Marine Concrete

For marine concrete in the severe exposure zone

(tidal zone), controlled permeability liners (CPF) are
specified for the formwork to control water loss and
temperature differential between core/surface and
ambient.
From: Marine Concrete Structures, 2016

Related terms:

Concrete Structure, Corrosion, Geopolymer, Blast

Furnace Slag, Geopolymer Coating, Metakaolin,
Ordinary Portland Cement

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The durability of concrete for

marine construction
M. Thomas, in Marine Concrete Structures, 2016

6.6.1 Prescriptive approach

There are numerous prescriptive specifications for
marine concrete; such specifications may include
some or all of the following requirements:

• maximum w/b
• minimum cement content
• type of cement
• minimum depth of cover
• minimum air content (and possible other air-
void parameters)
• minimum concrete strength grade (it could be
argued that, technically, the strength is a
performance requirement)

A simple example of such a specification is the ACI

318 Building Code. Reinforced concrete exposed to
seawater is a C2 exposure class, but it also has to
meet the requirements for class S1 (moderate
sulphate resistance) and the requirements for F2 if
exposed to freezing and thawing in service. The
combinations of these requirements are as follows:

• w/b ≤ 0.40 (for C2)

• minimum cement content (NOT required in
ACI 318)
• cement: type MS (moderate sulphate-resistant
cement) or equivalent (for S1)
• cover ≥50 mm
• target air = 6% (for 20-mm aggregate)
• concrete strength ≥5000 psi (34.5 MPa)
There is no requirement in ACI 318 to use SCMs
despite the substantial reduction in chloride
penetration that is achievable through their use.
The Canadian Standard (CSA A23.1-2014) has
similar requirements, although there is a
performance requirement to achieve a ‘rapid
chloride permeability test, RCPT’ value of less than
1500 Coulombs within 91 days for a C1 exposure
class (note that the value is 1000 Coulombs for a C-
XL exposure class) (see Section 6.7 in this chapter
for a discussion of this test). It is extremely difficult
to meet this limit without using one or a
combination of SCMs.
EN206:2013 requires a maximum w/b ≤ 0.45, a
minimum cement content of 340 kg/m3, a
minimum air content of 4% (if freeze–thaw
resistance required), and a minimum strength class
of C34/45. However, the complementary British
Standard (BS 8500-1) provides multiple options by
allowing various combinations of cover depth,
cement type, w/b, strength class and minimum
cement content. Table 6.1 shows an example of the
options for exposure class XS3 (marine tidal zone).
For example, if a CEM I cement is used with 65-
mm cover, the remaining requirements are for a
strength class of C35/45, w/b ≤0.45, and cement
content ≥380 kg/m3. Reducing the cover depth to
55 mm results in higher strength class (C45/55),
lower w/b (≤0.35) and more cement content
(≥380 kg/m3). If a CEM IIIB cement (with 66–80%
slag) is used with 55-mm cover, the strength class
required is only C25/30, w/b ≤ 0.50 and cement
content ≥340 kg/m3 to take advantage of the low
permeability and high resistance to chloride-ion
penetration offered by the high slag content.

Table 6.1.
BS 8500-1 durability recommendations for
reinforced or prestressed elements with an
intended working life of at least 100 years in a
marine tidal zone (XS3 exposure class)

Strength class, maximum w/b and minimum

cement content (kg/m3) for specified cover
(mm) and 20-mm aggregate

Cover depth (mm) 45 50 55 60 65

→

Cement CEM 1, C45/55 C40/50

type IIA, IIB- 0.33, 0.40,
S, SRPC 380 380

IIB-V, C40/50 C35/45 C32/40 C28/35 C25/30

IIIA 0.35, 0.40, 0.45, 0.50, 0.55,
380 380 360 340 320

IIIB, C32/40 C28/35 C25/30 C25/30 C25/30

IVB-V 0.40, 0.45, 0.50, 0.50, 0.50,
380 360 340 340 340

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Design and specification of marine

concrete structures
P.E. Smith, in Marine Concrete Structures, 2016

3.4.4 Concrete admixtures and surface

treatments
A wide range of admixtures is available to enhance
and improve concrete performance, both during
placing and in its hardened state.
3.4.4.1 Plasticisers/superplasticisers
Plasticisers/superplasticisers (water-reducing
admixtures) fulfil an essential function, as they
enhance concrete workability while maintaining the
low binder/cement ratios needed for marine
concrete.
3.4.4.2 Corrosion inhibitors
Corrosion inhibitors serve to inhibit the action of
chlorides on the reinforcing steel and prolong the
time until the onset of corrosion. They may be
added to the concrete mix and infuse the entire
element, or be applied on the surface of an existing
element and penetrate in. Corrosion inhibitors are
useful in cases where it is not possible to achieve
full concrete cover on the reinforcement, or in
repair situations.
3.4.4.3 Pore filling admixtures
The hardened cement paste of concrete contains
voids and capillaries that are created by the excess
water in the paste, or lack of full hydration. These
voids contribute to the penetrability of the concrete
and allow water and chloride ions to penetrate.
Admixtures are available that are claimed to fill the
voids and thereby decrease the concrete
penetrability. This is meant to create ‘waterproof ’
concrete without the use of a surface liner or
increases the service life by slowing down chloride
and oxygen diffusion.
Some of the available products utilise a chemical
that is intended to react to form crystals that block
the voids. These products may be added to the mix
or applied afterwards onto the hardened concrete
surface.
3.4.4.4 Coatings
A wide variety of coatings are available to seal the
concrete surface and thereby inhibit the penetration
of chlorides and oxygen. These are mainly used for
concrete repair and rehabilitation, and their use for
new structures is not recommended. Almost
invariably, there are problems in marine structures
with these products peeling off the concrete
in time.
3.4.4.5 Anti-washout admixture
It is sometimes necessary to cast concrete or grout
underwater, and in such cases, the use of an anti-
washout admixture is advantageous. The admixture
increases the cohesion of the cement paste without
reduction of the workability and prevents washout
and separation of it from the aggregate by wave or
current water action or dispersion.

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Concrete durability of the new

Panama Canal
C. Andrade, ... M. Baz, in Marine Concrete
Structures, 2016

15.4 Concrete design philosophy and basis

Although the concrete on the existing canal is not
reinforced, the design for the new structure has
called for reinforcing steel as an anti-seismic
precaution. Two kinds of concrete were specified:
marine and standard concrete. The marine
concrete, which is that placed in the external
surfaces of the elements, had requirements that
were more stringent. The concrete had to be cast
on site and be capable of being pumped (Fig. 15.9,
left). The maximum w/c ratio allowed was 0.4.

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Figure 15.9. Left: pumping concrete; right: special

system for curing during 7 days.

The specification of the ACP required a 100-year

service life for the marine concrete in all members
and also to have a maximum of 1000-C criterion as
set out in ASTM C1202 (ASTM 1202, 2010). For the
100-year service life, there was no indication given
on how to demonstrate this, but calculations
regarding chloride penetration were required.
Cover depths larger than 75 mm were requested.
Additionally, temperature control requirements
were prescribed in order to have temperatures no
higher than 60°C in the centre of the elements,
thus avoiding thermal cracking. Curing times of
7 days were also prescribed (Fig. 15.9, right).
As mentioned, for the thermal control of the mixes
during casting, ice was incorporated into the
mixing water, and temperature control was
exercised using thermocouples in the fresh and
hardening concrete, together with theoretical
studies at the element size (Fig. 15.10).

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Figure 15.10. Left: measuring temperature of the

concrete mix in the conveyor belt. Middle: typical
temperatures measured by the thermocouples
embedded in the concrete. Right: simulation
program of the temperatures in the monolith
element.

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Introduction
M.G. Alexander, G. Nganga, in Marine Concrete
Structures, 2016

1.2.2 Mass transport processes in concrete in

marine environments
Chapter ‘Deterioration of concrete in the marine
environment’ in this book gives a description of
mass transport processes in concrete in the marine
environment. A useful summary is given in Fig. 1.2
(BS 6349, 2000), which shows the influence of
seawater on a marine concrete earth-retaining
structure also subjected to seawater on one face.
The range of transport mechanisms shown in the
figure is very varied: permeation, diffusion, wick
action, capillary absorption, and convection due to
evaporation. Together, these all represent a very
severe environment for a concrete structure. The
most severe attack of seawater on concrete tends to
occur just above the level of high tide due to
wetting and drying cycles, salt deposition and
crystalization, and sufficient access of oxygen to any
embedded reinforcing steel to cause corrosion.
Fig. 1.2 indicates that all of these transport
processes may act simultaneously on a given
marine concrete structure, and in general, their
effects will be cumulative. This again illustrates the
severity of the marine environment.

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Mortar, plaster, and render

Jeremy P. Ingham BSc (Hons), MSc, DipRMS,
CEng, MInstNDT, EurGeol, CGeol, CSci, FGS,
FRGS, MIAQP, in Geomaterials Under the
Microscope, 2013

INTRODUCTION
Specialist mortars have been developed for a variety
of particular circumstances including concrete
repair, grouting, tiling, mortar jointing, stone filler,
sprayed concrete, self-levelling floor finishes, and
water-leak stoppers. These tend to be complicated
premixed formulations containing multiple
ingredients that are manufactured using
confidential mix designs. It is often impossible to
obtain exact compositional information from
manufacturers and the analysis of these materials
presents considerable challenges.
The composition of specialist mortars may include
any combination of the following ingredients:

• Cement: Sometimes more than one cement is

used and may include special types of cement.
Mixtures of calcium aluminate cement and
Portland cement are sometimes used in
applications where rapid setting and hardening
properties are required, e.g. in repairs to airport
runways, marine concrete repair in the tidal
zones, and in water-leak sealing. An alternative
would be to include rapid hardening cement,
which is similar in chemical composition to
ordinary Portland cement except that it is more
finely ground. For decorative applications such
as tiling, mortars may contain white Portland
cement or white calcium aluminate cement to
give a white/cream colour.
• Additions: Mineral additions of for example,
silica fume, GGBS, or PFA.
• Aggregates: Normal, lightweight, and special
types of aggregates and different types of inert
fillers.
• Admixtures: Plasticizing chemical admixures are
often used. Air entrainers and accelerators are
used in some products.
• Additives: Many specialist mortars contain a
polymer additive to act as a water-reducing
agent, act as a bonding agent, increase
strength, and reduce permeability. These may
include polyvinyl acetate (PVA), polyvinylidene
dichloride (PVDC), SBRs, acrylics, and modified
acrylics.
• Fibres: Concrete repair mortars often contain
synthetic fibre reinforcement (usually fine
polymer fibres) to help control shrinkage.

When investigating specialist mortars, petrographic

examination is typically called upon to help
determine the ingredients used and/or investigate
the causes of failures.

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Construction Materials
Ryszard Daniel, Tim Paulus, in Lock Gates and
Other Closures in Hydraulic Projects, 2019

13.12 Concrete
An overview of materials that can be considered for
a hydraulic gate structure would not be complete
without concrete. The choice for a concrete gate
might have been surprising a few decades ago, but
today it does not surprise any longer. Current
technologies provide this material in sufficient
strength, watertightness, and durability to meet the
requirements of movable hydraulic structures.
The obvious advantage of concrete in a hydraulic
gate structure is that it does not rust. This removes
the necessity of coating and reduces the
maintenance costs. The main disadvantages are
large mass and brittle rather than ductile behavior.
Large mass requires powerful drives, while brittle
response to, for example, local impacts uncovers
the reinforcement and may cause direct threat to
the integrity of the structure. Yet, these
disadvantages can to large extent be controlled in
the design.
Structural concrete grades are not often used for
hydraulic gates, which does not mean that they
cannot be used. After all, concrete of these grades
has extensively been used in a wide range of
offshore and marine structures, immersed tunnel
sections floated to their sites, and the like. The
technologies of such projects can also be utilized
for hydraulic gates, provided that the gate operation
frequency is very low. This condition occurs, for
example, in some flood barriers. An example is the
concrete barge gate of the New Orleans’ bypass
channel in the GIWW closure making part of the
Inner Harbor Navigation Canal (IHNC) Barrier, see
photos in Figs. 3.133, 3.200, 3.201. This gate was
cast in a floating dock, as shown in Fig. 13.22, and
then sunk and floated to the site. The material
applied was structural marine concrete, in
accordance with ACI specifications.

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Fig. 13.22. New Orleans’ GIWW bypass barge gate

during construction.
Photo Shaw Group.

Current experiences with the New Orleans’ GIWW

concrete bypass gate are not satisfactory, which has
been discussed in more detail Section 3.12.3. This,
however, results from the changed operation profile
of this structure rather than from the performances
of concrete as its material. The gate was originally
designed as a temporary closure, to be operated
only during construction and maintenance of the
actual sector gate closure. Later, its operation
became for various reasons more frequent, which
made its inconveniences harder to accept.
Studies on concrete applications for hydraulic gates
have also been carried out in Europe. The results
were mixed. The option of concrete gates was, for
example, proposed in the late 1990s as an
alternative to the existing vertical lift gates of steel
in the Eastern Scheldt Storm Surge Barrier in the
Netherlands, shown earlier in Figs. 3.46, 4.2, and
5.5. This barrier is one of the world's largest
hydraulic structures and contains 63 vertical lift
gates spanning 41.3 m each. A replacement by
concrete gates was supposed to reduce the
maintenance costs, particularly due to frequent
coating. The results were encouraging, but the idea
did not get further than the CAD screens so far.
More successful was the application of concrete in
the sliding gates of locks in the new Amsterdam
quarter IJburg. One of these gates has been shown
in Fig. 3.178. The utilized material was this time
high-strength concrete, also called high-
performance concrete, although concrete
technologists will probably protest against using
these terms interchangeably.
Table 13.9 presents the global classification of
concretes in view of their strength, as adopted by
the Portland Cement Association (PCA) [53]. Note
that the high strength in this table goes along with
the decreasing water-cement ratio. This helps
obtaining low permeability, which increases the
compactness and watertightness of concrete. The
result is then not only high strength of concrete but
also its long life. The surfaces of the IJburg gates
are, for example, so smooth and pore-free that they
attract nearly no algae or dirt, which further
decreases the need of maintenance.

Table 13.9.
Classification of Concretes with Respect to
Strength According to PCA [53]

Conventional High- Very-high- Ultra-high-

concrete strength strength strength
concrete concrete concrete

Strength, < 50 (7.25) 50–100 100–150 > 150

MPa (ksi) (7.25–14.5) (14.5– (21.75)
21.75)

Water- > 0.45 0.30–0.45 0.25–0.30 < 0.25

cement
ratio

Chemical Not WRA/HRWRa HRWRa HRWRa

admixtures necessary

Mineral Not Fly ash Silica Silica

admixtures necessary fumeb fumeb

Permeability > 10− 10 10− 11 10− 12 10− 13

(cm/s)

Freeze-thaw Needs air entrainment No

protection freezable
water

a
WRA, water reducing admixture; HRWR, high-range water
reducer.
b
Also may contain fly ash.

The IJburg gates are 6.55 m long. The East gate is

4.5 m high, the West gate is 4.15 m high, and the
gate weight is, respectively, 142 kN and 139 kN.
This low weight results from the fact that the gate
main body is a 0.1 m thick slab, framed only
between the edge girders with a cross-section of
0.35 × 0.40 m. The concrete mixture for these gates
does not contain silica fume. The required high
strength was obtained by using other fine additives,
including 12 mm long stainless steel fibers. The
concrete gates operate satisfactorily since October
2010.

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Marinas in the Arabian Gulf region

K. Heath, in Marine Concrete Structures, 2016

9.1.3 Types of marine concrete structures

constructed in the Arabian Gulf
Concrete construction in the Arabian Gulf region
has exploded in recent decades, with high-rise
buildings and significant waterfront developments
including extensive marinas being developed over a
very short period of time.
The concrete structures being developed in
waterfront developments in the Arabian Gulf
consist mainly of precast and cast in situ
unreinforced and reinforced concrete. The majority
of waterfront seawalls used in marina projects are
constructed using precast concrete with the
exception of diaphragm walls, which are cast
in situ.
9.1.3.1 Unreinforced precast concrete
Due to the experience of the deterioration of
reinforced concrete structures built during the
1970s and 1980s, unreinforced concrete
construction is the preferred method of
construction for waterfront structures exposed to
seawater along the coastline in the Arabian Gulf.
The most common form of unreinforced concrete
construction used in seawalls for waterfront
developments are precast concrete blockwork walls
of which there are many examples (Fig. 9.1).