Characteristics of

Measurement and Instruments

1 Dr. R.K.Mugelan, Asst. Prof. (Sr), SENSE, VIT

Performance characteristics

The performance characteristics of an instrument are mainly

divided into two categories:

 Static characteristics
 Dynamic characteristics

2 Dr. R.K.Mugelan, Asst. Prof. (Sr), SENSE, VIT

Static characteristics
 The set of criteria defined for the instruments, which are used
to measure the quantities which are slowly varying with time
or mostly constant, i.e., do not vary with time, is called static
characteristics
 The various static characteristics are:
1. Accuracy
2. Precision
3. Sensitivity
4. Linearity
5. Reproducibility
6. Repeatability

3 Dr. R.K.Mugelan, Asst. Prof. (Sr), SENSE, VIT

Static characteristics
7. Resolution
8. Threshold
9. Drift
10. Stability
11. Tolerance
12. Range or span

4 Dr. R.K.Mugelan, Asst. Prof. (Sr), SENSE, VIT

Accuracy
 It is the degree of closeness with which the reading approaches the
true value of the quantity to be measured. The accuracy can be
expressed in following ways:
Point accuracy:
 Such an accuracy is specified at only one particular point of scale. It
does not give any information about the accuracy at any other point
on the scale
Accuracy as percentage of scale span
 When an instrument as uniform scale, its accuracy may be expressed
in terms of scale range
Accuracy as percentage of true value
 The best way to conceive the idea of accuracy is to specify it in
terms of the true value of the quantity being measured
5 Dr. R.K.Mugelan, Asst. Prof. (Sr), SENSE, VIT
Precision
 It is the measure of repeatability i.e., given a fixed value of a quantity
 Precision is a measure of the degree of agreement within a group of
measurements.The precision is composed of two characteristics:
Conformity
 Consider a resistor having true value as 2385692 Ω , which is being
measured by an ohmmeter. But the reader can read consistently, a
value as 2.4 M due to the non-availability of proper scale. The error
created due to the limitation of the scale reading is a precision error.
Number of significant figures
 The precision of the measurement is obtained from the number of
significant figures, in which the reading is expressed. The significant
figures convey the actual information about the magnitude & the
measurement precision of the quantity.

6 Dr. R.K.Mugelan, Asst. Prof. (Sr), SENSE, VIT

Precision

7 Dr. R.K.Mugelan, Asst. Prof. (Sr), SENSE, VIT

Accuracy vs. Precision

Low precision High precision High precision

Low accuracy Low accuracy High accuracy

8 Dr. R.K.Mugelan, Asst. Prof. (Sr), SENSE, VIT

Sensitivity
 The sensitivity denotes the smallest change in the measured
variable to which the instrument responds
 It is defined as the ratio of the changes in the output of an
instrument to a change in the value of the quantity to be
measured
 Mathematically it is expressed as,

9 Dr. R.K.Mugelan, Asst. Prof. (Sr), SENSE, VIT

Sensitivity

Variation of the physical variables

10 Dr. R.K.Mugelan, Asst. Prof. (Sr), SENSE, VIT

Sensitivity
 If the calibration curve is linear, as shown in Fig.(a), the
sensitivity of the instrument is the slope of the calibration
curve
 If the calibration curve is not linear as shown Fig.(b), then the
sensitivity varies with the input

11 Dr. R.K.Mugelan, Asst. Prof. (Sr), SENSE, VIT

Sensitivity
 Inverse sensitivity or deflection factor is defined as the
reciprocal of sensitivity

12 Dr. R.K.Mugelan, Asst. Prof. (Sr), SENSE, VIT

Sensitivity to Disturbance
Hysteresis
 This is an effect of
producing different
readings when the
measured quantity is
approached from above
or below
 Instrument will not have the
same output for the same
input in repeated trials
 It may be the result of
mechanical friction, or
thermal effects

13 Dr. R.K.Mugelan, Asst. Prof. (Sr), SENSE, VIT

Linearity
 Linearity is defined as the ability to reproduce the input
characteristics symmetrically and linearly
 Maximum deviation of an output reading from the straight line
 The output of an instrument has to be linearly proportionate
to the measured quantity
 Normally shown in the form of full scale(fs) percentage (% fs).

14 Dr. R.K.Mugelan, Asst. Prof. (Sr), SENSE, VIT

 Linearity
Output
Readings

Measured Quantity

15 Dr. R.K.Mugelan, Asst. Prof. (Sr), SENSE, VIT

Reproducibility
Reproducibility
 It is the degree of closeness with which a given value may be
repeatedly measured. It is specified in terms of scale readings
over a given period of time
 At the same place
 By the same person
 By the same Method
 On the same equipment
 Over short period of time.

16 Dr. R.K.Mugelan, Asst. Prof. (Sr), SENSE, VIT

Repeatability
Repeatability
 It is the closeness of measured values between measurements
of the same thing carried out in different conditions.
 At the different place
 By the different person
 By the different method
 On the different equipment
 At the different time

17 Dr. R.K.Mugelan, Asst. Prof. (Sr), SENSE, VIT

Drift
 The drift is the gradual shift of the instrument indication, over an
extended period during which the value of the input variable does
not change
 Drift may be classified into three categories:
Zero drift
 If the whole calibration gradually shifts due to slippage, permanent
set, or due to undue warming up of electronic tube circuits, zero
drift sets in

18 Dr. R.K.Mugelan, Asst. Prof. (Sr), SENSE, VIT

Drift
Span drift or sensitivity drift
 The amount by which an instrument’s sensitivity of
measurement varies with ambient condition is called span drift
or sensitivity drift
Zonal drift
 In case the drift occurs only a portion of span of an instrument,
it is called zonal drift

19 Dr. R.K.Mugelan, Asst. Prof. (Sr), SENSE, VIT

Resolution & Threshold
Resolution
 If the input is slowly increased from some arbitrary input value,
it will again be found that output does not change at all until a
certain increment is exceeded
 The smallest change in input reading that can be traced
accurately.This increment is called resolution
Threshold
 If the instrument input is increased very gradually from zero
there will be some minimum value below which no output
change can be detected. This minimum value defines the
threshold of the instrument

20 Dr. R.K.Mugelan, Asst. Prof. (Sr), SENSE, VIT

Stability, Tolerance & Range of span
Stability
 It is the ability of an instrument to retain its performance
throughout is specified operating life
Tolerance
 The maximum allowable error in the measurement is specified
in terms of some value which is called tolerance
Range or span
 The minimum & maximum values of a quantity for which an
instrument is designed to measure is called its range or span
 The range of an instrument –100°C to 100 °C and span is 200
°C.

21 Dr. R.K.Mugelan, Asst. Prof. (Sr), SENSE, VIT

Dynamic characteristics

 The set of criteria defined for the instruments, which changes

rapidly with time is called dynamic characteristics
 Explains the behaviour system of instruments system when the
input signal is changed.
 Standard signals of Instrumentation system
Dynamic behavior of measurement systems can be
studied with the help of certain standard signals, such as ‘step
input’,‘ramp input’ and ‘sine-wave input’.

22 Dr. R.K.Mugelan, Asst. Prof. (Sr), SENSE, VIT

Dynamic characteristics
Step Input
 Sudden change in input signal from steady state.
 The output signal for this kind of input is known as ‘transient
response’.
Input

Time

23 Dr. R.K.Mugelan, Asst. Prof. (Sr), SENSE, VIT

Dynamic characteristics
Ramp Input
 The signal changes linearly.
 The output signal for ramp input is ‘ramp response’.

Input

Time

24 Dr. R.K.Mugelan, Asst. Prof. (Sr), SENSE, VIT

Dynamic characteristics
Sine-wave Input
 The signal is harmonic.
 The output signal is ‘frequency response’.

Input

Time

25 Dr. R.K.Mugelan, Asst. Prof. (Sr), SENSE, VIT

Dynamic characteristics

 The various dynamic characteristics are:

1. Speed of response
2. Measuring lag
3. Fidelity
4. Dynamic error

26 Dr. R.K.Mugelan, Asst. Prof. (Sr), SENSE, VIT

Speed of response
 Response time: Time elapsed
between an input applied and the
time in which the system gives an
output corresponding to some
specified percentage, e.g. 95%, of its
final value
 Rise time: Time taken for the output
to rise to some specified percentage
of the steady-state output.
 Settling time: This is the time taken for
the output to settle to within some
percentage, e.g. 2%, of the steady-state
value

27 Dr. R.K.Mugelan, Asst. Prof. (Sr), SENSE, VIT

Measuring Lag
Measuring Lag
 An instrument does not immediately react a change in output
 Measuring Lag is defined as the delay in the response of an
instrument to a change in a Measuring quantity.
Two types of Measuring Lag
Retardation type:
 In this case the response of the instrument begins immediately
after a change in the measured has occurred.
Time Delay type:
 In this case the response of the system begins after a “Dead
Time” that means after applying the input.

28 Dr. R.K.Mugelan, Asst. Prof. (Sr), SENSE, VIT

Fidelity

 Fidelity of a measurement system is defined as the ability of the

system to reproduce the output in the same variation of the
input.
 In Fidelity measurement system , there is no time lag or Phase
shift between the input and output
 The changes in the input has to be reproduced without any
dynamic errors.

29 Dr. R.K.Mugelan, Asst. Prof. (Sr), SENSE, VIT

Dynamic error

Dynamic error
 It is the difference between the true value of the quantity
changing with time & the value indicated by the measurement
system if no static error is assumed.
 It is also called measurement error

30 Dr. R.K.Mugelan, Asst. Prof. (Sr), SENSE, VIT