Unit-I Basics of Computer Graphics

1. Introduction to Computer Graphics

Computer graphics displays information in the form of graphics objects as windows, graphs, diagrams
etc. Thus, computer graphics express data in pictorial form.
In computer graphics objects are represented as collection of pixels, where pixel is smallest
addressable point which can be displayed on screen. Pixel can be displayed on screen by setting its
intensity and color.
A broad classification of major subfields in computer graphics might be:
1. Geometry: Studies ways to represent and process surfaces.
2. Animation: Studies with ways to represent and manipulate motion.
3. Rendering: Studies algorithms to reproduce light transport.
4. Imaging: Studies image acquisition or image editing.

2. Image and Object

An image is basically representation of a real world object on a computer. It can be an actual picture
display, a stored page in a video memory, or a source code generated by a program.
Mathematically, an image is a two dimensional array of data with intensity or a color value at each
element of the array. In simple term, an image is defined by pixels.
Object are real world entities defined in three dimensional world co-ordinates.

3. Pixel and Resolution

3.1. Pixel
Pixel stands for picture element. A pixel is the smallest piece of information in an image.
In computer graphics objects are represented as collection of pixels, where pixel is smallest
addressable point which can be displayed on screen.
Pixel can be displayed on screen by setting its intensity and color.
3.2. Resolution
It is expressed in terms of the number of pixels on the horizontal axis and the number on the vertical
axis.
In pixel resolution, the term resolution refers to the total no. of count of pixels in an digital image.

For example, if an has M rows and N columns, then its resolution can be defined as M X N.

4. Text mode and Graphics Mode

There are basically two types of graphics modes namely, Text mode, and Graphics mode.
There are different graphics functions available in these two modes useful for drawing different
effective texts and different types of geometric shapes.

4.1. Text Mode

In text mode, a display screen is divided into rows and columns of boxes. Each can contain one
character. Text mode is also called character mode.
All video standards support a text mode that divides the screen into 25 rows and 80 columns.
 Text mode is also known as Character mode or Alphanumeric mode.

4.1.1. Text mode graphics function

1) Window( ):- This function specifies a window on screen. The four integer co-ordinates of the window
are passed as parameters to this function.
Syntax- window(left, top, right, bottom);
2) putch( ): It displays a single character at cursor position.

Syntax – putch( char);

Example- putch(‘A’);
Displays character A at specified cursor position.
3) clrscr( ): It clears the entire screen and locates the cursor in top left corner of screen i.e(1,1).

Syntax – clrscr( );
4) gotoxy( ): It positions the cursor to the specified location on screen, where location is specified by x, y
co-ordinates of the point.

Syntax – gotoxy(x, y);

Where x, y are co-ordinates of a point where cursor is to be positioned.
Example: gotoxy(3, 4);
It positions cursor to 3rd row, 4th column.

5) puts( ): It display string at cursor position.

Syntax – puts(s1);
Where, s1 is string to be displayed at specified cursor position. For puts( ) and putch( ) functions, gotoxy(
) can be used.
Example: gotoxy(3, 4);
puts(“Hello”);
gotoxy(10,10);
putch(‘A’)
Here, Hello is displayed starting from the position 3,4 and ‘A’ is displayed at 10,10.
6) textcolor( ): It sets the colour for the text. Any text displayed after this command will be displayed in
a colour specified by this command. The supported colours are numbered from 0 to 15.
Colour constant Colour name
0 BLACK
1 BLUE
2 GREEN
3 CYAN
4 RED
5 MAGENTA
6 BROWN
7 LIGHT GRAY
8 DARK GRAY
9 LIGHT BLUE
10 LIGHT GREEN
11 LIGHT CYAN
12 LIGHT RED
13 LIGHT MAGNETA
14 YELLOW
15 WHITE
128 BLINK
Syntax: textcolor (color);
Example: textcolor(‘GREEN’);
Is equivalent to
int col= 2;
textcolor(col);
Above both codes displays subsequent texts in green colour.
7) deline( ): It delets a line specified by cursor position. After deletion, all subsequent lines will be
pushed up by one line.

Syntax: deline( );

Example: gotoxy(8, 4);

delline( );
Above statement delets 8th line.
8) inline( ): It inserts a blank line at current cursor position.

Syntax: inline( );
Example : gotoxy(8, 4);
inline( );
It inserts a line at 8th row.
9) textbackgroud( ): It changes background colour of text. The valid colour for CGA(Color Graphics
Adapter) are from 0 to 6. They are:
Constant Colour Name

0 BLACK
1 BLUE
2 GREEN
3 CYAN
4 RED
5 MAGENTA
6 BROWN

Syntax: textbackground(color);
Example : int col = 4
textbackground(col);
It sets text’s background colour to red
10) moveto( ): It moves cursor to the location specified by int(x, y) co- ordinates.

Syntax: moveto(x, y);

11) outtextxy( ): (“sentence”)

OR
Outtextxy(x, y, “sentence”)
Where, x, y gives co-ordinates of a point where from to display text.
It displays text within quotation mark at specified position and with latest setcolour style.
6. Bitmap and vector based Graphics
Computer graphics can be classified into two categories namely, Raster or Bitmap graphics and vector
graphics.
6.1.Bitmap Graphics(Raster Graphics):
It is pixel based graphics.
Bitmap images (also known as raster images) are made up of pixels in a grid. Pixels are picture
elements (tiny squares of individual color that make up what you see on your screen.). All these tiny
square of color come together to form the images you see.
Bitmap images are resolution dependent.
6.2.Vector based Graphics(Vector Graphics):
The images in vector Graphics are basically mathematically based images. Unlike bitmaps, vector
images are not based on pixel patterns, but instead use mathematical formulas to draw lines and curves
that can be combined to create an image.
Vector based images have smooth edges and therefore used to create curves and shapes. Vector images
are edited by manipulating the lines and curves that make up the image using a program.
7. Applications of computer graphics
Now a days computer Graphics is used in variety of field ranging from daily routing activities to very
high end specialized areas.
Some of major applications of computer graphics are listed below
1. Computer Aided Design/ Drafting(CAD/CADD)
2. Geographical information system(GIS).
3. Desktop publishing(DTP)
4. Graphical User Interface(GUI)
5. Digital Art.
6. Entertainment.
7. Image Processing
8. Education and training
9. Presentation Graphics, Scientific and Engineering Graphics
10. Medical applications.
11. Communication.
12. Simulation
8. Display devices:
Display device is a device used for presentation of information such as image or text for visual
purpose. i.e to display information.
8.1. Raster Scan Display:
In a raster scan system, the electron beam is swept across the screen, one row at a time from top to
bottom. As the electron beam moves across each row, the beam intensity is turned on and off to create a
pattern of illuminated spots.

Picture definition is stored in memory area called the Refresh Buffer or Frame Buffer. This memory
area holds the set of intensity values for all the screen points. Stored intensity values are then retrieved
from the refresh buffer and “painted” on the screen one row (scan line) at a time as shown in the
following illustration.

Each screen point is referred to as a pixel (picture element) or pel. At the end of each scan line, the
electron beam returns to the left side of the screen to begin displaying the next scan line.

8.2 Random Scan (Vector Scan)

In this technique, the electron beam is directed only to the part of the screen where the picture is to be
drawn rather than scanning from left to right and top to bottom as in raster scan. It is also called vector
display, stroke-writing display, or calligraphic display.
Picture definition is stored as a set of line-drawing commands in an area of memory referred to as the
refresh display file. To display a specified picture, the system cycles through the set of commands in the
display file, drawing each component line in turn. After all the line-drawing commands are processed, the
system cycles back to the first line command in the list.
Random-scan displays are designed to draw all the component lines of a picture 30 to 60 times each
second.

8.3. Flat panel display:

The term flat panel display refers to a class of video device that have reduced volume, weight and
power requirement as compared to CRT.
 Flat panel display devices are very thinner than CRT. These display devices have low volume, weight
and power requirement as compared to CRT. The many variants of flat panel displays determine the
resolution and quality of picture.
The main two types of flat panel display are Emissive display and Non- Emissive Display.
1. Emissive Display: These devices convert electrical energy into light. For example, Devices –
PLASMA PANELS, LIGHT EMITTING DIODES (LED) etc.
2. Non- Emissive Display: They use optical effects to convert sunlight or light from some other source
into graphics patterns. For example, Liquid Crystal Device (LCD) and Laser Scan Display.

8.4 Plasma Panels

Plasma panels also referred as gas-discharge display.
It consist of two sheets of glass with thin and closed spaced gold electrodes attached to inner faces and
covered with dielectric material.
These are attached as series of vertical conductors on other glass plate. The space between two glass
plate, is filled with neon based gas and is sealed.
By applying voltage between electrodes the gas within panel is divided into tiny cells and each cell is
independent of its neighbours.

8.5. Light emitting diodes

LED is a semiconductor that illuminates when an electrical charge passes through it.
In this display a matrix of multi-color light emitting diode is arranged to form the pixel position in the
display. And the picture definition is stored in refresh buffer.
Similar to scan line refreshing of CRT information is read from the refresh buffer and converted to
voltage levels that are applied to the diodes to produce the light pattern on the display.
A light emitting diode is made up of a semiconductor chip which is surrounded by a transparent plastic
case. The plastic case allows the light to pass though it.
The emission of different colors including ultraviolet and infrared light depends on the semiconductor
material which is used in the diode.
8.5.1. Advantages of LED
1. Low power consumption.
2. Better and sharper screen resolution.
8.5.2. Disadvantages of LED
1. High price.

8.6. LCD Display

LCD is a flat panel display, electronic visual display, or video display that uses the light modulating
properties of liquid crystals.
This display use nematic (thread like) liquid crystal compounds that tend to keep the long axes of rod
shaped molecules aligned. These nematic compounds have crystalline arrangement of molecules, yet they
flow like a liquid and hence termed as Liquid Crystal Display.
The LCD shows three types of mesophase i.e, Smectic , Nematic (thread like) and Cholestric. In Mematic
phase, the long axis of liquid crystal molecules align parallel to each other. The alignment direction is
sensitive to temperature, surface tension, pressure and electric and magnetic fields. The optical
characteristics of Liquid crystal are also sensitive to these effects.
There are two types of LCD displays namely Active Matrix LCD and Passive Marix LCD.

8.6.1. Advantages of LCD

1. Light weight
2. Small size
3. The consumption of power is low
4. Low cost.
8.6.2. Disadvantages of LCD
1. Low reliability
2. Speed is slow
8.7. Touch Screen
It is an input technology. A touch screen is a computer display screen that is sensitive to human touch.
A touch screen is a display device that allows the user to interact with a computer by using their finger.
Touch screens are used on a variety of devices such as computer and laptop monitors, smartphones,
tablets etc.

A touch screen may contain pictures or words that the user can touch to interact with the device.
A touch has two main advantages
1. It allows users to interact directly with what is displayed.
2. It does not require the use of an intermediate device.
The three main technologies are explained below:
8.7.1. Resistive:
This screen has a thin metallic layer that is conductive and resistive, so that touching results in a
change in the electrical current sent to the controller.
8.7.2. Surface Acoustic Wave(SAW)
Ultrasonic waves pass over this screen. Touching it results in absorption of part of the wave,
registering the position of the touch, which is sent to the controller.
8.7.3. Capacitive
This screen is coated with an electrically charged material. Touching it causes a change in capacitance,
which allows the location to be determined and sent to the controller.’
9. Output Primitives
Graphics primitives are the functions that we use to draw actual lines and the characters that make up
the picture. These functions provide convenient method to application programmer for describing
pictures.
9.1. Point: Plots a single pixel on screen.

Attributes: x, y, co-ordinate position, color.

For example, consider following command
Putpixel(x, y, color); It displays pixel at x,y, co-ordinate position in given color.
9.2. Line: It draws a straight line.

Attributes: Line type, width, color, cap etc.

For example, consider following command.
lineto(x, y): It draws a straight line from current beam position to the point(x, y).
Line( x1,y1, x2,y2): It draws a straight line form (x1, y1) co –ordinate position to (x2, y2) position.
setlineType(parameter);
setLineWidth(parameter);
setLineColor(parameter);
9.3.Text: Draws a string of characters.
Attributes: font, color, siz, spacing, orientation, height, width.
Font example,
Type (Helvetica, times, courier etc.)
Size (10pt, 14 pt, etc)
Style (bold, italic, underlined)

For example, consider following command:

TEXT(X, Y, STRING)
Where (X, Y) is the text position and STRING is a string of characters.
setTextFont(parameter);
setTextColor(parameter);
9.4.Polygons:
A set of line segments joined end to end. Some graphics device supports polygon drawing approach,
where directly basic polygon shapes are drawn. So here one polygon is saved as one unit.
Standards command for drawing triangle (polygon) could be,

Triangle (x1, y1, x2, y2, x3, y3 )

Where,
(x1,y1), (x2,y2) and (x3, y3) are co ordinates of three vertices of triangle and thus supports, direct
polygon drawing commands.
Consider the following command:
drawpoly(x[ ], y[ ], n);
where, x[ ] is array of x co-ordinate of all line segment end points, y[ ] is array of y co-ordinates of all
line segment end points. N is number of corners of polygon +1.
9.5.Marker:
It draws a specified symbol at given co-ordinated position in different color and different sizes. We can
select a particular character to be a marker symbol.

Attributes: marker type, size color etc.

For example, consider following command:
drawmarker(x[ ], y[ ], n); which is as drawpoly. Instead of drawing a polygon it will draw symbols on
polygon edges.
setPolymarkerSize( );
setPolymarkerType( );
for example,
setPolymarkerType(‘*’); It will draw * symbol all round polygon edges.

10. Graphics Functions and Standards.

10.1. Graphics mode and Graphics mode function
Graphics mode is a computer display mode that displays image using pixels.
In graphics mode, the display screen is treated as an array of pixels. Programs that run in graphics
mode can display an unlimited variety of shapes and fonts.
10.1.1. Basic Graphics Mode functions:
1. initgraph( ): It is used to initialise graphics mode.
Syntax: initgraph( int driver, int mode, char path);
Where,
driver: This argument specifies the graphics driver to be used and it interfaces with display adapter,
some of available drivers are CGA, EGA, VGA etc.
mode: Each graphic adapter can use several different possible graphics modes. The mode argument is
used to select particular mode. Following table shows different possible modes for CGA, VGA, EGA etc.

Note:- CGA- Computer Graphics Adapter

VGA- Video Graphics Adapter
EGA- Enhanced Graphics Adapter
path: It specifies path to graphics driver. Graphics drivers are files with BGI(Borland Graphics
Adapter) file extension supplies as part of Turbo C++. The path name is string therefore it must be
surrounded by quotes.

Example: initgraph(&gd, &gm, “c:\\tc\\bgi”);

int gm, gd= DETECT
Where, gd- specifies graphics driver
gm- specifies graphics driver
“c:\\tc\\bgi”- specifies paths of BGI files.
DETECT- is micro which automatically selects the driver.
2. closegraph( ):

It is used to close graphics mode.

Syntax: closegraph( );

Graphics Mode functions for Shape

Computer graphics has many inbuilt commands, which can be used either to draw a shape and /or for
filling a colour in any bounded shape.
1. lineto( ): This command draws a line on screen from current cursor positions to the(x, y) positions
mentioned in command.
Syntax- lineto(x, y);
Where, (x, y) are co-ordinates of end of line.
2. line( ): This command draws a line on screen.

Syntax: line(x1, y1, x2, y2);

Where, (x1, y1) are co-ordinates of starting point of line and (x2, y2) are co-ordinates of end point of
line.
Example :- line(10, 10, 100, 100);
It will draw a line from point (10, 10) to point (100, 100).
3. circle( ): This command draws a circle on screen.

Syntax: circle(x, y, r);

Where, (x, y) are co- ordinates of centre of circle and r is radius of circle.
Example :- circle (50, 50, 10);
It draws a circle with centre 50, 50 and radius 10.
4. rectangle( ): This command draws a line on screen.

Syntax: rectangle(x1, y1, x2, y2);

Where, (x1, y1) are co-ordinates of top left corner point of rectangle and (x2, y2) are co-ordinates of
bottom right corner point of rectangle.
Example :- rectangle(10, 10, 100, 100);
It will draw a rectangle as a top left corner is(10,10) & bottom right corner is(100,100).
5. ellipse( ): It draws an ellipse on screen.

Syntax: ellipse(x, y, start, end , xrad, yrad);

Where,
x, y are co ordinates of centre point.
start, end- starting and ending angle of ellipse.
xrad, yrad: x- axis and y-axis radius respectively.
For full ellipse, the start and end should be 0 to 360 else it will draw an arc on screen.
Example :- ellipse(100, 100, 0, 360, 20, 10);

6. drawpoly( ): It draws outline of polygon having specified number of sides.

Syntax: drawpoly(n, array);
Where,
n is number of vertices of a polygon +1.
Array is integer array name which stores co- ordinates of vertices of a polygon.
Example: To draw a triangle with drawpoly.
drawpoly(4, m);
where,
m is array which stores co –ordinates of vertices of a triangle.
10.2. Need for Standards
A good computer graphics system includes good software, as well as, a compatible hardware.
Both computer graphics vendors as well as users indentified some needs to have some graphics
standards.
The needs are as follows
1. Software portability.
2. Image data portability.
3. Text data portability.
4. Model database portability.
10.3. Standards for Computer Graphics
1. CORE (Core of a Graphics System)
2. GKS (Graphics kernel system)
3. IGES(Initial Graphics Exchange Specifications)
4. PHIGS(Programmer’s Hierarchical Interactive Graphics System)
5. CGM(Computer Graphics Metafile)
6. CGI(Computer Graphics Interface)
Latest trends in Computer Graphics:
1. Virtual Reality
Virtual reality means experience things though our computers that don’t
really exist. Virtual Reality (VR) literally makes it possible to experience
anything, anywhere , anytime. It is the most immersive type of reality
technology and can convince the human brain that it is somewhere it is really
not.
VR is able to immerse you in a computer generated world of your own
making: a room , a city the interior of human body.
1. Components of Virtual Reality System
1. Virtual world:- A virtual world is a three-dimensional environment that is
often, but not necessarily, realized through a medium where on can interact
with others. Two common types of immersion include.
a. Mental immersion- A deep mental state of engagement, with suspension of
disbelief that one is in a virtual environment.
b. Physical immersion: Exhibited physical engagement in a virtual
environment, with suspension of disbelief that one is in a virtual environment.
2. Virtual Reality Engine:- It is the main component of any VR system and it
consists of simulation engine and graphics engine.
a. Scene Database-
b. Graphic Engine-
c. Simulation Engine
d. User Interface(UI)
3. Interactive
4. Sensory feedback

2. Types of Virtual Reality

There are more than one approach to building virtual worlds and thus more
than one flavour of virtual reality.
1. Non- immersive- These simulations are the least immersion implementation
of virtual reality technology.
For example, an architect might build a detailed 3D model of a new building to
show to clients that can be explored on a desktop computer by moving a
mouse.
2. Fully –immersive simulations – provides the most immersive
implementation of virtual reality technology.
3. Semi immersive- These simulations provide a more immersive experience,
in which the user is partly but not fully immersed ina virtual envoirnment.

3. Devices used in virtual Reality System.

1. Console / Smartphone/Computer.
2. Head mounted display
3. Input devices
o Joysticks.
o Force balls/ tracking balls.
o Controller wands
o Data gloves
o Trackpads
o On- device control buttons
o Motion trackers/ bodysuits
o Treadmills
o Motion platforms

4. Applications
o Education
o Entertainment
o Industrial design and architecture
o Scientific visualization
o Medical field
2. Augmented Reality
Mixed Reality(Augmented Reality):
o The seamless merging of real space and virtual space.
o Integrate the computer generated virtual objects into the physical world
which become in a sense an equal part of our natural environment.
An AR system combined the real and the virtual in order to assist the user in
perform his task. So we can say that, an augmented(mixed) reality is a halfway
point between a non-immersive and fully immersive CR system.
Mobile devices like smartphones and tablets have put supercomputer power
in our hands and pockets. If we are wondering round the world, maybe visiting
a heritage site like the pyramids or a fascinating foreign city we have never
been to before, what we want is typically not virtual reality but an enhanced
experience of the exciting reality we can see in front of us. That’s the idea of
Augmented Reality(AR).

Types of Augmented Reality (Category)

1. Marker based.
2. Markerless
3. Projection based
4. Superimposition based