REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES

POLYTECHNIC UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES

STA. MESA MANILA
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT OF INDUSTRIAL ENGINEERING

MANUFACTURING SYSTEMS
INSTRUCTION MANUAL
INEN 30093

Dr. Dan Jeffrey A. Gonzales, MSIE, DT

 MANUFACTURING SYSTEMS

OVERVIEW
The course introduces the basics of manufacturing, from history to the different types of
manufacturing systems and components, the different manufacturing materials and its properties.
The modules are designed so that the you learn the application at the end of each topic. Simple
activities that do not require going out and buying materials are included in these modules.
Review questions are also included to enable students to go back to the items that needs more
focus.

VIDEOS TO WATCH: AVAILABLE IN YOUTUBE

1. https://youtu.be/pl67IhTFH9g - History of Industrial Revolution Documentary (Duration 41:56)
2. https://youtu.be/9oq5zKm-_Cs - History of Manufacturing Technology: From Stones to 3D
Printers (Duration 1:40)
3. https://youtu.be/BthRm75Zyf4 - Kelvin Hughes 100 years of manufacturing, A Historical
Record (Duration: 16:16)
4. https://youtu.be/KyWuHcvyqD0 - Speaking of the Future: Advanced Manufacturing (Duration:
4:57)
5. https://youtu.be/HX6M4QunVmA - The Robot Revolution: The New Age of Manufacturing –
Moving Upstream (Duration 9:11)
6. https://youtu.be/Xqck3F-u-4Q – World Leading Production Scheduling Software, Asprova,
Introduction (Duration2:24)

SUGGESTED READINGS: PDF FILES MAY BE DOWNLOADED FROM THE INTERNET

1. Manufacturing Processes, 2nd Edition, by H.N. Gupta, R.C. Gupta, A. Mittal, New Age
International (P) Limited Publishers, 2009
2. Introduction to Basic Manufacturing Processes and Workshop Technology, Rajender
Singh, New Age International (P) Limited Publishers, 2006
3. Production and Operations Management Book – any author, any edition

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 MODULE 1
MANUFACTURING SYSTEM

OBJECTIVE
After successful completion of this lesson, you should be able to enumerate the different types
of manufacturing components and systems.

MATERIALS
Module 1 Reading; Online Research;

Brief History of Manufacturing (detailed in #1 video)

In its earliest form, manufacturing was usually carried out by a single skilled artisan with
assistants. Training was by apprenticeship. In much of the pre-industrial world, the guild system
protected the privileges and trade secrets of urban artisans.

In the pre-industrial world, most manufacturing occurred in rural areas, where household-based
manufacturing served as a supplemental subsistence strategy to agriculture (and continues to do
so in places). Entrepreneurs organized a number of manufacturing households into a single
enterprise through the putting-out system.

The factory system was first adopted in Britain at the beginning of the Industrial Revolution in the
late 18th century and later spread around the world. The main characteristic of the factory system
is the use of machinery, originally powered by water or steam and later by electricity. Increased
use of economies of scale, the centralization of factories, and standardization of interchangeable
parts were adopted in the American system of manufacturing in the nineteenth century.

Manufacturing Defined
A branch of industry is the application of tools and processes for the transformation of raw
materials into finished products. It refers to a collection of or arrangement of operations and
processes used to make a desired product or component.

The term manufacturing system refers to a collection or arrangement of operations and

processes used to make a desired product or component. In a manufacturing system, there is a
change or disturbance in the system, the system should accommodate or adjust itself and
continue to function efficiently.

Physical Elements Measurable Parameters

Machines for Processing Production Rate
Computer Systems Work in Process (WIP) Inventory
Material Handling Equipment Defects
People Delivery Time
Production Volume / Capacity
Cost

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Manufacturing goes thru the basic Input – Process – Output Model.

Basic Input – 5M Process Output

Manpower Series or combination of Product
Machine series of actions or Service
Money operations conducing to an Information
Method end.
Materials

An example below is illustrated:

MANUFACTURING COMPONENTS

PRODUCTION MACHINES

Machines can be classified according to worker participation in the task, as:

• Manually-operated- machines controlled/ supervise by the worker. The man must

continuously attend the machine during work cycle.
• Semi-automated-performs the portion of the work cycle under work program control and
then worker assumes control for the remainder of the cycles.
• Fully automated - has the capability to operate without human attention for periods of
time that are no longer than one work cycle.

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Manually operated machines
Controlled or supervised by a worker or operator, there is a clear division of labor, whereby
the machine provides the power for the operation and the worker provides the control.
Conventional machine tools (such as lathes, milling machines, drill presses etc.) fit this
category. The worker must attend the machine continuously during the work cycle.

Semi-Automated Machine
This performs a portion of the work cycle under program control, and then a worker
assumes control for the remainder of the cycle. An example of a machine in this capacity
is a CNC lathe, where the CNC machine performs its processing operation as per the
program, and then the worker unloads and reloads the machine for the next work cycle.
The worker must attend the machine every cycle but need not be continuously present.

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 Fully-Automated Machine
This has the capability to operate with no human attention for periods of time that are
longer than one work cycle. Some form of machine tending will be required periodically,
however; for example, to replenish the machine with raw material etc.

MATERIAL HANDLING SYSTEM

In loading the workstation is supplied with the correct type and amount of work units so that
the processing operation can be performed. Loading, positioning, and unloading work units
are a group of actions that are regularly performed together at individual workstations.

Positioning
Requires the work unit to be oriented or locate correctly within the processing machine, so
that the processing action can be performed upon n the work unit accurately.

Unloading
Involves the removal of the processed work units from the workstation often for
further material handling processes to occur.

Material Transport Systems

Involve passing work units between workstations by hand or in batches, by means of
manual techniques or by using appropriate material transport systems.

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2 General Types of Work Transport

Fixed routing
Uses the same sequence of workstations to process identical work units as they passed
through the system

Variable routing
Work units are transported through a variety of different station sequences to allow for
variable processing to be performed on transported work units.

COMPUTER CONTROL SYSTEMS

Computer systems are required to control fully-automated and semi-automated equipment
and participate in overall co-ordination and management of the manufacturing system.

Computer system functions for automated manufacturing

• Communicate instructions to workers
• Download work-part programs
• Control material handling system
• Schedule production
• Diagnose failures
• Monitor safety

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 • Maintain quality control
• Manage operations

HUMAN RESOURCES

Direct labor
Humans perform some value-added work on work units.

Physical labor
Results in an increase in value of the processed work unit.

Indirect labor
Manage and support the system as computer programmers, operate and direct computer
activities and maintain and repair the automated manufacturing system.

ASSESSMENT

Homework 1: Online Research of the manufacturing systems and computer systems used in
the following industry. Fill-up the table. If and when applicable, indicate specific company for
your reference. Submit via e-mail.

Industry Applicable Manufacturing Applicable Computer

System/s System/s
Semiconductor Company
Bread Manufacturing
Shoe Manufacturing
Bottled Drink Manufacturing
Pharmaceutical

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 MODULE 2
TYPES OF MATERIALS 1

OVERVIEW
This module discusses the first type of material – metals.

OBJECTIVE
After successful completion of the lesson, you should be able to identify the different types and
sub-types of metals and its accompanying properties.

MATERIALS
Module 2 Readings;

ASSESSMENT
Homework 2;

METALS

When the earth was formed the molten mass contained the many different metals which today,
we extract and use in huge quantities. Most of the metals combined with rock when molten, to
form metallic ores. The most common of these are bauxite, from which aluminum is extracted,
and iron ore from which iron is extracted. More than seventy different metals are extracted and
used in the manufacturing industries today. Some, like copper and lead for example, can be used
in their pure state, to take advantage of their natural properties. But often, we combine different
metals, or metal with other materials to form alloys. By making alloys, we can change the
properties of a metal to suit our particular needs.

A metal (from Greek μέταλλον métallon, "mine, quarry, metal") is a material that, when freshly
prepared, polished, or fractured, shows a lustrous appearance, and conducts electricity and heat
relatively well. Metals are typically malleable (they can be hammered into thin sheets) or ductile
(can be drawn into wires). Metals can be acombination of one or more metallic elements.

Metals and alloys can be used in many ways. They are important for the transport,
telecommunications, machinery, construction and manufacturing industries.

General properties in all metals

Physical Properties:
Metals are hard, non-adhesive, cold and smooth, they are very often shiny and strong. They are
also ductile and malleable, do not break easily. Metals are very good conductors of electricity,
sound and heat. When temperature rises, they expand, and when it falls, they always contract.
They can be easily welded to other metals.

Chemical Properties:
Metals react with oxygen in water and air. It's known as oxidation or rusting and it's a reddish- or
yellowish-brown flaky coating of iron oxide that is formed on iron or steel, especially in the
presence of moisture.

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Ecological Properties:
Most metal are recyclable and some metals such as lead, or mercury are toxic and they are a
danger for humans being and for the environment.

Extraction of metals
There are two types of mines to obtain metals:
1. Surface mining that is used when the mineral is near the surface.
2. Underground mining that is used when the mineral is deep below the surface.

It's used excavators, drills, explosives for extracting minerals from the rock. The minerals are
separated into ore and gangue.

Two Main Groups of Metals:

1. Ferrous Metals
Pure Iron is of little use as an engineering material because it is too soft and ductile.
When iron cools and changes from a liquid to a solid, most of the atoms in the
metal pack, tightly together in orderly layers. Some, however. become misaligned,
creating areas of weaknesses called dislocations. When a piece of iron is put under
stress, layers of atoms in these areas slip over one another and the metal deforms.
This begins to explain the ductility of soft iron. By adding carbon to the iron
however, we can produce a range of alloys with quite different properties. We call
these the carbon steels. An alloy is a mixture of two or more chemical elements
and the primary element is a metal.
Carbon Steels: their properties and uses

Mild Steel
Carbon content between 0,1% and 0,3%. Properties: less ductile but harder and tougher
than iron, grey color, corrodes easily. Uses: girders or beams, screws, nut and bolts, nails,
scaffolding, car bodies, storage units, oil drums.

Medium carbon steel

Contains between 0,3% and 0,7% carbon. Properties: harder and less ductile than mild
steel, tough and have a high tensile strength. Uses: it's used for the manufacture of
products which have to be tough and hard wearing like gears, tools, keys, etc.

High carbon steel

Contains between 0,7% and 1,3% carbon. Properties: Very hard and brittle material. Uses:
It's used for cutting tools and products which have to withstand wear such as guillotine,
springs, etc.

Stainless Steel
Are iron and chromium alloys. A wide range of steels are available with chromium content
between 13% and 27%. Properties: Chromium prevents rusting with an oxide film.
Ductility, hardness and tensile strength. It's also a shiny attractive metal. Uses: Cutlery,
sinks, pipes, car pieces, etc.

Grey Cast Iron

An alloy of iron (94%), carbon (3%) silicon (2%) and some traces of magnesium, Sulphur
and phosphorous. Properties: brittle but extremely hard and resistant, it corrodes by
rusting, Uses: pistons, machinery parts, streets lamps, drain covers, tools.
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 Other chemical elements can be added to steel, to improve or achieve certain properties.
Here you are some examples:
1. Silicon makes the alloy magnetic and improves elasticity.
2. Manganese makes the alloy harder and heat resistant. It's used to make stainless
steel.
3. Nickel improves strength and prevents corrosion.
Tungsten makes the steel harder, more heat-resistant and prevents corrosion.
Chromium makes the alloy harder and tougher and more rustproof.

2. Non-Ferrous Metals
They are metals that don't contain iron. They have a lot of uses but they are often
expensive because they are more difficult to extract.

Types of Non-Ferrous Metals:

Aluminum
It's the most abundant metal in the earth's crust and after steel, is the most widely used of
all the metals, today. Properties: Silvery white color, light, highly resistant to corrosion,
soft, malleable and ductile, low density, good conductor of both electricity and heat. Uses:
high voltage power lines, planes, cars, bicycles, light metal work. roofing and windows and
doors units, decoration, kitchen tools and drink cans.
Copper
It's a pure metal that is the world's third most important metal, in terms of volume of
consumption. Properties: a reddish-brown metal, ductile and moderately strong, very good
conductor of electricity and heat, it corrodes very easily. Uses: electrical wire, telephone
lines, domestic hot water cylinder and pipes, car radiator core, decoration, architecture.

Brass
This term "brass" covers a wide range of copper-zinc alloys. Properties: It's gold in color.
It has very good anti-corrosive properties and it's resistant to wear. Uses: Handicrafts,
jewelry, plumbing, capacitors and turbine.

Magnesium
It's shiny and silvery white. Properties: It's very light, soft and malleable, but not very
ductile. It reacts very strongly with oxygen. Uses: Fireworks, aerospace industry, car
industry.

Tin
It's a shiny white metal. Properties: It doesn't oxidize at room temperatures, it's very soft.
Uses: Soft-soldering, tin foil and tin plate.

Lead
It's a silvery grey metal. Properties: Soft and malleable. It's toxic when its fumes are
inhaled. Uses: Batteries, it's uses as an additive in glass for giving hardness and weight.

Bronze
It's an alloy of copper and tin. Properties: High resistant to wear and corrosion. Uses: Boat
propellers, filters, church bells, sculpture, bearings and cogs.

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 Zinc
It's a bluish grey shiny metal. Properties: Anticorrosive, not very hard, weak at low
temperatures. Uses: Roofing, plumbing because it stops corrosion.

Metals maybe further classified according to:

1. Atomic Structure
They may also be classified based on their atomic structure according to the periodic table.
When done, a metal may be known as alkaline, alkaline earth, or a transition metal. Metals
belonging to the same group behave similarly when reacting with other elements. Thus,
they have similar chemical properties.
2. Magnetic and Non-magnetic metals
Another way to differentiate metals is by looking how they interact with magnets. It is
possible to divide metals as magnetic and non-magnetic on that basis.

While ferromagnetic metals attract strongly to magnets, paramagnetic ones only show
weak interactions. Lastly, there is a group called diamagnetic metals that rather show a
weak repulsion to magnets.
Magnetic metals & non-magnetic metals both play an important role in engineering. Magnetism
is the basis for many applications. At the same time, this property may also be unwanted in
certain circumstances.
Therefore, it is important to know which metals are magnetic and which ones are not.

What is Magnetism?
In layman’s terms, magnetism is a force that can attract or repel magnetic objects.
Magnetic fields that permeate different mediums mediate this force. Magnetism is a
property of certain materials by default. Some materials, though, can be magnetized or
demagnetized depending on the requirements.

What Creates Magnetism in Metals?

Like an electric current, magnetism is caused by electrons at the elementary level.
Electrons have spin, which creates a tiny magnetic dipole. When these spins are
balanced, the net force is zero. But in case of a large number of unpaired electrons, this
infinitesimally small magnetic moment becomes large. As a result, it creates a noticeable
magnetic field around the metal.

Electric current is also capable of creating magnetic fields and vice versa. When an electric
current pass through a wire, it creates a circular magnetic field around the wire. Similarly,
bringing a magnetic field near a good conductor of electricity, electric currents start flowing
in the conductor. This amazing relationship between electricity and magnetism has
resulted in many ingenious devices and applications.

Types of Magnets
There are various classifications for magnets. One way to differentiate magnetic metals
from each other is by how long their properties are active. Using this as our basis, we can
classify magnets as:
Permanent Magnets
Permanent magnets produce a magnetic field due to their internal structure. They do not lose
their magnetism easily. Permanent magnets are made of ferromagnetic materials that do not
stop producing their magnetic field regardless of external influence. Thus, they are stable
against demagnetizing forces.

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 Temporary Magnets
Temporary magnets, as the name suggests, only retain their magnetic properties under certain
conditions. When these conditions are no longer present, they lose their magnetic fields. Soft
materials with low magnetic properties, such as annealed iron and steel, are examples of
temporary magnets. They become magnetic in the presence of a strong magnetic field.

Electromagnets
Magnets that produce magnetic fields when an electric current passes through them. They
have various use-cases. For example, motors, generators, relays, headphones, etc. all use
electromagnets.

In electromagnets a coil of wire winds around a ferromagnetic core. Connecting the wire to a
source of electricity produces a strong magnetic field. The ferromagnetic material further
amplifies it. Electromagnets can be extremely strong depending on the electric current. They
also provide the ability to turn the magnetic force on and off with the press of a button. This is
an extremely special property that helps us to use the magnetic force in our applications.

The Ten (10) Basic Metals:

1. Gold
2. Silver
3. Iron
4. Copper
5. Nickel
6. Aluminum
7. Mercury (liquid metal)
8. Titanium
9. Radium
10. Californium

Properties of Metals:
Lustrous – shiny because they have a lot of free (i.e. delocalized) electrons that form a
cloud of highly mobile negatively charged electrons on and beneath the smooth metal
surface

Strong - Products made of metals are very durable meaning they do not easily break or damaged.

High Density - Density, mass of a unit volume of a material substance. The atoms of metals are
closely compacted in substance. Metals are sometimes heavy for their size.

High melting point – metals needs to be subjected to high temperature for it to melt

Ductile - is a measure of a metal's ability to withstand tensile stress—any force that pulls the two
ends of an object away from each other. A metal substance is capable of being stretched into a
thin wire without becoming weaker or more brittle in the process.

Electrical and heat conductor - is the measure of the amount of electrical current or heat a
material can carry or its ability to carry a current or heat. Electrical conductivity is also known as
specific conductance. Heat conductivity is also known as Thermal Conductivity. Metals are good
well known as good conductors of electricity and/or heat.

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Opaque - Metals are not capable of having light pass through them since they either deflect or
reflect light.

Malleable – can be hammered into thin sheets

ASSESSMENT:
Homework 2:
A. Choose a product and fill-in the table below. Provide picture of your chosen product.

Product Parts/Components Properties of Components

(enumerate all
components)
Door Knob (specify type)

Escalator (specify type)

B. Watch the following video and indicate what product/s were made and what material were
used.

Video Products / Materials Used

https://youtu.be/CUTTmtLKD2g

https://youtu.be/LJkPwVOasyc

https://youtu.be/5zwgI-pQ6kE

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 MODULE 3
TYPES OF MATERIALS 2

OVERVIEW
This module discusses the first type of material – ceramics.

OBJECTIVE
After successful completion of the lesson, you should be able to identify the different types and
sub-types of ceramics and its accompanying properties.

MATERIALS
Module 3 Readings;

ASSESSMENT
Homework 3;

CERAMICS

A ceramic is an inorganic non-metallic solid made up of either metal or non-metal compounds

that have been shaped and then hardened by heating to high temperatures. In general, they are
hard, corrosion-resistant and brittle. Inorganic materials with non-metallic properties are usually
processed at high temperature.

Ceramic' comes from the Greek word meaning ‘pottery’. The clay-based domestic wares, art
objects and building products are familiar to us all, but pottery is just one part of the ceramic world.

Nowadays the term ‘ceramic’ has a more expansive meaning and includes materials like glass,
advanced ceramics and some cement systems as well.

General Properties of Ceramics:

Lower density than metals
Ceramics has less mass per volume as compared to metals. They are more lighter than metal
due to their low density.

Low ductility (brittle)

Unlike metal that is durable, Ceramics are easily broken when Force is applied.

Low conductivity
Ceramics do not easily conduct heat, which is why they are often used as refractories.
Ceramics cannot conduct electricity at all.

Corrosion resistant
Unlike most metals that creates rust as time pass, Ceramics do not easily corrode or react with
oxygen.

Traditional ceramics – Pottery

Pottery is one of the oldest human technologies. Fragments of clay pottery found recently in
Hunan Province in China have been carbon dated to 17,500–18,300 years old. Traditional
ceramics are clay–based. The major types of are earthenware, stoneware and porcelain. The
composition of the clays used, type of additives and firing temperatures determine the nature of

20
the end product.

Earthenware is used extensively for pottery tableware and decorative objects. It is one of the
oldest materials used in pottery.
The clay is fired at relatively low temperatures (1,000–1,150°C), producing a slightly porous,
coarse product. To overcome its porosity, the fired object is covered with finely ground glass
powder suspended in water (glaze) and is then fired a second time. Faience, Delft and majolica
are examples of earthenware.

Stoneware clay is fired at a high temperature (about 1,200°C) until made glass-like (vitrified).
Because stoneware is non-porous, glaze is applied only for decoration. It is a sturdy, chip-
resistant and durable material suitable for use in the kitchen for cooking, baking, storing liquids
and as serving dishes.
Porcelain is a very hard, translucent white ceramic. The earliest forms of porcelain originated in
China around 1600BC, and by 600AD, Chinese porcelain was a prized commodity with Arabian
traders. Because porcelain was associated with China and often used to make plates, cups, vases
and other works of fine art, it often goes by the name of ‘fine china'.

To make porcelain, small amounts of glass, granite and feldspar minerals are ground up with fine
white kaolin clay. Water is then added to the resulting fine white powder so that it can be kneaded
and worked into shape. This is fired in a kiln to between 1,200–1,450°C. Decorative glazes are
then applied followed by further firing.

Bone china – which is easier to make, harder to chip and stronger than porcelain – is made by
adding ash from cattle bones to clay, feldspar minerals and fine silica sand.

Types of Ceramics:
Structural ceramics - usually formed by extrusion, sometimes followed by plastic pressing,
whereas plastic pressing is typically used in forming roof tiles and vases, and to a lesser extent
in forming bricks and special pieces.

Refractories - any material that has an unusually high melting point and that maintains its
structural properties at very high temperatures. Often composed of ceramic materials

Porcelain Vitrified pottery with a white, fine-grained body that is usually translucent, as
distinguished from earthenware, which is porous, opaque, and coarser.

Glass - an inorganic solid material that is usually transparent or translucent as well as hard, brittle,
and impervious to the natural elements. Glass has been made into practical and decorative
objects since ancient times, and it is still very important in applications as disparate as building
construction, housewares, and telecommunications.

Advanced ceramics – new materials

Advanced ceramics are not generally clay-based. Instead, they are either based on oxides or
non-oxides or combinations of the two:
1. Typical oxides used are alumina (Al2O3) and zirconia (ZrO2).
2. Non-oxides are often carbides, borides, nitrides and silicides, for example, boron carbide
(B4C), silicon carbide (SiC) and molybdenum disilicide (MoSi2).

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The space shuttle Discovery
Part of the space shuttle’s outer skin is made up of over 27,000 ceramic tiles. The tiles are
designed to withstand the tremendous heat generated on re-entry into the Earth’s
atmosphere.
Production processes firstly involve thoroughly blending the very fine constituent material
powders. After shaping them into a green body, this is high-temperature fired (1,600–1,800°C).
This step is often carried out in an oxygen-free atmosphere.

The high temperature allows the tiny grains of the individual ceramic components to fuse together,
forming a hard, tough, durable and corrosion-resistant product. This process is called sintering

Sintering - A method for making objects from powder that involves heating to a high
temperature. The powder particles can fuse together, forming very strong bonds, making the
final product hard, tough and durable.
.
In modern medicine, advanced ceramics – often referred to as bioceramics – play an increasingly
important role. Bioceramics such as alumina and zirconia are hard, chemically inert materials that
can be polished to a high finish. They are used as dental implants and as bone substitutes in
orthopedic operations such as hip and knee replacement.

ASSESSMENT:
A. Homework 3: Watch the following video and indicate what product/s were made and what
material were used.

Video Products / Materials Used

https://youtu.be/wLLFHKPMutc

https://youtu.be/LQEgh4-WlzE

https://youtu.be/tI09vW5m6CM

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 MODULE 4
TYPES OF MATERIALS 3

OVERVIEW
This module discusses the first type of material – polymers.

OBJECTIVE
After successful completion of the lesson, you should be able to identify the different types and
sub-types of polymers and its accompanying properties.

MATERIALS
Module 4 Readings;

ASSESSMENT
Homework 4;

POLYMERS

Polymers are large molecules made up of long chains or networks of smaller molecules called
monomers. ‘Poly’ means many, and ‘mer’ means part—so polymer means many parts. Monomer
means one part. A polymer is made up of a number of joined-together monomers. Polymers are
materials made of long, repeating chains of molecules. The materials have unique properties,
depending on the type of molecules being bonded and how they are bonded.

Varying the molecular structure and length of polymer chains or networks results in different
polymers with different properties—such as strength, flexibility, heat resistance and recyclability.

Contains many chemically bonded parts or units to form a solid.

Types of Polymers:
1. Natural Polymer
Include silk, hair, proteins and DNA, while synthetic (man-made) polymers include
polyethylene, polypropylene and polyester.

Biopolymers
Are natural polymers produced by the cells of living organisms. Biopolymers consist of
monomeric units that are covalently bonded to form larger molecules. There are three
main classes of biopolymers, classified according to the monomers used and the structure
of the biopolymer formed: polynucleotides, polypeptides, and polysaccharides.

Polynucleotides, such as RNA and DNA, are long polymers composed of 13 or more
nucleotide monomers.

Polypeptides and proteins, are polymers of amino acids and some major examples
include collagen, actin, and fibrin.

Polysaccharides are linear or branched polymeric carbohydrates and examples include

starch, cellulose and alginate. Other examples of biopolymers include natural rubbers
(polymers of isoprene), suberin and lignin (complex polyphenolic polymers), cutin and

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 cutan (complex polymers of long-chain fatty acids) and melanin.

Biopolymers have various applications such as in the food industry, manufacturing,

packaging and biomedical engineering.

2. Synthetic Polymer
Are human-made polymers derived from petroleum oil. From the utility point of view they
can be classified into three main categories: thermoplastics, elastomers and synthetic
fibers. They are found commonly in a variety of consumer products such as honey, glue,
etc.

Nylon - is a thermoplastic silky material that can be melt-processed into fibers, films, or
shapes. It is made of repeating units linked by amide links similar to the peptide bonds in
proteins.
Elastomers (rubber) - is a polymer with viscoelasticity (i.e., both viscosity and elasticity)
and has very weak intermolecular forces, this is why they can be easily stretched and
squeezed while not immediately breaking.

Plastics (synthetic) - are human-made polymers. From the utility point of view they can
be classified into three main categories: thermoplastics, elastomers and synthetic fibers.
They are found commonly in a variety of consumer products such as honey, glue, etc.

3. Addition Polymers
Addition polymerization is the creation of a polymer by the adding together of monomers
in a repeating pattern, with no resulting by-product.

Polymer Abbreviation Properties Uses

Low-density polyethylene LDPE Chemically inert. Squeeze bottles, toys, flexible
Flexible, insulator pipes, insulation cover
(electric wires), six pack rings

High-density polyethylene HDPE Inert. Thermally Bottles, pipes, inner insulation

stable, tough and high (dielectric) of coax cable, plastic
tensile bags
strength

Polypropylene PP Resistant to acids and Auto parts, industrial fibers,

alkalis, high tensile food
strength containers, liner in bags,
dishware and as wrapping
material
for textiles and food

Polystyrene (thermocole) PS Thermal insulator. Petri dishes, CDcase,

Properties depends plastic cutlery
on theform,
expanded
form is tough and
rigid

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 Polytetrafluoroethylene PTFE Very low Low friction bearings, non-stick
coefficient of pans, innerinsulation (dielectric)
friction, excellent
dielectric properties,
chemically inert

Polychlorotrifluoroethylene PCTFE Stable to heat and Valves, deals,

thermal attacks, gaskets
high tensile
strength and non-
wetting

Polyvinyl Chloride PVC Insulator, flame Pipe (draining), fencing, lawn

retardant, chemically chairs, handbags, curtain
inert clothes, non-food bottles,
raincoats, toys, vinyl flooring,
electrical installation
insulations

4. Condensation Polymers
Are any kind of polymers formed through a condensation reaction—where molecules join
together—losing small molecules as byproducts such as water or methanol. Condensation
polymers are formed by polycondensation, when the polymer is formed by condensation
reactions between species of all degrees of polymerization, or by condensative chain
polymerization, when the polymer is formed by sequential addition (by condensation
reaction) of monomers to an active site in a chain reaction. The main alternative forms of
polymerization are chain polymerization and polyaddition, both of which give addition
polymers.

Condensation polymerization is a form of step-growth polymerization. Linear polymers are

produced from bifunctional monomers, i.e. compounds with two reactive end groups.
Common condensation polymers include polyamides, polyacetals, and proteins.

Types of Condensation Polymers:

a. Polyamides
One important class of condensation polymers are polyamides. They arise from the
reaction of carboxylic acid and an amine. Examples include nylons and proteins. When
prepared from amino-carboxylic acids, e.g. amino acids, the stoichiometry of the
polymerization includes co-formation of water:
n H2N-X-CO2H → [HN-X-C(O)]n + n H2O
When prepared from diamines and dicarboxylic acids, e.g. the production of nylon 66, the
polymerization produces two molecules of water per repeat unit:
n H2N-X-NH2 + n HO2C-Y-CO2H → [HN-X-NHC(O)-Y-C(O)]n + 2n H2O

25
 b. Polyesters
Another important class of condensation polymers are polyesters.[5] They arise from the
reaction of carboxylic acid and an alcohol. Examples include polyesters,
e.g. polyethyleneterephthalate:
n HO-X-OH + n HO2C-Y-CO2H → [O-X-O2C-Y-C(O)]n + (3n-2) H2O

Safety and environmental considerations

Condensation polymers tend to be more biodegradable than addition polymers. The
peptide or ester bonds between monomers can be hydrolyzed, especially in the presence
of catalysts or bacterial enzymes.

5. Liquid Crystal Polymers (LCP)

Are a class of aromatic polymers. They are extremely unreactive and inert, and highly
resistant to fire.
Liquid crystal polymer (LCP) exhibits a highly ordered structure in both the melt and solid
states. LCP can replace such materials as ceramics, metals, composites and other
plastics because of its outstanding strength at extreme temperatures and resistance to
virtually all chemicals, weathering, radiation and burning.

Although based on polyester chemistry, LCP’s have heat deflection temperatures as high
as 610 degrees F (321 degrees C) at 264 psi when reinforced with glass fiber.

The resin’s high melt flow and fast setup permits it to be molded into large, heavy-walled
parts as well as thin-walled components. Its thermal stability permits efficient use of
regrind.

Applications of LCP’s include those that require resistance to high temperatures and
chemicals.

Advantages:
• Excellent moldability in thin sections
• Outstanding chemical resistance
• Heat resistance

General Properties of Polymers:

Low density – Due to their low density, polymers are known to be very light. They are far lighter
than metals and ceramics.

Poor conductors of electricity and heat – Polymers are insulators which means they do not let
heat and electricity to pass through.

Different optical properties- Polymers, depending on their composition responds to light

variously. Some are partially transparent while some can deflect light.

26
 MODULE 5
TYPES OF MATERIALS 4

OVERVIEW
This module discusses the first type of material – composites.

OBJECTIVE
After successful completion of the lesson, you should be able to identify the different types and
sub-types of composites and its accompanying properties.

MATERIALS
Module 5 Readings;
COMPOSITES

A composite material (also called a composition material or shortened to composite, which

is the common name) is a material made from two or more constituent materials with significantly
different physical or chemical properties that, when combined, produce a material with
characteristics different from the individual components. The individual components remain
separate and distinct within the finished structure, differentiating composites from mixtures and
solid solutions.

Simply put, composites are a combination of components. In our industry, composites are
materials made by combining two or more natural or artificial elements (with different physical or
chemical properties) that are stronger as a team than as individual players. The component
materials don’t completely blend or lose their individual identities; they combine and contribute
their most useful traits to improve the outcome or final product. Composites are typically designed
with a particular use in mind, such as added strength, efficiency or durability.

The new material may be preferred for many reasons. Common examples include materials which
are stronger, lighter, or less expensive when compared to traditional materials.

Composite materials are generally used for buildings, bridges, and structures such as boat
hulls, swimming pool panels, racing car bodies, shower stalls, bathtubs, storage
tanks, imitation granite and cultured marble sinks and countertops.
More recently, researchers have also begun to actively include sensing, actuation, computation
and communication into composites, which are known as Robotic Materials.

The most advanced examples perform routinely on spacecraft and aircraft in demanding
environments.

Types of Composites:
1. Natural Composites
2. Synthetic Composites

Composites can be natural or synthetic.

Wood, a natural composite, is a combination of cellulose or wood fibers and a substance

called lignin. The fibers give wood its strength; lignin is the matrix or natural glue that binds

27
 and stabilizes them. Other composites are synthetic (man-made).

Plywood is a man-made composite that combines natural and synthetic materials. Thin layers
of wood veneer are bonded together with adhesive to form flat sheets of laminated wood that
are stronger than natural wood.

Typical engineered composite materials include:

• Reinforced concrete and masonry

• Composite wood such as plywood
• Reinforced plastics, such as fiber-reinforced polymer or fiberglass
• Ceramic matrix composites (composite ceramic and metal matrices)
• Metal matrix composites
• and other Advanced composite materials

Properties of Composites
Depends on the amount of distribution of each type of materials.
Collective set of properties are more desirable and possible than with any individual material

Other Terms for Composites

Many terms are used to define FRP composites. Modifiers have been used to identify a specific
fiber such as Glass Fiber Reinforced Polymer (GFRP), Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymer (CFRP),
and Aramid Fiber Reinforced Polymer (AFRP). Another familiar term used is Fiber Reinforced
Plastics. In addition, other acronyms have been developed over the years and their use depended
on geographical location or market use. For example, Fiber Reinforced Composites (FRC), Glass
Reinforced Plastics (GRP), and Polymer Matrix Composites (PMC) can be found in many
references. Each of the aforementioned terms means the same thing: FRP composites.

28
 MODULE 6
PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

1. Physical Properties
Those which can be observed without change of identity of materials

• Density
o One of the most fundamental physical properties of any material. Is
important in manycalculations because most designs are limited by either
size or weight.
• Shape and size
o Dimensions of any metal reflect shape and size of the material, length,
width, height,depth, and etc. It determines specific rectangular, circular,
spherical, or any other section.
• Specific gravity of materials
o A measurement that indicates how dense a substance is by comparing it to
the densityof water.
• Porosity
o The quality of being porous, or full of tiny holes. Liquids go right through
thingsthat have porosity.
o Represents quantity of voids in solid materials.

2. Chemical Properties
Properties that describe how a substance changes into completely different substance. It
is needed because most of materials, when they come in contact with other substances
can react to form new materials. It is the deterioration of material by chemical reactions
with the environment.
• Flammability
o ability to support combustion
• Corrosion/oxidation resistance
o do not easily corrode / react with oxygen o Reaction with water and acid

3. Thermal Properties
Thermal Properties are those properties of material which is related to its conductivity of
heat. The property that refers to the characteristic and behavior of a material under
thermal load.
• Thermal conductivity - measure of its ability to conduct heat.
• Thermal expansion - the tendency of matter to change its shape, area, and
volume in response to a change in temperature.
• Specific Heat - the amount of heat per unit mass required to raise the temperature
by one degree Celsius.
• Melting point - the temperature at which goes from solid to liquid state at one
atmosphere.
• Thermal diffusivity - measures the rate of transfer of heat of a material from the hot
end to the cold end.

4. Electrical Properties
Ability to conduct electrical current
• Electrical resistivity - the property of a material which resist the flow of electric
current through the material. Resistivity values are simple give and take of

29
 conductivity.
• Electrical conductivity
o It is the property of material which allow flow of electric current through the
material. A parameter which indicates how easily electric current can flow
through material.
o it measures how well a material accommodates movement of an electric
charge.
o it can be used for measuring purity of water, checking for proper heat
treatment of metals and inspecting heat damage in some materials.
• Temperature coefficient of resistivity - it indicates change in resistance of material
with change in temperature
• Dielectric strength
o it indicates the ability of a material to withstand high voltage
o it is specified for insulating material to represent their operating voltage.
• Thermoelectricity - can be used to generate electricity, to measure temperature
and to measure change in in temperature of objects.

5. Manufacturing Properties
Qualities which give information regarding the suitability of metals for various technological
operations or processes. Such properties are highly desirable in shaping, forming and
fabrication of materials.
a. Machinability
The ease with which a given material can be cut permitting the removal of material with
a satisfactory finish at lower cost. Signify how well a material takes a good finish. I may
also be called finish ability.
b. Weldability
The capacity of a metal to be welded under the fabrication conditions imposed in a specific
suitably designed structure and to perform satisfactory in the intended service. Significant
importance of fabrication of metals into various structure.
c. Castability
The ease with which a metal can be cast into form is known as castability of the metal. It
is based on factors like solidification rate, gas porosity, segregation, shrinkage etc.
d. Formability
Ability of metals of forming into different shapes.
e. Malleability
The ease with which the materials undergoes too much change in shape under
compressive stress without rupture.

6. Magnetic Properties
Determine the ability of material to be suitable for a particular magnetic application.
a. Permeability
It indicates how magnetic flux is build up in the material.
b. Retentivity or Magnetic Hysteresis
When a magnetic material is placed in an external field, its grains gets oriented in the
direction of the magnetic field. Which results in the magnetization of the material in the
direction of external magnetic field. Now even after removal of external magnetic field,
some magnetization exist, which is called residual magnetism.
c. Coercive force
30
 It is an external magnetic motive force required to overcome the residual magnetism.
d. Reluctance
It is a property of the magnetic material which resist buildup of magnetic flux in
material.

7. Optical Properties
Define material response to incident radiation can be described as transmission,
reflection, and absorption.
a. Transmissivity
Describes how much light is transmitted through material in relation to an amount of light
incident on the material. The light transmitted was either reflected or absorbed.
b. Reflection - ability to reflect (bend) light
c. Absorption - ability to absorb light

8. Mechanical Properties
Helps us measure how materials behave under load. Mechanical Properties of material
reflect relationship between its response and deformation from an applied load or force.
a. Strength - the ability to withstand an applied load without failure or plastic deformation.
b. Ductility - measure of a metal’s ability to withstand tensile stress –any force that pulls
the two ends of an object away from each other.

c. Toughness - the ability of a material to absorb energy and plastically deform without
fracturing.
d. Fatigue resistance - the highness stress that a material can withstand for a given
number of cycles without breaking.

ASSESSMENT
Homework 4: Online Research. Choose a product below. List down all parts and materials
used in the product, indicate what possible type of materials and characteristics each have.
Provide a picture of the product you synthesized. Use table format provided. Submit via e-mail.

Product Parts / Components Material Used for Parts / Components

Each Parts / Material Property
Components
Parachute
Mechanical Pencil
Electric Fan
Rice Cooker
Digital Thermometer

31
 MODULE 7

MANUFACTURING IN THE DEEP

What is manufacturing?

Manufacturing is the making of articles on a large-scale using machinery; industrial production

Manufacturing is the use of labor, goods and machines to produce goods for use or for sale.
Manufacturing sector covers work performed in:

1. Electronics industry
2. Mechanical industry
3. Energy industries
4. Food and beverage industries
5. Plastic industry
6. Metalworking industries

There are four primary types of manufacturing processes

1. Molding
Involves heating plastic until it becomes liquid, then pouring it into a mold. Once the
plastic cools, the mold is removed, giving you the desired shape. You can also use
casting to make plastic sheeting, which has a wide variety of applications.
2. Machining
Uses tools like saws, sheers and rotating wheels to achieve the desired result. There
are also tools that use heat to shape items. Laser machines can cut a piece of metal
using a high-energy light beam, and plasma torches can turn gas into plasma using
electricity. Erosion machines apply a similar principle using water or electricity, and
computer numerical control machines introduce computer programming into the
manufacturing mix.
3. Joining
Uses processes like welding and soldering to apply heat to combine materials.
Pieces can also be joined using adhesive bonding or fasteners.
4. Shearing and Forming
Uses cutting blades to make straight cuts into a piece of metal. Also known as die cutting,
you’ll often see shearing used on aluminum, brass, bronze and stainless steel. Another
metal-shaping process is forming, which uses compression or another type of stress to
move materials into a desired shape. Although forming is often used with metal, it also
can be used on other materials, including plastic.

32
 MODULE 8
TYPES OF PRODUCTION SYSTEMS

The methods, procedure or arrangement which includes all functions required to

accumulate (gather) the inputs, process or reprocess the inputs, and deliver the marketable
output (goods).

Production system utilizes materials, funds, infrastructure, and labor to produce the required
output in form of goods.

Production system consists of three main components namely Inputs, Conversion

Process and Output.

Inputs include raw-materials, machines, man-hours, components or parts, drawing,

instructions and other paper works.

Conversion process includes operations (actual production process). Operations may

be either manual or mechanical or chemical. Operations convert inputs into output.
Conversion process also includes supporting activities, which help the process of
conversion. The supporting activities include; production planning and control, purchase
of raw-materials, receipt, storage and issue of materials, inspection of parts and work-in-
progress, testing of products, quality control, warehousing of finished products, etc.

Output includes finished products, finished goods (parts), and services

Intermittent Production System

Characteristics:
Production system is flexible
Design of the product can be change time to time
We can adjust production system according to the order

Intermittent means something that starts (initiates) and stops (halts) at irregular (unfixed) intervals
(time gaps). In the intermittent production system, goods are produced based on customer's
orders. These goods are produced on a small scale. The flow of production is not continuous. In
this system, large varieties of products are produced. These products are of different sizes. The
design of these products goes on changing according to the design and size of the product.
Therefore, this system is very flexible.

Types of Intermittent Production System

1. Project Production
• made to order
• low volume type of production
• fixed position assembly type of layout
• the sequence of operation is unique to each project
• involved many agencies
• complex in nature

33
 • specific time period and expenditure

EXAMPLES:

SHIP BUILDING INDUSTRY - where final result are vehicle, ships, aircraft, etc.

KEPPEL PHILIPPINES MARINE, INC.

As the leading shipyard group in the Philippines, Keppel Philippines Marine, Inc (KPMI) offers a
broad spectrum of construction, conversion, repair and fabrication services to the offshore and
marine industry. KPMI operates Keppel Batangas Shipyard and Keppel Subic Shipyard, both
have established reputations for versatility, reliability, good project management and a strong
commitment to safety.

Keppel Philippines Marine, Inc. (KPMI) is part of the 20 -yard strong international network owned
by Keppel Offshore & Marine (Keppel O&M), one of the world's largest offshore and marine
groups. Keppel O&M is the world's leading rig designer and builder, as well as leader in ship
repair and Floating Production Storage and Offloading (FPSO) / Floating Storage and Offloading
(FSO) vessel conversions.

It is also the yard of choice for Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) and LPG carriers and has expertise
in specialized new buildings of a wide range of small to medium -sized customized vessels, multi-
purpose support vessels and cable ships for a worldwide client.

34
CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY - buildings, bridges, roads, tunnels, etc.

PHILIPPINE NATIONAL CONSTRUCTION CORPORATION

A distinguished partner in Philippine progress and economic development, the Philippine National
Construction Corporation is proudly known for its landmark projects, its expertise, and its vision.
Established in 1966, PNCC has been a reliable and international associate in the construction of
roadway and industrial infrastructure projects.

Notable architectural structures: The historical San Juanico Bridge; The first light rail transit
system; the efficient tollway network in Luzon; The North and South Luzon toll ways; the first ever
elevated highway in the country, the Metro Manila Skyway. It's reputation in excellence expanded
to other countries such as Saudi Arabia, Iraq, Hongkong, Malaysia and Indonesia, thus, earning
the reputation of being the biggest construction firm in Southeast Asia.

Food Terminal Inc. (left) and the San Juanico Bridge (right)

2. Job Shop Production

• Manufactures only or few quantities of products and procedures as per
the specification of the customers within prefixed time & cost.
• The distinguishing feature of this is low volume and high variety of products
• Use of general-purpose machines arranged into different departments
• Highly skilled and competent operators
• Detailed planning is essential
• Large inventory of materials, tools, parts, etc.

Examples: technology, customization, prototypes, parts, bespoke

Commercial Printing
Banta Corporation
Machine Tool
Mesco Inc.
Okuma Corporation

35
Fashion Industry
Prada
Coach
Gucci
Pastry Industry
Grupo Bimbo
Finsbury Food Group
Toy Industry
Lego
Mattel, Inc.

3. Batch Production

American production and inventory control society (APICS) defines batch production as a
form of manufacturing in which the job through the functional departments in lots or batches
and each lot may have a different routing. It was characterized by the manufacture of limited
number of products produced at regular intervals and stocked awaiting sales.

Characteristics:
• Shorter production runs
• Plant & machinery is flexible. Plant & machinery set up is used for the production
of item in a batch & change of set up is required for processing the next batch
• Manufacturing lead-time and cost are lower as compared to job order production

Examples: pharmaceutical products, appliances, cellphones, laptop

Pharmaceutical Industry
RiteMed
Unilab
Appliance Industry
Panasonic
LG
Samsung
Cellular Phone Industry
Huawei
Vivo
Oppo
Apple
Laptop Industry
Lenovo
Acer

4. Continuous Production System

In this system, items to be processed flow through a series of steps, or operations, that are
common to most other products being processed. Since large volumes of throughput are
expected, specially designed equipment and methods are often used so that lower production
costs can be achieved.

36
 Frequently the tasks handled by workers are divided into relatively small segments that can
be quickly mastered and efficiently performed. Examples include systems for assembling
automobile engines and automobiles themselves, as well as other consumer products such
as televisions, washing machines, and personal computers.

Continuous production systems are often referred to as assembly systems or assembly line
systems and, as noted below, are common in mass production operations.
Types of Continuous Production System

a. Mass Production

Characteristics:
• Considers the volume produced
• Mass production is generally used to refer to the quantities of production
• Requires specialist machinery
• Large volume of products
• Shorter cycle time
• Involves the product going through many stages of a production line
• One at a time production of goods
• It is used only if the product is standardized
• High capital investment

Examples: Unilever Products, Paperclips, Pencils

Car Industry
Ford Motors Company
Toyota Motors
Canned Goods Industry
Del Monte Foods, Inc. (trading as Del Monte Foods)
Century Pacific Food Inc. (CNPF)
Food and Beverage Industry
Coca-Cola Company
Unilever – Lipton
Unilever - Best Foods, Knorr
Beauty and Personal Care Industry
Uniliver – Axe or Lynx
Unilever – Clear, Lux, Ponds

b. Process Production
Characteristics:
• Single type of product is produced in very large quantities
• Make to stock production system
• Capital invested is very huge
• The flexibility of these plants is almost zero
• Production planning and scheduling can be decided well in advance
• The full production system is designed to produce only one specific type of item
• Semi-skilled workmen and skilled technicians are required
• Highly mechanized system
• Cost per unit may be lower

37
Examples: oil refinery, steel, asphalt, cement, etc.

Iron and Steel Industry

Paper Industry
Sterling Paper Inc.
Avesco
Wood / Lumber Manufacturing
Tiles Industry
Eurotiles
Mariwasa Tiles
Rubber Industry
Manila Rubber Corporation

OTHER TERMS USED IN SYSTEMS OF MANUFACTURING:

1. Agile manufacturing – is a term applied an organization that has created the processes,
tools, and training to enable it to respond quickly to customer needs and market changes
while still controlling costs and quality. It's mostly related to lean manufacturing.

2. Fabrication - A fabricated product may be called a fabrication, and shops specializing in

this type of work are called fab shops. The end products of other common types of
metalworking, such as machining, metal stamping, forging, and casting, may be similar in
shape and function, but those processes are not classified as fabrication.

3. A flexible manufacturing system (FMS) - is a manufacturing system in which there is

some amount of flexibility that allows the system to react in case of changes, whether
predicted or unpredicted. This flexibility is generally considered to fall into two categories,
which both contain numerous subcategories.

4. Just-in-time (JIT) manufacturing - also known as just-in-time production or

the Toyota Production System(TPS), is a methodology aimed primarily at reducing times
within the production system as well as response times from suppliers and to customers.
Its origin and development was mainly in Japan, largely in the 1960s and 1970s and
particularly at Toyota.

5. Lean manufacturing, or lean production - is a production method derived from Toyota's

1930 operating model "The Toyota Way" (Toyota Production System, TPS). The term
"Lean" was coined in 1988 by John Krafcik, and defined in 1996 by James
Womack and Daniel Jones to consist of five key principles; 'Precisely specify value by
specific product, identify the value stream for each product, make value flow without
interruptions, let customer pull value from the producer, and pursue perfection.' (Womack
and Jones 1996 p10).

6. Manufacturing Engineering - is a branch of professional engineering that shares many

common concepts and ideas with other fields of engineering such as mechanical,
chemical, electrical, and industrial engineering. Manufacturing engineering requires the
ability to plan the practices of manufacturing; to research and to develop tools, processes,
machines and equipment; and to integrate the facilities and systems for producing quality
products with the optimum expenditure of capital. (Matisoff, Bernard S. (1986).
"Manufacturing Engineering: Definition and Purpose". Handbook of Electronics

38
 Manufacturing Engineering. pp. 1–4. doi:10.1007/978-94-011-7038-3_1. ISBN 978-94-
011-7040-6.)

7. Mass customization - in marketing, manufacturing, call centers, and management, is

the use of flexible computer-aided manufacturing systems to produce custom output. Such
systems combine the low unit costs of mass production processes with the flexibility of
individual customization. Mass customization is the new frontier in business for both
manufacturing and service industries. At its core, is a tremendous increase in variety and
customization without a corresponding increase in costs. At its limit, it is the mass
production of individually customized goods and services. At its best, it provides strategic
advantage and economic value.

8. Mass production (discussed above) - also known as flow production or continuous

production, is the production of large amounts of standardized products in a constant
flow, including and especially on assembly lines. Together with job production and batch
production, it is one of the three main production methods

9. Numerical control (also computer numerical control, and commonly called CNC) is
the automated control of machining tools (such as drills, boring tools, lathes) and 3D
printers by means of a computer. A CNC machine processes a piece of material (metal,
plastic, wood, ceramic, or composite) to meet specifications by following a coded
programmed instruction and without a manual operator.

10. Prefabrication - is the practice of assembling components of a structure in a factory or

other manufacturing site, and transporting complete assemblies or sub-assemblies to
the construction site where the structure is to be located. The term is used to distinguish
this process from the more conventional construction practice of transporting the basic
materials to the construction site where all assembly is carried out. The
term prefabrication also applies to the manufacturing of things other than structures at a
fixed site. It is frequently used when fabrication of a section of a machine or any movable
structure is shifted from the main manufacturing site to another location, and the section
is supplied assembled and ready to fit. It is not generally used to refer to electrical or
electronic components of a machine, or mechanical parts such as pumps, gearboxes and
compressors which are usually supplied as separate items, but to sections of the body of
the machine which in the past were fabricated with the whole machine. Prefabricated parts
of the body of the machine may be called 'sub-assemblies' to distinguish them from the
other components.

11. Rapid manufacturing - In the 1980s, 3D printing techniques were considered suitable
only for the production of functional or aesthetic prototypes, and a more appropriate term
for it at the time was rapid prototyping. As of 2019, the precision, repeatability, and
material range of 3D printing has increased to the point that some 3D printing processes
are considered viable as an industrial-production technology, whereby the term additive
manufacturing can be used synonymously with 3D printing. One of the key advantages of
3D printing is the ability to produce very complex shapes or geometries that would be
otherwise impossible to construct by hand, including hollow parts or parts with internal
truss structures to reduce weight. Fused deposition modeling, or FDM, is the most
common 3D printing process in use as of 2018 (Most used 3D printing technologies 2017–
2018 | Statistic". Statista. Retrieved 2 December 2018).

39
12. A reconfigurable manufacturing system (RMS) is one designed at the outset for rapid
change in its structure, as well as its hardware and software components, in order to
quickly adjust its production capacity and functionality within a part family in response to
sudden market changes or intrinsic system change. The RMS, as well as one of its
components—the reconfigurable machine tool (RMT)—were invented in 1999 in the
Engineering Research Center for Reconfigurable Manufacturing Systems (ERC/RMS) at
the University of Michigan College of Engineering

40
 MODULE 9
MARKETING PRODUCTS 1

What is marketing?
Marketing is the action or business of promoting and selling products or services, including market
research and advertising.

According to the American marketing association, it is “the activity, set of institutions, and
processes for creating, communicating, delivering, and exchanging offerings that have value for
customers, clients, partners, and society at large

The term developed from the original meaning which referred literally to going to market with
goods for sale. From a sales process engineering perspective, marketing is “a set of processes
that are interconnected and interdependent with other functions of a business aimed at
achieving customer interest and satisfaction”

THREE PHASES OF MARKETING

1. Promoting
A communication tool that includes all activities which aware and persuade the customer to buy
the products. It is used to push short term sales.
2. Advertising
Part of promotion, a monologue activity that includes all activities which drive the attention
of the customer to buy the product. It is done to build brand image and increase sales(long
term).

3. Selling
A transaction between the seller and the prospective buyer or buyers (the target market)
where money (or something considered to have monetary value) is exchanged for goods
or services.

PRODUCT MARKETING
A process of promoting and selling product to a customer and also defined as being the
intermediary function between product developments and increasing brand awareness.

Product Marketing Responsibilities

41
1. Market Position
refers to the ability to influence consumer perception regarding a brand or product
relative to competitors. The objective of market positioning is to establish the image or
identity of a brand or product so that consumers perceive it in a certain way.

2. Competitive analysis
Identifying your competitors and evaluating their strategies to determine their strengths and
weaknesses relative to those of your own product or service.

3. Market gaps
Gaps in the market represent opportunities for companies to expand their customer base by
increasing awareness and creating targeted offers or advertising campaigns to reach the
untapped market.

4. Customer purchasing data

Refers to all personal, behavioral, and demographic data that is collected by marketing
companies and departments from their customer base.

5. Customer needs
Are things that a customer wants, needs or expects in a product or service.

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 MODULE 10
MARKETING PRODUCTS 2

PRICING AND PACKAGING

1. Product revenue goals and plans

Are targets for the strategy and performance of a business that improve gross or net profit.
Gross profit goals are typically related to growth strategies such as launching new
products and improving the sales of existing products
2. Pricing strategy
Refers to method companies use to price their products or services. Almost all companies,
large or small, base the price of their products and services on production, labor and
advertising expenses and then add on a certain percentage so they can make a profit.
3. Packaging that conveys the value of the product
Your product's packaging is meant to communicate a purpose: what your brand stands
for and what it means for your customer.

4. Packaging design to drive sales

Great packaging is especially significant for growing startups because it can have a
direct impact on sales and a company's overall appeal.

MARKETING AND PROMOTION PLAN

6. 1. Messaging and Positioning

Positioning defines how you want your audience think about your service, while.
Messaging is a set of specific statements crafted to establish and reinforce your
positioning.

7. 2. Collateral and Website

Marketing collateral is any media material used to promote a company's products or
services.

8. 3. Materials for Sales Staff

Provide the necessary materials for the sales team.

9. 4. Key Marketing Channels

Marketing channels, such as distributors, wholesalers and retailers, provide your business
with three kinds of functions: buying products for resale to customers, distributing products
to customers and supporting sales to customers through financing and other services.

CUSTOMER RESPONSE
1. Maximized Buying Process
The consumer buying process is the steps a consumer takes in making a purchasing
decision. A business can use marketing strategies to attempt to influence each stage of
this process to maximize the probability that a consumer will purchase its product.

2. Sales and Revenue Monitoring

Sales growth analysis is a core part of any business strategy and allows you to set and
forecast realistic revenue objectives

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 3. Customer Feedback
Customer feedback is information provided by clients about whether they are satisfied or
dissatisfied with a product or service and about general experience they had with a
company.

4. Customer Support Staffing

Customer support is a range of customer services to assist customers in making cost
effective and correct use of a product. It includes assistance in planning, installation,
training, troubleshooting, maintenance, upgrading, and disposal of a product.

EIGHT TYPES OF PRODUCT MARKETING

1. Paid Advertising
Any kind of advertising that you have to pay for, versus owned or earned advertising. With
paid advertising, marketers pay the owner of ad space in exchange for use of that space.

2. Cause Marketing
Defined as a type of corporate social responsibility, in which a company’s promotional
campaign has the dual purpose of increasing profitability while bettering society.

3. Relationship Marketing
A facet of customer relationship management (CRM) that focuses on customer loyalty and
long-term customer engagement rather than shorter-term goals like customer acquisition
and individual sales.

4. Undercover Marketing
Strategies involve introducing a product to consumers in a way that does not seem like
advertising. It is a strategy within the broader technique of stealth marketing, where agents
pose as regular people and show products to others who are unaware of the marketing
push.

5. Word of Mouth
Also called word of mouth advertising, differs from naturally occurring word of mouth, in
that it is actively influenced or encouraged by organizations.

6. Internet Marketing
Or online marketing, refers to advertising and marketing efforts that use the Web and email
to drive direct sales via electronic commerce, in addition to sales leads from websites or
emails.

7. Transactional Marketing
A business strategy that focuses on single, "point of sale" transactions. The emphasis is
on maximizing the efficiency and volume of individual sales rather than developing a
relationship with the buyer.

8. Diversity Marketing
Also known as Inclusive Marketing, Inclusion Marketing, or In-culture Marketing is a
marketing paradigm which sees marketing, and especially marketing communications, as
a way to connect with the different individuals in the market.

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 MODULE 11
MARKETING PRODUCTS 3

COMPLIMENTARY TOOLS TO REMEMBER IN PRODUCT MARKETING

4Cs

One of the business tools that one should take advantage of as an internet marketer. It enables
a person to think in terms of their customers’ interests more than their own. From being
business-oriented, you’ll become customer-centric.

1ST C - Communication

With this marketing mix, you do not “promote” your business; rather, you communicate value to
your customers/consumers.

You give your customers/consumers meaningful content to engage them.

You do not just make your target audience aware of your business; you build rapport and
relationship with them.

Whereas before, you promote your business through advertising, press releases or public
relations, direct marketing, and the likes; today, you engage your consumers/customers through
interactive communication.

Here are some of the proven ways to benefit from interactive communication as part of
marketing mix 4c’s:

Make your communication more personal. Deliver your personalized communication

through your customers’ preferred media or channel.

Take advantage of the power of the search engines to reach your target market. Make
your site search-engine and user-friendly.

Leverage on the social media to connect with your customers/consumers. To do this:

Find out what social media sites your consumers are hanging out often. Join the social
networking site(s).

Familiarize yourself with the culture and language of the social networking sites you are
joining or have joined.

Upload optimized content that allows you to (1) attract your target audience, (2) build
rapport with them, and (3) engage your audience.

Increase the engagement of your audience and maintain your interactive communication
with them. You can do this through:

Consistent uploading of content that is relevant to your audience’s needs and wants- if
your audience can relate to your content, they are most likely to like, share, and comment.
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 Make your content responsive. Your audience should be able to access and view your
content irrespective of what device they use, e.g. pc or mobile devices.

Think of topics that interest your target audience. Start a discussion by posting your
questions on your social networking sites. You may also want to take advantage of poll
questions.

Use infographics. This new way of presenting information can do several things such as:
(1) add life to your content and make it more interesting, (2) make it simple for your target
audience to digest your content.

2ND C - Cost

The price of a product or service is the amount you set for the item/s the customers/consumers
will get from your business. This is from the business’s point of view.
Shifting to the perspective of your customers/consumers, the price becomes the cost. It
represents the amount your customers/consumers will pay for your product(s) or service(s).

Cost is a major factor that determines whether customers or consumers will buy or avail the
products or services. There is no standard formula for costing, but it depends largely on
customers/consumers.

Cost means you need to consider how much your customers/consumers are willing to pay for the
value of your offer (product or service). It also depends on the type of market you are targeting to
capture.

For instance, if your target is the A-B crowd, your product or service should carry premium costs.
If the market is C-D, costs must be lower. Thus, you have to know what type of customers you
wish to target.

For your ready reference, here are the three common types of consumers:
Status-conscious – These consumers want first-rate products or services and are
willing to pay for the cost of the item(s). They look at these products/services and
corresponding costs as a way to define and maintain their status.
Convenience-conscious – These consumers will pay for the cost of the product(s) or
services(s) if they find them convenient. They are willing to pay extra as long as their
purchase means convenience.
Budget- conscious – These consumers buy products or services that fit their budget.
They are the people who want more value for their money. Thus, they are always on the
lookout for lower-cost product(s) or service(s).

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3RD C - Consumer Value
Your marketing campaigns must focus on bringing value to your consumers/customers. You may
want to follow these tactics to create more value for your customers/consumers:

Address the needs and wants of your customers / consumers, and minimize the cost of your
solution.

Unify your goals of (a) generating income or making money from your business, and (b)
delivering high value to your customers/consumers.

Be proactive in delivering solutions to your customers/consumers. Become their partners in

writing their own successes.

Speed up your turnaround time. Increase the efficiency of the delivery of your services or
products.

Always show your appreciation to your loyal customers/consumers. One way to do this is to
feature them in your social media pages.

Listen to customer/consumer feedback. Whether the feedback is negative or positive, you’ll be

able to use it to improve your business.

Apply the standard formula on how to create customer/consumer value, which is “benefits-cost=
customer value”.

Strengthen your customer service with a goal of delighting your customers. How you
delight/satisfy your customers is what matters.

Give more to your customers/consumers. Your three options:

1. Give them the same quantity/quality of product/service but lower the cost.
2. Keep the same cost, but increase the quantity or improve the quality of your
product/service.
3. The ideal is increase/improve the quantity/quality while lowering the cost.

4TH C – Convenience

These days, people decide in favor of buying based on convenience. Thus, you will notice that
practically all businesses have started to create their online presence.

Using the marketing mix 4c’s, convenience means that you make it easy, simple, and fast for
your customers to avail of your product(s) or service(s). You provide them everything they need
to buy from your business.

Thus, it is important to:

Simplify the process your customers have to go through in doing business with you.
Make your customers feel good about complying with your business process.

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 Consider rewarding your customers for complying with your business process and for
their loyalty to your business.

Always seek new ways to connect with your customers/consumers and to

distribute/deliver your product(s) or service(s).

Your goal should be the convenience of your customers/consumers in availing or buying

from your business. This will prevent your customers from seeking convenient solutions
elsewhere, especially from the competition.
4Ps

1st P - Promotion

The marketing communication strategies and techniques all fall under the promotion heading.
These may include advertising, sales promotions, special offers and public relations. Whatever
the channel used, it is necessary for it to be suitable for the product, the price and the end user
it is being marketed to. It is important to differentiate between marketing and promotion.
Promotion is just the communication aspect of the entire marketing function.

2nd P - Price

Price covers the actual amount the end user is expected to pay for a product. How a product is
priced will directly affect how it sells. This is linked to what the perceived value of the product is
to the customer rather than an objective costing of the product on offer. If a product is priced
higher or lower than its perceived value, then it will not sell. This is why it is imperative to
understand how a customer sees what you are selling. If there is a positive customer value, than
a product may be successfully priced higher than its objective monetary value. Conversely, if a
product has little value in the eyes of the consumer, then it may need to be underpriced to sell.
Price may also be affected by distribution plans, value chain costs and markups and how
competitors price a rival product.

3rd P - Product

The product is either a tangible good or an intangible service that is seem to meet a specific
customer need or demand. All products follow a logical product life cycle and it is vital for
marketers to understand and plan for the various stages and their unique challenges. It is key to
understand those problems that the product is attempting to solve. The benefits offered by the
product and all its features need to be understood and the unique selling proposition of the product
need to be studied. In addition, the potential buyers of the product need to be identified and
understood.

4th P - Place

Place or placement has to do with how the product will be provided to the customer. Distribution
is a key element of placement. The placement strategy will help assess what channel is the most
suited to a product. How a product is accessed by the end user also needs to compliment the rest
of the product strategy.

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 4As

Accessibility

Accessibility reverses the view on Place in the 5P’s and refers to ease and usability.
Accessibility also follows two dimensions:
Availability - This refers to the supply side. For example, we have all experienced the
desire to buy something only to discover that it is on back- order and not currently available.
Convenience– This refers to the prospect’s ability to make a purchase and take
delivery. Can I buy it only in stores or can I buy in online? For example, I like Coke products
which I can buy in bottles at the store, in vending machines, and often at my favorite
restaurant.

Affordability
Affordability reverses the view on Price in the 5P’s and refers to the ability and a
prospects willingness to pay for the product or services at a specific price. Affordability,
therefore, follows two dimensions:

Ability- This refers to the prospect’s economic ability to make the purchase.

For example, a person may want to buy an item on QVC or the HSN but can’t afford it
until they offer six easy payments.

Willingness – This refers to psychological affordability. A person might be able to pay for
a product or service but are they willing to make the purchase? A person’s willingness to pay
may be tied to their perception of the value they have, or it may also be tied to how it will make
them feel or fit in with their peer group. For example, I see few oil field workers driving a Nissan
LEAF or a Chevy Bolt since everyone in the oil field drives tricked out trucks.

Acceptability

Acceptability reverses the view on Product in the 5P’s and refers to the product or services
ability to meet the expectations of the prospect, and follows two dimensions:

Functional – This is the engineering that goes into a product or service to make it
more usable. For example, you may offer a larger box of cereal but if it is too tall to fit
into the common height between cupboard shelves the product will likely be
relegated to a place such as below the sink, where it will be out of sight and out of
mind.

Psychological – This is the more subjective attributes of the product or service. For
example, is your product or service associated with a luxury brand and therefore
attractive to status seekers or is it associated with low price to be attractive to
bargain hunters?

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Awareness

Awareness reverses the view on Promotion in the 5P’s and refers to how the prospect learns
about your product or service in the first place. As with all the other A’s, awareness follows two
dimensions:

Brand – This refers to the prospect’s awareness of the actual product or serviceand
the reputation they associate with it. For example, a brand like Publix or Giant Eagle
are large supermarket chains that have a brand that is more regional whileWal-Mart
or McDonald’s are global brands.

Product – This refers to the prospect’s ability to know how to use or apply the
product. For example, a prospect may be aware of a pharmaceutical drug like Eliquis
as a drug that treats A-Fib, but many patients with A-Fib are not aware how Eliquis
compares to other similar A-Fib drugs like Xarelto or Warfarin.

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 MODULE 12
MARKETING PRODUCTS 4

COMPLIMENTARY TOOLS TO REMEMBER IN PRODUCT MARKETING

THE 7Ps OF MARKETING MIX

Once you've developed your marketing strategy, there is a "Seven P Formula" you should use to
continually evaluate and reevaluate your business activities. These seven are: product, price,
promotion, place, packaging, positioning and people. As products, markets, customers and needs
change rapidly, you must continually revisit these seven Ps to make sure you're on track and
achieving the maximum results possible for you in today's marketplace.

Product
Product refers to what you are selling, including all of the features, advantages and benefits that
your customers can enjoy from buying your goods or services. When marketing your product, you
need to think about the key features and benefits your customers want or need, including (but not
limited to) styling, quality, repairs, and accessories.

Promotion
These are the promotional activities you use to make your customers aware of your products
and services, including advertising, sales tactics, promotions and direct marketing. Generally
these are referred to as marketing tactics.

Price
This refers to your pricing strategy for your products and services and how it will affect your
customers. You should identify how much your customers are prepared to pay, how much mark-
up you need to cater for overheads, your profit margins and payment methods, and other costs.
To attract customers and retain your competitive advantage, you may also wish to consider the
possibility of discounts and seasonal pricing.

Place
Place is where your products and services are seen, made, sold or distributed. Access for
customers to your products is key and it is important to ensure that customers can find you.

You can set yourself apart from your competition through the design of your retail space and by
using effective visual merchandising techniques. If you are not a retail business, place is still an
important part of your marketing. Your customers may need a quick delivery turnaround, or want
to buy locally manufactured products.

If you are starting a new business, finding the right business location will be a key marketing tactic.

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Assessment:
Homework 5: Identify which of the following attributes best describes the questions asked.
Choose among the 4Cs, 4Ps and 4As. One guide question has more than one answer. Place a
check on the box pf your choice then explain the reason of your choice.

4Cs 4Ps 4As

C Pro Pl
Cons os Commu Conve Prom Pri duc ac Access Afford Accept Awar
Guide Questions umer t nication nience otion ce t e ibility ability ability eness
Do you have an informative and easy-to-navigate
website in place?
Does the communication answer questions the
customer may have such as, ‘What’s in it for me?’
Has there been adequate research to determine this
amount?

How do you plan to remove these barriers?

If you sell online, are the purchase, payment and
fulfillment processes secure and intuitive?

Is the customer driving all decision making?

Is the figure profitable for the company?

Is the link between this communication and resulting
customer confidence and sales understood?
Is the value of the product to the customer enough to
support all the costs?

Is the website optimized for mobile use?

Is there a communication plan in place to ensure
meaningful customer dialogue?
Is there a plan to adapt communications to each of
the target markets?
Is there a social media strategy planned to both
promote a product and gather customer insights?

Is there adequate customer support in place?

Is this figure reasonable and affordable?

Is your product available to buy through multiple
channels?
What are potential barriers a customer may face in
locating and purchasing a service?

What are their needs and wants?

What considerations apart from price will encourage
a customer to buy?

What is the price you mean to charge the customer?

What is the product or service worth to the
consumer?
What is the total cost that a customer will incur when
acquiring the product?

What is the competitive advantage?

Who is/are the most appropriate target customer(s)?

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