high speed cruising, low speed traffic jam, closed-campus
operations, etc.)"[1][79]

Level 0: The automated system issues warnings and may momentarily intervene but has no sustained
vehicle control.
Level 1 ("hands on"): The driver and the automated system share control of the vehicle. Examples are
systems where the driver controls steering and the automated system controls engine power to
maintain a set speed (Cruise control) or engine and brake power to maintain and vary speed
(Adaptive cruise control or ACC); and Parking Assistance, where steering is automated while speed is
under manual control. The driver must be ready to retake full control at any time. Lane Keeping
Assistance (LKA) Type II is a further example of Level 1 self-driving. Automatic emergency braking
which alerts the driver to a crash and permits full braking capacity is also a Level 1 feature, according
to Autopilot Review magazine.[80]
Level 2 ("hands off"): The automated system takes full control of the vehicle: accelerating, braking, and
steering. The driver must monitor the driving and be prepared to intervene immediately at any time if
the automated system fails to respond properly. The shorthand "hands off" is not meant to be taken
literally – contact between hand and wheel is often mandatory during SAE 2 driving, to confirm that the
driver is ready to intervene. The eyes of the driver might be monitored by cameras to confirm that the
driver is keeping their attention to traffic. Literal hands off driving is considered level 2.5, although
there are no half levels officially. A common example is adaptive cruise control which also utilizes lane
keeping assist technology so that the driver simply monitors the vehicle, such as "Super-Cruise" in the
Cadillac CT6 by General Motors or Ford's F-150 BlueCruise.[81]
Level 3 ("eyes off"): The driver can safely turn their attention away from the driving tasks, e.g. the driver
can text or watch a film. The vehicle will handle situations that call for an immediate response, like
emergency braking. The driver must still be prepared to intervene within some limited time, specified
by the manufacturer, when called upon by the vehicle to do so. You can think of the automated system
as a co-driver that will alert you in an orderly fashion when it is your turn to drive. An example would
be a Traffic Jam Chauffeur,[82] another example would be a car satisfying the international Automated
Lane Keeping Systems (ALKS) regulations.[83]
Level 4 ("mind off"): As level 3, but no driver attention is ever required for safety, e.g. the driver may
safely go to sleep or leave the driver's seat. However, self-driving is supported only in limited spatial
areas (geofenced) or under special circumstances. Outside of these areas or circumstances, the
vehicle must be able to safely abort the trip, e.g. slow down and park the car, if the driver does not
retake control. An example would be a robotic taxi or a robotic delivery service that covers selected
locations in an area, at a specific time and quantities. Automated valet parking is another example.
Level 5 ("steering wheel optional"): No human intervention is required at all. An example would be a
robotic vehicle that works on all kinds of surfaces, all over the world, all year around, in all weather
conditions.

In the formal SAE definition below, an important transition is from SAE Level 2 to SAE Level 3 in which the human
driver is no longer expected to monitor the environment continuously. At SAE 3, the human driver still has
responsibility to intervene when asked to do so by the automated system. At SAE 4 the human driver is always
relieved of that responsibility and at SAE 5 the automated system will never need to ask for an intervention.

SAE (J3016) Automation Levels[79]

Execution of
Fallback System
Monitoring
SAE steering and performance capability
Name Narrative definition of driving
Level acceleration/ of dynamic (driving
environment
deceleration driving task modes)
Human driver monitors the driving environment
The full-time performance by the human
No driver of all aspects of the dynamic
0 Human driver N/a
Automation driving task, even when "enhanced by
warning or intervention systems"

The driving mode- Using

specific execution by a information
Driver driver assistance about the Human driver
1 driving
Assistance system of either steering and system
or environment Human driver Human driver
acceleration/deceleration and with the
Some
expectation
driving
that the
The driving mode- modes
human driver
specific execution by performs all
Partial one or more driver remaining
2 System
Automation assistance systems of aspects of
both steering and the dynamic
acceleration/deceleration driving task
Automated driving system monitors the driving environment
With the
expectation
that the
Some
Conditional human driver
3 Human driver driving
Automation will respond
modes
appropriately
to a request
to intervene
Even if a
human driver
does not
respond
The driving mode-
appropriately
specific performance by Many
High to a request
4 an automated driving System System driving
Automation to intervene
system of all aspects of modes
the car can
the dynamic driving task
pull over
safely by
guiding System
system
Under all
roadway and
environmental
Full conditions All driving
5
Automation that can be modes
managed by
a human
driver

Criticism of SAE

The SAE Automation Levels have been criticized for their technological focus. It has been argued that the structure of
the levels suggests that automation increases linearly and that more automation is better, which may not always be the
case.[84] The SAE Levels also do not account for changes that may be required to infrastructure[85] and road user
behaviour.[86][87]
Technology

General perspectives

To deal with board range of technology discussions regarding to self-driving car, there are few proposals for its
classification. Among them, there is a proposal to have classification to have the following categories; car navigation,
path planning, environment perception and car control.[88] In 2020s, these technologies became recognized that they
are far more complicated and involved than we thought it would be.[89][90]

Hybrid navigation

Hybrid navigation is the simultaneous use of more than one navigation system for location data determination, needed
for navigation.

Sensing
To reliably and safely operate an autonomous vehicle, usually a mixture of sensors is utilized.[90]
Typical sensors
include lidar (Light Detection and Ranging), stereo vision, GPS and IMU.[91][92]
Modern self-driving cars generally
use Bayesian simultaneous localization and mapping (SLAM) algorithms,
which fuse data from multiple sensors and
an off-line map into current location estimates and map updates.[93] Waymo has developed a variant of SLAM with
detection and tracking of other moving objects (DATMO), which also handles obstacles such as cars and pedestrians.
Simpler systems may use roadside real-time locating system (RTLS) technologies to aid localization.

Maps
Self-driving cars require a new class of high-definition maps (HD maps) that represent the world at up to two orders of
magnitude more detail.[90] In May 2018, researchers from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT)
announced that they had built an automated car that can navigate unmapped roads.[94] Researchers at their Computer
Science and Artificial Intelligence Laboratory (CSAIL) have developed a new system, called MapLite, which allows
self-driving cars to drive on roads that they have never been on before, without using 3D maps. The system combines
the GPS position of the vehicle, a "sparse topological map" such as OpenStreetMap, (i.e. having 2D features of the
roads only), and a series of sensors that observe the road conditions.[95]

Sensor fusion
Control systems on automated cars may use sensor fusion, which is an approach that integrates information from a
variety of sensors on the car to produce a more consistent, accurate, and useful view of the environment.[96]

Path planning
Path planning is a computational problem to find a sequence of valid configurations that moves the object from the
source to destination. The large scale path of the vehicle can be determined by using a voronoi diagram, an occupancy
grid mapping, or with a driving corridors algorithm.[97] However, these traditional approaches are not sufficient for a
vehicle that is interacting with other moving objects, and several advanced approaches applying machine learning are
under developments.[90]

Drive by wire

Drive by wire technology in the automotive industry is the use of electrical or electro-mechanical systems for
performing vehicle functions traditionally achieved by mechanical linkages.

Driver monitoring system

Driver monitoring system is a vehicle safety system to assess the driver's alertness and warn the driver if needed. It is
recognized in developer side that the role of the systems will increase as SAE Level 2 systems become more common-
place, and becomes more challenging at Level 3 and above to predict the driver's readiness for handover.[98]
Vehicular communication

Vehicular communications is a growing area of communications between vehicles and including roadside
communication infrastructure. Vehicular communication systems use vehicles and roadside units as the communicating
nodes in a peer-to-peer network, providing each other with information. This connectivity enables autonomous
vehicles to interact with non-autonomous traffic and pedestrians to increase safety.[99][100]
And autonomous vehicles
will need to connect to the cloud to update their software and maps, and feedback information to improve the used
maps and software of their manufacturer.[90]

Re-programmable

Autonomous vehicles have software systems that drive the vehicle, meaning that updates through reprogramming or
editing the software can enhance the benefits of the owner (e.g. update in better distinguishing blind person vs. non-
blind person so that the vehicle will take extra caution when approaching a blind person). A characteristic of this re-
programmable part of autonomous vehicles is that the updates need not only to come from the supplier, because
through machine learning, smart autonomous vehicles can generate certain updates and install them accordingly (e.g.
new navigation maps or new intersection computer systems). These reprogrammable characteristics of the digital
technology and the possibility of smart machine learning give manufacturers of autonomous vehicles the opportunity
to differentiate themselves on software.

In March 2021, UNECE regulation on software update and software update management system was published.[101]

Modularity

Autonomous vehicles are more modular since they are made up out of several modules which will be explained
hereafter through a Layered Modular Architecture. The Layered Modular Architecture extends the architecture of
purely physical vehicles by incorporating four loosely coupled layers of devices, networks, services and contents into
Autonomous Vehicles. These loosely coupled layers can interact through certain standardized interfaces.

1. The first layer of this architecture consists of the device layer. This layer consists of the following two
parts: logical capability and physical machinery. The physical machinery refers to the actual vehicle
itself (e.g. chassis and carrosserie). When it comes to digital technologies, the physical machinery is
accompanied by a logical capability layer in the form of operating systems that helps to guide the
vehicles itself and make it autonomous. The logical capability provides control over the vehicle and
connects it with the other layers.;
2. On top of the device layer comes the network layer. This layer also consists of two different parts:
physical transport and logical transmission. The physical transport layer refers to the radars, sensors
and cables of the autonomous vehicles which enable the transmission of digital information. Next to
that, the network layer of autonomous vehicles also has a logical transmission which contains
communication protocols and network standard to communicate the digital information with other
networks and platforms or between layers. This increases the accessibility of the autonomous
vehicles and enables the computational power of a network or platform.;
3. The service layer contains the applications and their functionalities that serves the autonomous
vehicle (and its owners) as they extract, create, store and consume content with regards to their own
driving history, traffic congestion, roads or parking abilities for example.; and
4. The final layer of the model is the contents layer. This layer contains the sounds, images and videos.
The autonomous vehicles store, extract and use to act upon and improve their driving and
understanding of the environment. The contents layer also provides metadata and directory
information about the content's origin, ownership, copyright, encoding methods, content tags, Geo-
time stamps, and so on (Yoo et al., 2010).

Homogenization
In order for autonomous vehicles to perceive their surroundings, they have to use different techniques each with their
own accompanying digital information (e.g. radar, GPS, motion sensors and computer vision). Homogenization
requires that the digital information from these different sources is transmitted and stored in the same form. This means
their differences are decoupled, and digital information can be transmitted, stored, and computed in a way that the
vehicles and their operating system can better understand and act upon it.

In international standardization field, ISO/TC 22 is in charge of in-vehicle transport information and control
systems,[102] and ISO/TC 204 is in charge of information, communication and control systems in the field of urban
and rural surface transportation.[103] International standards have been actively developed in the domains of
AD/ADAS functions, connectivity, human interaction, in-vehicle systems, management/engineering, dynamic map
and positioning, privacy and security.[104]

Challenges

Obstacles

The potential benefits from increased vehicle automation described may be limited by foreseeable challenges such as
disputes over liability,[105][106] the time needed to turn over the existing stock of vehicles from non-automated to
automated,[107] and thus a long period of humans and autonomous vehicles sharing the roads, resistance by
individuals to forfeiting control of their cars,[108] concerns about safety,[109] and the implementation of a legal
framework and consistent global government regulations for self-driving cars.[110]

Other obstacles could include de-skilling and lower levels of driver experience for dealing with potentially dangerous
situations and anomalies,[111] ethical problems where an automated vehicle's software is forced during an unavoidable
crash to choose between multiple harmful courses of action ('the trolley problem'),[112][113] concerns about making
large numbers of people currently employed as drivers unemployed, the potential for more intrusive mass surveillance
of location, association and travel as a result of police and intelligence agency access to large data sets generated by
sensors and pattern-recognition AI, and possibly insufficient understanding of verbal sounds, gestures and non-verbal
cues by police, other drivers or pedestrians.[114]

Possible technological obstacles for automated cars are:

Artificial Intelligence is still not able to function properly in chaotic

inner-city environments.[115]
A car's computer could potentially be compromised, as could a
communication system between cars.[116][117][118][119][120]
Susceptibility of the car's sensing and navigation systems to
Autonomous delivery vehicles stuck
different types of weather (such as snow) or deliberate
in one place by attempting to avoid
interference, including jamming and spoofing.[114] one another
Avoidance of large animals requires recognition and tracking, and
Volvo found that software suited to caribou, deer, and elk was
ineffective with kangaroos.[121]
Autonomous cars may require high-definition maps to operate properly. Where these maps may be out
of date, they would need to be able to fall back to reasonable behaviours.
Competition for the radio spectrum desired for the car's communication.[122]
Field programmability for the systems will require careful evaluation of product development and the
component supply chain.[120]
Current road infrastructure may need changes for automated cars to function optimally.[123]
Validation challenge of Automated Driving and need for novel simulation-based approaches
comprising digital twins and agent-based traffic simulation.[124]

Concerns
Regulation
In 2010s, researchers openly worried about the potential of future regulation to delay deployment of automated cars on
the road.[125] However, as written in UNECE WP.29 GRVA, international regulation for Level 3 was smoothly
established in 2020, and the uncertainty was resolved. As of 2022, in practice, it is actually very difficult to be
approved as Level 3, with the Mercedes-Benz Drive Pilot being one of the few commercially available options to
receive such approval.[126]

Deceptive marketing
As Tesla's "Full Self-Driving (FSD)" actually corresponds to Level 2,[127] senators called for investigation to the
Federal Trade Commission (FTC) about their marketing claims in August 2021.[128]
And in December 2021 in Japan,
Mercedes-Benz Japan Co., Ltd. was punished by the Consumer Affairs Agency for the descriptions in their handouts
that are different from the fact.[129]

It was in July 2016, following a fatal crash by a Tesla car operating in "Autopilot" mode, that Mercedes-Benz was
also slammed misleading over their commercial of E-Class models which had been available with "Drive Pilot".[130]
At that time, Mercedes-Benz stopped its "self-driving car" ad campaign which had been running in the United States,
after they once rejected the claims.[131][132]

Employment
Companies working on the technology have an increasing recruitment problem in that the available talent pool has not
grown with demand.[133] As such, education and training by third-party organizations such as providers of online
courses and self-taught community-driven projects such as DIY Robocars[134] and Formula Pi have quickly grown in
popularity, while university level extra-curricular programmed such as Formula Student Driver-less[135] have bolstered
graduate experience. Industry is steadily increasing freely available information sources, such as code,[136]
datasets[137] and glossaries[138] to widen the recruitment pool.

National security
In 2020s, from the importance of the automotive sector to the nation, self-driving car has become a topic of national
security. The concerns regarding cybersecurity and data protection are not only important for user protection, but also
in the context of national security. The trove of data collected by self-driving cars, paired with cybersecurity
vulnerabilities, creates an appealing target for intelligence collection. Self-driving cars are required to be considered in
a new way when it comes to espionage risk.[139]

It was in July 2018 that a former Apple engineer was arrested by Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) at San Jose
International Airport (SJC) while preparing to board a flight to China and charged with stealing proprietary
information related to Apple's self-driving car project.[140]
And in January 2019, another Apple employee was
charged with stealing self-driving car project secrets.[141]
In July 2021, United States Department of Justice (DOJ)
accused Chinese security officials of a hacking attack seeking data on of coordinating a vast hacking campaign to steal
sensitive and secret information from government entities including research related to autonomous vehicles.[142][143]
On the China side, they have already prepared "the Provisions on Management of Automotive Data Security
(Trial)".[144][145]

It is concerned that leapfrogging ability can be applied to autonomous car technology.[146]

Also, emerging Cellular
V2X (Cellular Vehicle-to-Everything) technologies are based on 5G wireless networks.[147]

Human factors

Moving obstacles
Self-driving cars are already exploring the difficulties of determining the intentions of pedestrians, bicyclists, and
animals, and models of behaviour must be programmed into driving algorithms.[9] Human road users also have the
challenge of determining the intentions of autonomous vehicles, where there is no driver with which to make eye
contact or exchange hand signals. Drive.ai is testing a solution to this problem that involves LED signs mounted on
the outside of the vehicle, announcing status such as "going now, don't cross" vs. "waiting for you to cross".[148]
Handover and risk compensation
Two human-factor challenges are important for safety. One is the handover from automated driving to manual driving.
Human factors research on automated systems has shown that people are slow to detect a problem with automation
and slow to understand the problem after it is detected. When automation failures occur, unexpected transitions that
require a driver to take over will occur suddenly and the driver may not be ready to take over.[149]

The second challenge is known as risk compensation: as a system is perceived to be safer, instead of benefiting
entirely from all of the increased safety, people engage in riskier behaviour and enjoy other benefits. Semi-automated
cars have been shown to suffer from this problem, for example with users of Tesla Autopilot ignoring the road and
using electronic devices or other activities against the advice of the company that the car is not capable of being
completely autonomous. In the near future, pedestrians and bicyclists may travel in the street in a riskier fashion if they
believe self-driving cars are capable of avoiding them.

Trust
In order for people to buy self-driving cars and vote for the government to allow them on roads, the technology must
be trusted as safe.[150][151] Self-driving elevators were invented in 1900, but the high number of people refusing to
use them slowed adoption for several decades until operator strikes increased demand and trust was built with
advertising and features like the emergency stop button.[152][153] There are three types of trust between human and
automation.[154] There is dispositional trust, the trust between the driver and the company's product;[154] there is
situational trust, or the trust from different scenarios;[154] and there is learned trust where the trust is built between
similar events.[154]

Moral issues

Rationale for liability

There are different opinions on who should be held liable in case of a crash, especially with people being hurt.[155]
One study suggests requesting the owners of self-driving cars to sign end-user license agreements (EULAs), assigning
to them accountability for any accidents.[156] Other studies suggest introducing a tax or insurances that would protect
owners and users of automated vehicles of claims made by victims of an accident.[155] Other possible parties that can
be held responsible in case of a technical failure include software engineers that programmed the code for the
automated operation of the vehicles, and suppliers of components of the AV.[157]

Implications from the Trolley Problem

A moral dilemma that a software engineer or car manufacturer might face in programming the operating software of a
self-driving vehicle is captured in a variation of the traditional ethical thought experiment, the trolley problem: An AV
is driving with passengers when suddenly a person appears in its way and the car has to commit between one of two
options, either to run the person over or to avoid hitting the person by swerving into a wall, killing the passengers.[158]
Researchers have suggested, in particular, two ethical theories to be applicable to the behaviour of automated vehicles
in cases of emergency: deontology and utilitarianism.[9][159] Deontological theory suggests that an automated car
needs to follow strict written-out rules that it needs to follow in any situation. Utilitarianism, on the other hand,
promotes maximizing the number of people surviving in a crash. Critics suggest that automated vehicles should adapt
a mix of multiple theories to be able to respond morally right in the instance of a crash.[9][159] Recently, some specific
ethical frameworks i.e., utilitarianism, deontology, relativism, absolutism (monism), and pluralism, are investigated
empirically with respect to the acceptance of self-driving cars in unavoidable accidents.[160]

According to research, people overwhelmingly express a preference for autonomous vehicles to be programmed with
utilitarian ideas, that is, in a manner that generates the least harm and minimizes driving casualties.[161] While people
want others to purchase utilitarian promoting vehicles, they themselves prefer to ride in vehicles that prioritize the lives
of people inside the vehicle at all costs.[161] This presents a paradox in which people prefer that others drive utilitarian
vehicles designed to maximize the lives preserved in a fatal situation but want to ride in cars that prioritize the safety of
passengers at all costs.[161] People disapprove of regulations that promote utilitarian views and would be less willing
to purchase a self-driving car that may opt to promote the greatest good at the expense of its passengers.[161]

Bonnefon et al. concluded that the regulation of autonomous vehicle ethical prescriptions may be counterproductive to
societal safety.[161] This is because, if the government mandates utilitarian ethics and people prefer to ride in self-
protective cars, it could prevent the large scale implementation of self-driving cars.[161] Delaying the adoption of
autonomous cars vitiates the safety of society as a whole because this technology is projected to save so many
lives.[161]

Privacy
Privacy-related issues arise mainly from the interconnectivity of automated cars, making it just another mobile device
that can gather any information about an individual (see data mining). This information gathering ranges from tracking
of the routes taken, voice recording, video recording, preferences in media that is consumed in the car, behavioural
patterns, to many more streams of information.[162][163][164] The data and communications infrastructure needed to
support these vehicles may also be capable of surveillance, especially if coupled to other data sets and advanced
analytics.[162]

Testing

Approaches

The testing of vehicles with varying degrees of automation can be carried out either physically, in a closed
environment[165] or, where permitted, on public roads (typically requiring a license or permit,[166] or adhering to a
specific set of operating principles),[167] or in a virtual environment, i.e. using computer simulations.[168][169]
When
driven on public roads, automated vehicles require a person to monitor their proper operation and "take over" when
needed. For example, New York state has strict requirements for the test driver, such that the vehicle can be corrected
at all times by a licensed operator; highlighted by Cardian Cube Company's application and discussions with New
York State officials and the NYS DMV.[170]

Disengagements in 2010s

In California, self-driving car manufacturers are required to submit annual

reports to share how often their vehicles disengaged from autonomous mode
during tests.[171]
It has been believed that we would learn how reliable the
vehicles are becoming based on how often they needed
"disengagements".[172]

In 2017, Waymo reported 63 disengagements over 352,545 mi (567,366 km)

of testing, an average distance of 5,596  mi (9,006  km) between
A prototype of Waymo's self-driving
disengagements, the highest among companies reporting such figures. Waymo
car, navigating public streets in
also travelled a greater total distance than any of the other companies. Their
Mountain View, California in 2017
2017 rate of 0.18 disengagements per 1,000  mi (1,600  km) was an
improvement over the 0.2 disengagements per 1,000 mi (1,600 km) in 2016,
and 0.8 in 2015. In March 2017, Uber reported an average of just 0.67 mi (1.08 km) per disengagement. In the final
three months of 2017, Cruise (now owned by GM) averaged 5,224  mi (8,407  km) per disengagement over a total
distance of 62,689 mi (100,888 km).[173] In July 2018, the first electric driver-less racing car, "Robocar", completed a
1.8-kilometer track, using its navigation system and artificial intelligence.[174]
 Distance between disengagement and total distance traveled autonomously in 2010s

California, 2016[173] California, 2018[175] California, 2019[176]

Car
Distance Distance Distance
maker Total distance Total distance Total distance
between
between
between

traveled traveled traveled

disengagements disengagements disengagements
5,128 mi 635,868 mi 11,154 mi 1,271,587 mi 11,017 mi 1,450,000 mi
Waymo
(8,253 km) (1,023,330 km) (17,951 km) (2,046,421 km) (17,730 km) (2,330,000 km)
638 mi 638 mi
BMW
(1,027 km) (1,027 km)
6,056 mi 5,473 mi
Nissan 263 mi (423 km) 210 mi (340 km)
(9,746 km) (8,808 km)
590 mi
Ford 197 mi (317 km)
(950 km)
General 8,156 mi 5,205 mi 447,621 mi 12,221 mi 831,040 mi
55 mi (89 km)
Motors (13,126 km) (8,377 km) (720,376 km) (19,668 km) (1,337,430 km)
2,658 mi
Aptiv 15 mi (24 km)
(4,278 km)
550 mi
Tesla 3 mi (4.8 km)
(890 km)
Mercedes- 673 mi 1,749 mi
2 mi (3.2 km) 1.5 mi (2.4 km)
Benz (1,083 km) (2,815 km)
983 mi
Bosch 7 mi (11 km)
(1,582 km)
1,923 mi 30,764 mi 1,595 mi 67,015 mi
Zoox
(3,095 km) (49,510 km) (2,567 km) (107,850 km)
1,028 mi 24,680 mi 2,022 mi 68,762 mi
Nuro
(1,654 km) (39,720 km) (3,254 km) (110,662 km)
1,022 mi 16,356 mi 6,476 mi 174,845 mi
Pony.ai
(1,645 km) (26,322 km) (10,422 km) (281,386 km)
Baidu 18,093 mi 18,050 mi 108,300 mi
206 mi (332 km)
(Apolong) (29,118 km) (29,050 km) (174,300 km)
32,858 mi 39,729 mi
Aurora 100 mi (160 km) 280 mi (450 km)
(52,880 km) (63,938 km)
79,745 mi 7,544 mi
Apple 1.1 mi (1.8 km) 118 mi (190 km)
(128,337 km) (12,141 km)
26,899 mi
Uber 0.4 mi (0.64 km) 0 mi (0 km)
(43,290 km)

In 2020s

Compliance
In April 2021, WP.29 GRVA issued the master document on "Test Method for Automated Driving (NATM)".[177]

In October 2021, the Europe's comprehensive pilot test of automated driving on public roads, L3Pilot, demonstrated
automated systems for cars in Hamburg, Germany, in conjunction with ITS World Congress 2021. SAE Level 3 and 4
functions were tested on ordinary roads.[178][179]
At the end of February 2022, the final results of the L3Pilot project
were published.[180]

Topics
In November 2021, the California Department of Motor Vehicles (DMV) notified Pony.ai that it was suspending its
driverless testing permit following a reported collision in Fremont on October 28. This incident stands out because the
vehicle was in autonomous mode and didn't involve any other vehicle.[181]
In May 2022, DMV revoked Pony.ai's
permit for failing to monitor the driving records of the safety drivers on its testing permit.[182]
As of 2022, "disengagements" are at the center of the controversy. The problem is that reporting companies have
varying definitions of what qualifies as a disengagement, and that definition can change over time.[183][172]

In April 2022, it is reported that Cruise's testing vehicle blocked fire engine on emergency call, and sparked questions
about an autonomous vehicle's ability to handle unexpected roadway issues.[184][185]

Applications

Autonomous trucks and vans

Companies such as Otto and Starsky Robotics have focused on autonomous trucks. Automation of trucks is important,
not only due to the improved safety aspects of these very heavy vehicles, but also due to the ability of fuel savings
through platooning. Autonomous vans are being developed for use by online grocers such as Ocado.[186]

Research has also indicated that goods distribution on the macro (urban distribution) and micro level (last mile
delivery) could be made more efficient with the use of autonomous vehicles[187] thanks to the possibility of smaller
vehicle sizes.

Transport systems

China trailed the first automated public bus in Henan province in 2015, on a highway linking Zhengzhou and
Kaifeng.[188][189] Baidu and King Long produce automated minibus, a vehicle with 14 seats, but without driving seat.
With 100 vehicles produced, 2018 will be the first year with commercial automated service in China.[190][191]

In Europe, cities in Belgium, France, Italy and the UK are planning to operate transport systems for automated
cars,[192][193][194] and Germany, the Netherlands, and Spain have allowed public testing in traffic. In 2015, the UK
launched public trials of the LUTZ Pathfinder automated pod in Milton Keynes.[195] Beginning in summer 2015, the
French government allowed PSA Peugeot-Citroen to make trials in real conditions in the Paris area. The experiments
were planned to be extended to other cities such as Bordeaux and Strasbourg by 2016.[196] The alliance between
French companies THALES and Valeo (provider of the first self-parking car system that equips Audi and Mercedes
premi) is testing its own system.[197] New Zealand is planning to use automated vehicles for public transport in
Tauranga and Christchurch.[198][199][200][201]

Incidents

Tesla Autopilot

As of November 2021, Tesla's advanced driver-assistance system (ADAS) Autopilot is classified as a Level 2.[202]

On 20 January 2016, the first of five known fatal crashes of a Tesla with Autopilot occurred in China's Hubei
province.[203] According to China's 163.com news channel, this marked "China's first accidental death due to Tesla's
automatic driving (system)". Initially, Tesla pointed out that the vehicle was so badly damaged from the impact that
their recorder was not able to conclusively prove that the car had been on autopilot at the time; however, 163.com
pointed out that other factors, such as the car's absolute failure to take any evasive actions prior to the high speed
crash, and the driver's otherwise good driving record, seemed to indicate a strong likelihood that the car was on
autopilot at the time. A similar fatal crash occurred four months later in Florida.[204][205] In 2018, in a subsequent civil
suit between the father of the driver killed and Tesla, Tesla did not deny that the car had been on autopilot at the time
of the accident, and sent evidence to the victim's father documenting that fact.[206]

The second known fatal accident involving a vehicle being driven by itself took place in Williston, Florida on 7 May
2016 while a Tesla Model S electric car was engaged in Autopilot mode. The occupant was killed in a crash with an
18-wheel tractor-trailer. On 28 June 2016 the US National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) opened
a formal investigation into the accident working with the Florida Highway Patrol. According to NHTSA, preliminary
reports indicate the crash occurred when the tractor-trailer made a left turn in front of the Tesla at an intersection on a
non-controlled access highway, and the car failed to apply the brakes. The car continued to travel after passing under
the truck's trailer.[207][208] NHTSA's preliminary evaluation was opened to examine the design and performance of
any automated driving systems in use at the time of the crash, which involved a population of an estimated 25,000
Model S cars.[209] On 8 July 2016, NHTSA requested Tesla Motors provide the agency detailed information about
the design, operation and testing of its Autopilot technology. The agency also requested details of all design changes
and updates to Autopilot since its introduction, and Tesla's planned updates schedule for the next four months.[210]

According to Tesla, "neither Autopilot nor the driver noticed the white side of the tractor-trailer against a brightly lit
sky, so the brake was not applied." The car attempted to drive full speed under the trailer, "with the bottom of the
trailer impacting the windshield of the Model S". Tesla also claimed that this was Tesla's first known autopilot death in
over 130  million miles (210  million kilometers) driven by its customers with Autopilot engaged, however by this
statement, Tesla was apparently refusing to acknowledge claims that the January 2016 fatality in Hubei China had also
been the result of an autopilot system error. According to Tesla there is a fatality every 94 million miles (151 million
kilometers) among all type of vehicles in the US.[207][208][211] However, this number also includes fatalities of the
crashes, for instance, of motorcycle drivers with pedestrians.[212][213]

In July 2016, the US National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) opened a formal investigation into the fatal
accident while the Autopilot was engaged. The NTSB is an investigative body that has the power to make only policy
recommendations. An agency spokesman said "It's worth taking a look and seeing what we can learn from that event,
so that as that automation is more widely introduced we can do it in the safest way possible."[214] In January 2017, the
NTSB released the report that concluded Tesla was not at fault; the investigation revealed that for Tesla cars, the crash
rate dropped by 40 percent after Autopilot was installed.[215]

In 2021, NTSB Chair called on Tesla to change the design of its Autopilot to ensure it cannot be misused by drivers,
according to a letter sent to the company's CEO.[202]

Waymo

Waymo originated as a self-driving car project within Google. In August

2012, Google announced that their vehicles had completed over 300,000
automated-driving miles (500,000 km) accident-free, typically involving about
a dozen cars on the road at any given time, and that they were starting to test
with single drivers instead of in pairs.[216] In late-May 2014, Google revealed
a new prototype that had no steering wheel, gas pedal, or brake pedal, and
was fully automated.[217] As of March 2016, Google had test-driven their fleet
in automated mode a total of 1,500,000 mi (2,400,000 km).[218] In December Google's in-house automated car
2016, Google Corporation announced that its technology would be spun off to
a new company called Waymo, with both Google and Waymo becoming
subsidiaries of a new parent company called Alphabet.[219][220]

According to Google's accident reports as of early 2016, their test cars had been involved in 14 collisions, of which
other drivers were at fault 13 times, although in 2016 the car's software caused a crash.[221]

In June 2015, Brin confirmed that 12 vehicles had suffered collisions as of that date. Eight involved rear-end collisions
at a stop sign or traffic light, two in which the vehicle was side-swiped by another driver, one in which another driver
rolled through a stop sign, and one where a Google employee was controlling the car manually.[222] In July 2015,
three Google employees suffered minor injuries when their vehicle was rear-ended by a car whose driver failed to
brake at a traffic light. This was the first time that a collision resulted in injuries.[223] On 14 February 2016 a Google
vehicle attempted to avoid sandbags blocking its path. During the maneuver it struck a bus. Google stated, "In this
case, we clearly bear some responsibility, because if our car hadn't moved, there wouldn't have been a
collision."[224][225] Google characterized the crash as a misunderstanding and a learning experience. No injuries were
reported in the crash.[221]

Uber ATG
In March 2018, Elaine Herzberg became the first pedestrian to be killed by a self-driving car in the United States after
being hit by an Uber vehicle, also in Tempe. Herzberg was crossing outside of a crosswalk, approximately 400 feet
from an intersection.[226] This marks the first time an individual is known to have been killed by an autonomous
vehicle, and considered to raise questions about regulations surrounding the burgeoning self-driving car industry.[227]
Some experts say a human driver could have avoided the fatal crash.[228] Arizona Governor Doug Ducey later
suspended the company's ability to test and operate its automated cars on public roadways citing an "unquestionable
failure" of the expectation that Uber make public safety its top priority.[229] Uber has pulled out of all self-driving-car
testing in California as a result of the accident.[230] On 24 May 2018, the US National Transport Safety Board issued
a preliminary report.[231]

In September 2020, the backup driver has been charged of negligent homicide, because she did not look to the road
for several seconds while her television was streaming The Voice broadcast by Hulu.
Uber does not face any criminal
charge because in the USA there is no basis for criminal liability for the corporation. The driver is assumed to be
responsible of the accident, because she was in the driver seat in capacity to avoid an accident (like in a Level 3). Trial
is planned for February 2021.[232]

Navya Arma driving system

On 9 November 2017, a Navya Arma automated self-driving bus with passengers was involved in a crash with a
truck. The truck was found to be at fault of the crash, reversing into the stationary automated bus. The automated bus
did not take evasive actions or apply defensive driving techniques such as flashing its headlights, or sounding the horn.
As one passenger commented, "The shuttle didn't have the ability to move back. The shuttle just stayed still."[233]

NIO Navigate on Pilot

On 12 August 2021, a 31-year-old Chinese man was killed after his NIO ES8 collided with a construction
vehicle.[234] NIO's self-driving feature is still in beta and cannot yet deal with static obstacles.[235] Though the
vehicle's manual clearly states that the driver must take over when nearing construction sites, the issue is whether the
feature was improperly marketed and unsafe. Lawyers of the deceased's family have also called into question NIO's
private access to the vehicle, which they argue may lead to the data ending up forged.[236]

Toyota e-Palette operation

On 26 August 2021, a Toyota e-Palette, a mobility vehicle used to support mobility within the Athletes' Village at the
Olympic and Paralympic Games Tokyo 2020, collided with a visually impaired pedestrian about to cross a pedestrian
crossing.[237]
The suspension was made after the accident, and restarted on 31 with improved safety measures.[238]

Public opinion surveys

In a 2011 online survey of 2,006 US and UK consumers by Accenture, 49% said they would be comfortable using a
"driverless car".[239]

A 2012 survey of 17,400 vehicle owners by J.D. Power and Associates found 37% initially said they would be
interested in purchasing a "fully autonomous car". However, that figure dropped to 20% if told the technology would
cost US$3,000 more.[240]

In a 2012 survey of about 1,000 German drivers by automotive researcher Puls, 22% of the respondents had a positive
attitude towards these cars, 10% were undecided, 44% were sceptical and 24% were hostile.[241]

A 2013 survey of 1,500 consumers across 10 countries by Cisco Systems found 57% "stated they would be likely to
ride in a car controlled entirely by technology that does not require a human driver", with Brazil, India and China the
most willing to trust automated technology.[242]
In a 2014 US telephone survey by Insurance.com, over three-quarters of licensed drivers said they would at least
consider buying a self-driving car, rising to 86% if car insurance were cheaper. 31.7% said they would not continue to
drive once an automated car was available instead.[243]

In a February 2015 survey of top auto journalists, 46% predicted that either Tesla or Daimler would be the first to the
market with a fully autonomous vehicle, while (at 38%) Daimler was predicted to be the most functional, safe, and in-
demand autonomous vehicle.[244]

In 2015 a questionnaire survey by Delft University of Technology explored the opinion of 5,000 people from 109
countries on automated driving. Results showed that respondents, on average, found manual driving the most
enjoyable mode of driving. 22% of the respondents did not want to spend any money for a fully automated driving
system. Respondents were found to be most concerned about software hacking/misuse, and were also concerned
about legal issues and safety. Finally, respondents from more developed countries (in terms of lower accident statistics,
higher education, and higher income) were less comfortable with their vehicle transmitting data.[245] The survey also
gave results on potential consumer opinion on interest of purchasing an automated car, stating that 37% of surveyed
current owners were either "definitely" or "probably" interested in purchasing an automated car.[245]

In 2016, a survey in Germany examined the opinion of 1,603 people, who were representative in terms of age, gender,
and education for the German population, towards partially, highly, and fully automated cars. Results showed that men
and women differ in their willingness to use them. Men felt less anxiety and more joy towards automated cars,
whereas women showed the exact opposite. The gender difference towards anxiety was especially pronounced
between young men and women but decreased with participants' age.[246]

In 2016, a PwC survey, in the United States, showing the opinion of 1,584 people, highlights that "66 percent of
respondents said they think autonomous cars are probably smarter than the average human driver". People are still
worried about safety and mostly the fact of having the car hacked. Nevertheless, only 13% of the interviewees see no
advantages in this new kind of cars.[247]

In 2017, Pew Research Center surveyed 4,135 US adults from 1–15 May and found that many Americans anticipate
significant impacts from various automation technologies in the course of their lifetimes—from the widespread
adoption of automated vehicles to the replacement of entire job categories with robot workers.[248]

In 2019, results from two opinion surveys of 54 and 187 US adults respectively were published. A new standardised
questionnaire, the autonomous vehicle acceptance model (AVAM) was developed, including additional description to
help respondents better understand the implications of different automation levels. Results showed that users were less
accepting of high autonomy levels and displayed significantly lower intention to use highly autonomous vehicles.
Additionally, partial autonomy (regardless of level) was perceived as requiring uniformly higher driver engagement
(usage of hands, feet and eyes) than full autonomy.[249]

Regulation

Conventions on Road Traffic

The Geneva Convention on Road Traffic subscribed to by over 101 countries worldwide, requires the driver to be 18
years old.

The 1968 Vienna Convention on Road Traffic, subscribed to by 83 countries worldwide, establishes principles to
govern traffic laws. One of the fundamental principles of the convention had been the concept that a driver is always
fully in control and responsible for the behaviour of a vehicle in traffic.[250]
In 2016, a reform of the convention has
opened possibilities for automated features for ratified countries.[251]

In January 2021, proposal of amendment to Article 1 and new Article 34 bis to the 1968 Vienna Convention on Road
Traffic was transmitted to one-year period for acceptance.[252]
By 14 January 2022, the amendment to the convention
was accepted, and it should enter into force on 14 July 2022.[253]
UNECE WP.29 GRVA

In February 2018, UNECE's Inland Transport Committee (ITC) acknowledged the importance of WP.29 activities
related to automated, autonomous and connected vehicles and requested WP.29 to consider establishing a dedicated
Working Party. Following the request, WP.29, at its June 2018 session, decided to convert the Working Party on
Brakes and Running Gear (GRRF) into a new Working Party on Automated/Autonomous and Connected Vehicles
(GRVA).[254]

In June 2020, WP.29 virtual meeting approved reports from GRVA about its fifth session on "automated/autonomous
and connected vehicles" and sixth session on "cyber security and software updates".[255]
The new Regulation on
cyber security has been allocated as Regulation 155 and the new Regulation on software updates has been allocated as
Regulation 156.
In this way, UN regulation on Level 3 was established.[256]

In March 2021, the following UNECE regulations were published:

Regulation 155: Cyber security and cyber security management system[257]

Regulation 156: Software update and software update management system[101]
Regulation 157: Automated Lane Keeping Systems (ALKS)[258]

On 22 January 2022, these regulations come into effect in some countries.

In June 2022, the 187th session of WP.29 was held,[259] and several amendments on GRVA regulations were agreed
based on the continuous leadership of Japan in chairmanship and as proposing national body.[260]
In case of
Regulation 157 of Automated Lane Keeping System (ALKS), the speed limit of 60km/h is to be changed to 130km/h,
and lane changing function is to be added for passenger car.[261][262]

Legislation and regulation in Japan

Japan is a non-signatory country to the Vienna Convention. In 2019, Japan amended two laws, "Road Traffic Act"
and "Road Transport Vehicle Act",[263] and they came into effect in April 2020. In the former act, Level 3 self driving
cars became allowed on public roads.[264]
In the latter act, process to designate types for safety certification on Level 3
self driving function of Autonomous Driving System (ADS) and the certification process for the asserted type were
legally defined.[265]
Through the amendment process, the achievements from the national project "SIP-adus" led by
Cabinet Office since 2014 were fully considered and accepted.[266]

In May 2020, "The Road Act" was also amended to include definition of automatic operation control equipment in
infrastructure, and came into effect.[267]
In July 2020, the next stage national level roadmap plan was officially issued
which had considered social deployment and acceptability of Level 4.[268][269]
At the end of 2020, Ministry of Land,
Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism (MLIT) amended its "Safety Regulation for Road Transport Vehicle" to reflect
the finalized UNECE WP.29 GRVA's regulations consistently without delay.[270][271][272]

In April 2021, National Police Agency (NPA) published its expert committee's report of FY 2020 on summary of
issues in research to realize Level 4 mobility services, including required legal amendment issues.[273][274][275]
During the summer of 2021, Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry (METI) prepared with MLIT to launch a
project "RoAD to the L4" to cover R&D with social deployment to realize acceptable Level 4 mobility service, and
updated its public information in September. As a part of this project, civil law liability problem reflecting changed
roles will be clarified.[276][277]

About misleading representation in marketing, Article 5 of "Act against Unjustifiable Premiums and Misleading
Representations" is applied.[278][279][129]

At the end of 2021, NPA proposed an amendment bill on "Road Traffic Act" to include approving scheme for Level 4
services.[280]
In March 2022, the Japanese government adopted the bill to amend the act.[281]
In April 2022, the bill
was deliberated at the ordinary National Diet session and passed. Under the amended act, a license system will be
introduced for operators of transport services using unmanned Level 4 vehicles, which requires no driver in the
remotely monitored vehicle within a limited area. Such vehicles are expected to be used for residents in depopulated
areas.[282]

Legal status in the United States

In the United States, a non-signatory country to the Vienna Convention, state vehicle codes generally do not envisage
—but do not necessarily prohibit—highly automated vehicles as of 2012.[283][284] To clarify the legal status of and
otherwise regulate such vehicles, several states have enacted or are considering specific laws.[285] By 2016, seven
states (Nevada, California, Florida, Michigan, Hawaii, Washington, and Tennessee), along with the District of
Columbia, have enacted laws for automated vehicles. Incidents such as the first fatal accident by Tesla's Autopilot
system have led to discussion about revising laws and standards for automated cars.

In 2017, the Republican-controlled House of Representatives unanimously passed "SELF DRIVE Act" which would
speed the adoption of self-driving cars and bar states from setting performance standards. However, a complementary
bill in the Senate, "AV START", failed to pass after Democrats raised objections that it didn't do enough to address
safety and liability concerns.[286]
A comprehensive regulatory structure has not yet emerged at either the federal or
state level in the United States.[287][288][289]

Federal policies

In September 2016, the US National Economic Council and US Department of Transportation (USDOT) released the
Federal Automated Vehicles Policy,[290] which are standards that describe how automated vehicles should react if
their technology fails, how to protect passenger privacy, and how riders should be protected in the event of an
accident. The new federal guidelines are meant to avoid a patchwork of state laws, while avoiding being so
overbearing as to stifle innovation.[291] Since then, USDOT has released multiple updates:

Automated Driving Systems: A Vision for Safety 2.0 (12 September 2017)[292]
Preparing for the Future of Transportation: Automated Vehicles 3.0 (4 October 2018)[293]
Ensuring American Leadership in Automated Vehicle Technologies: Automated Vehicles 4.0 (8
January 2020)[294]

The National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) released for public comment the Occupant Protection
for Automated Driving System on 30 March 2020,[295] followed by the Framework for Automated Driving System
Safety on 3 December 2020.[296] Occupant Protection is intended to modernize the Federal Motor Vehicle Safety
Standards considering the removal of manual controls with automated driving systems,[297] while the Framework
document is intended to provide an objective way to define and assess automated driving system competence to ensure
motor vehicle safety while also remaining flexible to accommodate the development of features to improve safety.[298]

Historically, a vehicle without driving controls such as a steering wheel, accelerator pedal, and brake pedal would not
be in compliance with the Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standards (FMVSS), the minimum safety equipment needed
to legally sell a vehicle to the public. On 10 March 2022, NHTSA updated and finalized the rule on safety
requirements for the Occupant Protection which now allows a vehicle without driving controls to comply with US
regulations.[299][300]

State policies

Overview
As of April 2022, 38 states have laws or executive orders related to autonomous vehicles.[301][302]

Nevada
In June 2011, the Nevada Legislature passed a law to authorize the use of automated cars. Nevada thus became the
first jurisdiction in the world where automated vehicles might be legally operated on public roads. According to the
law, the Nevada Department of Motor Vehicles is responsible for setting safety and performance standards and the
agency is responsible for designating areas where automated cars may be
tested.[303][304][305] This legislation was supported by Google in an effort to
legally conduct further testing of its Google driver-less car.[306] The Nevada
law defines an automated vehicle to be "a motor vehicle that uses artificial
intelligence, sensors and global positioning system coordinates to drive itself
without the active intervention of a human operator". The law also
acknowledges that the operator will not need to pay attention while the car is
operating itself. Google had further lobbied for an exemption from a ban on
distracted driving to permit occupants to send text messages while sitting
US states that allow testing of
behind the wheel, but this did not become law.[306][307][308] Furthermore,
autonomous vehicles on public roads
Nevada's regulations require a person behind the wheel and one in the
as of June 2018
passenger's seat during tests.[309]

Florida
In April 2012, Florida became the second state to allow the testing of automated cars on public roads.[310]

California
California became the third state to allow automated car testing when
Governor Jerry Brown signed SB 1298 into law in September 2012 at Google
Headquarters in Mountain View.[311]

On 19 February 2016, California Assembly Bill 2866 was introduced in

California that would allow automated vehicles to operate on public roads,
including those without a driver, steering wheel, accelerator pedal, or brake
pedal. The bill states that the California Department of Motor Vehicles would
A Toyota Prius modified by Google
need to comply with these regulations by 1 July 2018 for these rules to take to operate as a driverless car
effect. As of November 2016, this bill has yet to pass the house of origin.[312]
California published discussions on the proposed federal automated vehicles
policy in October 2016.[313]

In December 2016, the California Department of Motor Vehicles ordered Uber to remove its self-driving vehicles from
the road in response to two red-light violations. Uber immediately blamed the violations on human-error, and has
suspended the drivers.[314]

Washington, DC

In Washington, DC's district code:

"Autonomous vehicle" means a vehicle capable of navigating District roadways and interpreting traffic-
control devices without a driver actively operating any of the vehicle's control systems. The term
"autonomous vehicle" excludes a motor vehicle enabled with active safety systems or driver- assistance
systems, including systems to provide electronic blind-spot assistance, crash avoidance, emergency
braking, parking assistance, adaptive cruise control, lane-keep assistance, lane-departure warning, or
traffic-jam and queuing assistance, unless the system alone or in combination with other systems enables
the vehicle on which the technology is installed to drive without active control or monitoring by a human
operator.

In the same district code, it is considered that:

An autonomous vehicle may operate on a public roadway; provided, that the vehicle:

(1) Has a manual override feature that allows a driver to assume control of the autonomous
vehicle at any time;
(2) Has a driver seated in the control seat of the vehicle while in operation who is prepared
to take control of the autonomous vehicle at any moment; and
 (3) Is capable of operating in compliance with the District's applicable traffic laws and
motor vehicle laws and traffic control devices.

Michigan and others

In December 2013, Michigan became the fourth state to allow testing of driver-less cars on public roads.[315] In July
2014, the city of Coeur d'Alene, Idaho adopted a robotics ordinance that includes provisions to allow for self-driving
cars.[316]

Legislation in the United Kingdom

In 2013, the government of the United Kingdom permitted the testing of automated cars on public roads.[317] Before
this, all testing of robotic vehicles in the UK had been conducted on private property.[317]

In July 2018, "The Automated and Electric Vehicles Act 2018" received royal assent.[318]

In March 2019, the UK became a signatory country to the Vienna Convention.[319]

In 2021, the UK worked on a bill to allow self-driving automated lane keeping systems (ALKS) up to 37 mph (or
60 km/h[320]) after a mixed reaction of experts during the consultation launched in summer 2020.[321] This system
would be allowed to give back control to the driver when "unplanned events" such as road construction or inclement
weather occurs.[322] The Centre for Connected and Autonomous Vehicles (CCAV) has asked the Law Commission of
England and Wales and the Scottish Law Commission to undertake a far-reaching review of the legal framework for
"automated" vehicles, and their use as part of public transport networks and on-demand passenger services. The teams
developed policy and the full analysis report was published in January 2022.[323][324]

About misleading representation in marketing, the Society of Motor Manufacturers and Traders (SMMT) published
guiding principles as followings:

1. An automated driving feature must be described sufficiently clearly so as not to mislead, including
setting out the circumstances in which that feature can function.
2. An automated driving feature must be described sufficiently clearly so that it is distinguished from an
assisted driving feature.
3. Where both automated driving and assisted driving features are described, they must be clearly
distinguished from each other.
4. An assisted driving feature should not be described in a way that could convey the impression that it is
an automated driving feature.
5. The name of an automated or assisted driving feature must not mislead by conveying that it is the
other – ancillary words may be necessary to avoid confusion – for example for an assisted driving
feature, by making it clear that the driver must be in control at all times.[325]

In April 2022, UK government confirmed planned changes to "The Highway Code", responding to a public
consultation. The changes will clarify drivers' responsibilities in self-driving vehicles, including when a driver must be
ready to take back control.[326]

Legislation in Europe

EU
In November 2019, Regulation (EU) 2019/2144 of the European Parliament and of the Council on motor vehicle type
approval requirements defined specific requirements relating to automated vehicles and fully automated vehicles. This
law is applicable from 2022 and is based on uniform procedures and technical specifications for the systems and other
items.[327]

In April 2022, EU released a draft version of its legislation for vehicles with automated driving systems
(ADS).[328][329]
In July 2022, the new "Vehicle General Safety Regulation" come into effect which establishes the legal framework for
the approval of automated and fully driverless vehicles (Level 3 and above) in the EU.[330][331] And the EU
introduced regulations which require all new cars from 6 July 2022 to be fitted with intelligent speed assistance (ISA)
(Level 2).[332]

France
France is a signatory country to the Vienna Convention.
In 2014, the government of France announced that testing of
automated cars on public roads would be allowed in 2015. 2000 km of road would be opened through the national
territory, especially in Bordeaux, in Isère, Île-de-France and Strasbourg. At the 2015 ITS World Congress, a
conference dedicated to intelligent transport systems, the very first demonstration of automated vehicles on open road
in France was carried out in Bordeaux in early October 2015.[333]

In May 2018, the government published the first version of the French strategy for the development of automated road
mobility to set up the legislative framework, and it brought a result as "The Mobility Orientation Law" in December
2019.[334][335]

In December 2020, the government updated the strategy to make France the preferred location in Europe for the
deployment of automated road mobility services.[334]

The legislative and regulatory framework for the deployment of automated vehicles and transport systems was
established through an ordinance in April 2021 and a following decree in June 2021.[336]
The legislative and
regulatory framework for the operation of automated vehicles resulting from article 31 of "the Mobility Orientation
Law" is scheduled to be finalized in Q1 of 2022.[337]

Germany
Germany is a signatory country to the Vienna Convention.
In July 2021, the "Federal Act Amending the Road Traffic
Act and the Compulsory Insurance Act" came into effect.
The Act allows motor vehicles with autonomous driving
capabilities, meaning vehicles that can perform driving tasks independently without a person driving, in specified
operating areas on public roads. Provisions about autonomous driving in appropriate operating areas correspond to
Level 4.[338] Moreover, the new German legislation has major implications for dilemmatic situations. This includes for
example the non-discrimination principle that applies to unavoidable crash situations. Moreover, the act elaborates on
the technical requirements of autonomous vehicles, including a software system that can operate without permanent
supervision of the technical oversight or driver, contains an accident mitigation and reduction system and can initiate a
“minimal-risk state.”[339]

In February 2022, the Federal Ministry for Digital and Transport (BMDV) submitted the "Ordinance on the Approval
and Operation of Motor Vehicles with Autonomous Driving Functions in Specified Operating Areas - Autonomous
Vehicles Approval and Operation Ordinance (AFGBV)" to the German Bundesrat for approval.[340]

Legislation in North America

Canada
Canada is a non-signatory country to the Vienna Convention.
At the federal level, "The Motor Vehicle Safety Act"
regulates about motor vehicles which was last amended in February 2020.[341]

In August 2021, Transport Canada released the "Guidelines for Testing Automated Driving Systems in Canada"
Version 2.0.[342]

Legislation in Asia

China
For historical reason, China is not a signatory country to 1949 Geneva Convention,[343]
although it is a signatory
country to 1968 Vienna Convention.[344]
Legislations are conducted at National People's Congress and its Standing
Committee which are under control of Chinese Communist Party.
In 2018, China introduced testing regulations to regulate autonomous cars, for conditional automation, high-level
automation and full automation (roughly corresponding to Level 3, Level 4 and Level 5).[345]
The rules lay out
requirements that vehicles must first be tested in non-public zones, that road tests can only be on designated streets and
that a qualified person must always sit in the driver's position, ready to take over control.[346]

In February 2020, eleven constituent departments, represented by National Development and Reform Commission
(NDRC), jointly issued the "Strategy for Innovation and Development of Intelligent Vehicles" which describes about
roadmap plan until 2025. This plan states about the need to revise the "Road Traffic Safety Law", and surveying and
mapping law for intelligent vehicles.[347]

In March 2020, Ministry of Industry and Information Technology (MIIT) published draft GB/T on 6-levels
classification framework for driving automation which is basically corresponding to SEA levels.
And in April 2020,
MIIT released about the goal of the year which is set to complete the formulation of framework for driving-assist
functions and low-level autonomous driving (Level 3).[348]
In January 2021, MIIT planed to add highways to the list
of roads were provincial and city-level authorities can authorize automated cars.[349]

In March 2021, Ministry of Public Security (MPS) published draft proposed amendments on the "Road Traffic Safety
Law".[350]
In August 2021, The Cyberspace Administration of China (CAC) and MIIT issued "the Provisions on
Management of Automotive Data Security (Trial)".[144]
In September 2021, "Data Security Law" came into effect,
which broadly expands the extraterritorial reach of China's existing data rules.[351]

In February 2022, MIIT issued the second draft of the "Administrative Measures for Data Security in the Industry and
Information Technology Fields".
And in March 2022, MIIT issued "the Guidelines for the Construction of the Internet
of Vehicles Cybersecurity and Data Security Standard System".[352]

Legislation in Oceania

Australia
Australia is a non-signatory country to the Vienna Convention. National Transport Commission (NTC) is in charge of
reforming current laws with still achieving national level consistency.[353]
In February 2022, NTC published a policy
paper to present proposals on the end-to-end regulatory framework for the commercial deployment of automated
vehicles.[354]

Department of Infrastructure, Transport, Regional Development and Communications (DITRDC) is in charge of

developing their policies and bills on first supply and in-service automated vehicle law.[355]

New Zealand
New Zealand is a non-signatory country to the Vienna Convention.
New Zealand legislation does not specifically
require a driver to be present for a vehicle to be legally operated on a public road. However, most regulations and
relevant international frameworks strongly imply the presence of a driver in the vehicle given that ‘automation’ was
not a consideration at the time of drafting the legislation.[356]

As of April 2022, Ministry of Transport is working on "Autonomous Vehicles Work Programme" with "Long-term
Insights Briefing (LTIB)" which will include legislation issues.[357]

Legislation in Middle East

Israel
Israelis a signatory country to the Vienna Convention.
As of April 2022, Israel Innovation Authority (OCS) is working
on forming regulatory framework for trials and use of autonomous vehicles with Ministry of Transport and Road
Safety (MOT) and Ministry of Justice.[358]

In March 2022, the Knesset passed legislation that will allow companies to pilot autonomous shared transportation
with passengers in the vehicle but without a safety driver on Israeli roads. The legislation allows companies and
vehicle operators to obtain special licenses from MOT and to conduct trials with autonomous cars including for the
purpose of transporting paying passengers and where an independent driving system replaces the driver.[359]
Liability

Self-driving car liability is a developing area of law and policy that will determine who is liable when an automated
car causes physical damage to persons, or breaks road rules.[1][360] When automated cars shift the control of driving
from humans to automated car technology the driver will need to consent to share operational responsibility[361] which
will require a legal framework. There may be a need for existing liability laws to evolve in order to fairly identify the
parties responsible for damage and injury, and to address the potential for conflicts of interest between human
occupants, system operator, insurers, and the public purse.[362]

Anticipated launch of cars

Between manually driven vehicles (SAE Level 0) and fully autonomous vehicles (SAE Level 5), there are a variety of
vehicle types that can be described to have some degree of automation. These are collectively known as semi-
automated vehicles. As it could be a while before the technology and infrastructure are developed for full automation,
it is likely that vehicles will have increasing levels of automation. These semi-automated vehicles could potentially
harness many of the advantages of fully automated vehicles, while still keeping the driver in charge of the vehicle.[363]

Anticipated Level 2

Tesla vehicles are equipped with hardware that Tesla claims will allow full self driving in the future. In October 2020
Tesla released a "beta" version of its "Full Self-Driving" software to a small group of testers in the United States;[364]
however, this "Full Self-Driving" corresponds to level 2 autonomy.[365]

Anticipated Level 3

In 2017, BMW had been trying to make 7 Series as an automated car in public urban motorways of the United States,
Germany and Israel before commercializing them in 2021.[366] Although it was not realized, BMW is still preparing 7
Series to become the next manufacturer to reach Level 3 in the second half of 2022.[367][368]

In September 2021, Stellantis has presented its findings from a pilot programme testing Level 3 autonomous vehicles
on public Italian highways.
Stellantis's Highway Chauffeur claims Level 3 capabilities, which was tested on the
Maserati Ghibli and Fiat 500X prototypes.[369]
Stellantis is going to roll out Level 3 capability within its cars in
2024.[370]

In January 2022, Polestar, a Volvo Cars' brand, indicated its plan to offer Level 3 autonomous driving system in the
Polestar 3 SUV, Volvo XC90 successor, with technologies from Luminar Technologies, Nvidia, and Zenseact.[371]

As of February 2022, Hyundai Motor Company is in the stage of enhancing cybersecurity of connected cars to put
Level 3 self-driving Genesis G90 on Korean roads.[372]

Anticipated Level 4

In July 2020, Toyota started testing with public demonstration rides on Lexus LS (fifth generation) based TRI-P4 with
Level 4 capability.[373]
In August 2021, Toyota operated potentially Level 4 service using e-Palette around the Tokyo
2020 Olympic Village.[15]

In September 2020, Mercedes-Benz introduced world's first commercial Level 4 Automated Valet Parking (AVP)
system named Intelligent Park Pilot for its new S-Class. The system can be pre-installed but is conditional on future
national legal approval.[374][375]

In September 2021, Honda started testing programme toward launch of Level 4 mobility service business in Japan
under collaboration with Cruise and General Motors, using Cruise AV.[376]
In October 2021 at World Congress on
Intelligent Transport Systems, Honda presented that they are already testing Level 4 technology on modified Legend
Hybrid EX.[377] At the end of the month, Honda explained that they are conducting verification project on Level 4
technology on a test course in Tochigi prefecture. Honda plans to test on public roads in early 2022.[378]

In February 2022, General Motors and Cruise have petitioned NHTSA for permission to build and deploy a self-
driving vehicle, the Cruise Origin, which is without human controls like steering wheels or brake pedals. The car was
developed with GM and Cruise investor Honda, and its production is expected to begin in late 2022 in Detroit at GM's
Factory Zero.[379][380]
As of April 2022, the petition is pending.[381]

In April 2022, Honda unveiled its Level 4 mobility service partners to roll out in central Tokyo in the mid-2020s using
the Cruse Origin.[382]

Also in April 2022, Volkswagen started testing of its autonomous ID. Buzz AD prototype with Argo AI on public
roads.[383]
And in May 2022, Argo AI started testing on public roads in Austin and Miami using modified Ford
Escape Hybrid.[384][385]

See also
Automated guideway transit Mobility as a service (transport)
Automatic train operation Personal rapid transit
Automobile safety Platoon (automobile)
Automotive navigation system Retrofitting
Autopilot Smart camera
Advanced Driver Assistance Systems Technological unemployment
Computer vision Unmanned ground vehicle
Connected car Unmanned aerial vehicle
DARPA Grand Challenge: 2004, DARPA Grand Vehicle infrastructure integration
Challenge, 2007 Vehicle safety technology
DARPA Robotics Challenge (2012) Vision processing unit
Dutch Automated Vehicle Initiative Lane centering
Death by GPS Measurement of Assured Clear Distance Ahead
Driverless tractor Electronic stability control
Hybrid navigation Precrash system
Intelligent transportation system Deep learning
List of self-driving system suppliers Artificial intelligence
Machine vision Self-driving truck

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Further reading
Media related to Self-driving car at Wikimedia Commons

O'Toole, Randal (18 January 2010). Gridlock: About It (https://books.google.com/books?id=D

Why We're Stuck in Traffic and What To Do W2QAAAAQBAJ). Cato Institute. ISBN 978-1-
 935308-24-9.
Macdonald, Iain David Graham (2011). A
Simulated Autonomous Car (http://www.inf.ed.a
c.uk/publications/thesis/online/IM110982.pdf)
(PDF) (thesis). The University of Edinburgh.
Retrieved 17 April 2013.
Knight, Will (22 October 2013). "The Future of
Self-driving Cars" (https://www.technologyrevie
w.com/s/520431/driverless-cars-are-further-awa
y-than-you-think/). MIT Technology Review.
Retrieved 22 July 2016.
Taiebat, Morteza; Brown, Austin; Safford,
Hannah; Qu, Shen; Xu, Ming (2019). "A Review
on Energy, Environmental, and Sustainability
Implications of Connected and Automated
Vehicles". Environmental Science &
Technology. 52 (20): 11449–11465.
arXiv:1901.10581 (https://arxiv.org/abs/1901.10
581). Bibcode:2019arXiv190110581T (https://ui.
adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2019arXiv190110581
T). doi:10.1021/acs.est.8b00127 (https://doi.org/
10.1021%2Facs.est.8b00127). PMID 30192527
(https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30192527).
S2CID 52174043 (https://api.semanticscholar.or
g/CorpusID:52174043).
Glancy, Dorothy (2016). A Look at the Legal
Environment for Driverless Vehicles (http://onlin
epubs.trb.org/onlinepubs/nchrp/nchrp_lrd_069.
pdf) (PDF) (Report). National Cooperative
Highway Research Program Legal Research
Digest. Vol. 69. Washington, DC: Transportation
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Newbold, Richard (17 June 2015). "The driving
forces behind what would be the next revolution
in the haulage sector" (http://theloadstar.co.uk/th
e-driving-forces-behind-what-would-be-the-next
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Loadstar. Retrieved 22 July 2016.
Bergen, Mark (27 October 2015). "Meet the
Companies Building Self-Driving Cars for
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