Process Equipment Design (CHE2002)

Module-1

Dr. K. Sivagami,
Associate Professor ,
School of Chemical
Engineering,
VIT Vellore
 Valve selection
Shut off valves Control valves
No flow regulation Flow regulation can be
• Gate valves done either manually or
automatic.
• Plug valves
• Globe valves
• Ball valves
• Butterfly valves
 Ball Valve
Gate Valve
 Butterfly Valve

Swing Check Valve

Lift Check Valve

• Pressure drop in pipelines:
• Pressure drop in a pipe line is given by
𝑙u2
Pf  8 f *(L / Di)*( )
2
-Darcy-Weisbach Eq.

‘f ‘ can be determined by using moody chart

f = f(Re, e/d)
Miscellaneous pressure losses:
Friction due to bends, valves , fittings and other disturbances of
flow in pipelines is accounted for by the concepts of either
equivalent lengths of pipe or multiples of the velocity heads.
• No. of velocity heads:
Pl  K *(u 2 / 2g)
• Estimate no of velocity heads lost and add to ΔPf.


P  4 f (L   Li) u 2

 2 * Di 
Equivalent pipe diameter:
The extra length of pipe that will account for the minor losses.
• A pipe line connecting two tanks contains has 4 standard elbows, a globe
valve that is fully open and a gate valve that is half open. The line is
commercial steel pipe 25mm ID and length 120m. The properties of the fluid
are viscosity=0.99mN-s/m2, density=998 kg/m^3. Calculate the total
pressure drop due to friction when the mass flow rate is 3500kgs/hr
Soln:
Mass flow rate: 3500 kgs/hr
Volumetric flow rate: 3500/998 = 3.5 m3/hr Cross
sectional area of pipe: π/4*d2 = 4.908*10-4 m2.
Velocity in pipe = 1.98 m/sec.

Calculate Re= 49914.99

f = fn(Re, e/d), absolute roughness of steel pipe is 0.046 mm.

e/d= 0.046/25 = 0.00184

• Miscellaneous losses:

Fitting/valve no. of velocity heads equivalent pipe

diameter
Entry into pipe 0.5 25
Elbows 0.8*4 40*4
Globe valve open 6 300
Gate valve half open 4 200
Exit from pipe 1 50

Total 14.7 735

Method 1
Total head loss, = k * U2/2g.
14.7 * 1.98*1.98 / 2* 9.81 = 2.94 mts.

Pressure drop = ρgh

998*9.81*2.94 = 28754 N/m2

Total pressure loss = frictional losses + losses due to fittings.

Frictional losses = 4f l ρ U 2 /d = 240388 N / m2

Total pressure losses = 269142 N / m2

• Method 2,
Equivalent pipe diameters:
Total equivalent pipe diameter: 735

Extra length of pipe to account for miscellaneous losses = 735*d

= 735*0.025 = 18.4 mts.

Total length = 120+18.4= 138.4 mts.

(Pressure drop = 4f*138.4*ρ*U*U/d)

• Power requirement for pumping liquids:
To transfer liquids from one point to another, energy has to be
supplied to overcome
1. Pressure losses in pipelines.
2. Miscellaneous losses in fittings and valves.
3. Losses in process equipments.
4. Difference in elevation from end to end of pipeline.
5. Difference in pressure from end to end pipeline.
• Total energy required can be calculated from the equation.
g∆z + ∆P/ρ - ∆Pf /ρ – W = 0

Where,
∆P = difference in pressure. P1-P2.
∆Pf = pressure losses in pipelines due to friction as well as miscellaneous
losses and losses in process equipments. N / m2
ρ = density of liquid
g = accerlation.
∆Z = Z1-Z2

Power requirement = W*m/η (for pump)

Where m = mass flow rate of liquid. (kg/sec)
η = efficiency of pump.
• A tanker carrying toluene is unloaded, using the ship’s pumps, to an on-shore
storage tank. The pipeline is 225 mm internal diameter and 900 m long.
Miscellaneous losses due to fittings, valves, etc., amount to 600 equivalent
pipe diameters. The maximum liquid level in the storage tank is 30 m above
the lowest level in the ship’s tanks. The ship’s tanks are nitrogen blanketed and
maintained at a pressure of 1.05 bar. The storage tank has a floating roof,
which exerts a pressure of 1.1 bar on the liquid. The ship must unload 1000
tonne within 5 hours to avoid demurrage charges. Estimate the power required
by the pump. Take the pump efficiency as 70 per cent. Physical properties of
toluene: density 874 kg/m3, viscosity 0.62 mNm2 s.
• A tanker carrying toluene is unloaded, using the ship’s pumps, to an on-shore
storage tank. The pipeline is 225 mm internal diameter and 900 m long.
Miscellaneous losses due to fittings, valves, etc., amount to 600 equivalent pipe
diameters. The maximum liquid level in the storage tank is 30 m above the lowest
level in the ship’s tanks. The ship’s tanks are nitrogen blanketed and maintained at
a pressure of 1.05 bar. The storage tank has a floating roof, which exerts a pressure
of 1.1 bar on the liquid. The ship must unload 1000 tonne within 5 hours to avoid
demurrage charges. Estimate the power required by the pump. Take the pump
efficiency as 70 per cent. Physical properties of toluene: density 874 kg/m3,
viscosity 0.62 mNm2 s.

Soln. : 200 tones / hr = 200*1000/3600 = 55.55 kgs/sec

Cross sectional area of pipe: π/4*d*d =
• A tanker carrying toluene is unloaded, using the ship’s pumps, to an on-shore
storage tank. The pipeline is 225 mm internal diameter and 900 m long.
Miscellaneous losses due to fittings, valves, etc., amount to 600 equivalent pipe
diameters. The maximum liquid level in the storage tank is 30 m above the
lowest level in the ship’s tanks. The ship’s tanks are nitrogen blanketed and
maintained at a pressure of 1.05 bar.

• The storage tank has a floating roof, which exerts a pressure of 1.1 bar on the
liquid. The ship must unload 1000 tonne within 5 hours to avoid demurrage
charges. Estimate the power required by the pump. Take the pump efficiency as
70 per cent. Physical properties of toluene: density 874 kg/m3, viscosity 0.62
mNm2 s.

• Soln. : 200 tones / hr = 200*1000/3600 = 55.55 kgs/sec

• Cross sectional area of pipe: π/4*d*d =
• Velocity of fluid = 1.6 m/sec
• Re= 507064
• A tanker carrying toluene is unloaded, using the ship’s pumps, to an on-shore
storage tank. The pipeline is 225 mm internal diameter and 900 m long.
Miscellaneous losses due to fittings, valves, etc., amount to 600 equivalent pipe
diameters. The maximum liquid level in the storage tank is 30 m above the lowest
level in the ship’s tanks. The ship’s tanks are nitrogen blanketed and maintained at
a pressure of 1.05 bar. The storage tank has a floating roof, which exerts a pressure
of 1.1 bar on the liquid. The ship must unload 1000 tonne within 5 hours to avoid
demurrage charges. Estimate the power required by the pump. Take the pump
efficiency as 70 per cent. Physical properties of toluene: density 874 kg/m3,
viscosity 0.62 mNm2 s.

Soln. : 200 tones / hr = 200*1000/3600 = 55.55 kgs/sec

Cross sectional area of pipe: π/4*d*d =

Velocity of fluid = 1.6 m/sec

Re= 507064
Total length of pipe including miscellaneous losses,
900+600*0.225= 1035 mts
Friction factor = 0.0019

Total losses due to friction = 4f(1035)ρU²/d

= 78220.9 N/m²
Difference in elevation height = -30 mts
difference in pressure = -0.05 bar
Energy balance,
∆P/ρ + ∆z(g) - ∆Pf/ρ – W = 0
Therefore,
W = – 5.72 – 294– 89.49
= 389.2 m²/sec²

power requirement = m*W / η

= 55.55(389.2)/0.70
= 31 KW
 Centrifugal Pumps
• Pumps that rotate to
generate necessary torque.
Liquid flows in a circulatory
motion through the
volute and a high head
can be generated.
• Pumps that apply direct
pressure upon fluid
Reciprocating pumps: It uses
a piston /plunger to push
the liquid flow in a
stationary chamber.
Rotary pumps: chamber is
moving from the suction to
the discharge
Purpose is to convert energy of a prime mover
first into velocity or kinetic energy and then
into pressure energy of a fluid that is being
pumped.
• The impeller is the rotating part that converts
driver energy into the kinetic energy.
• The volute or diffuser is the stationary part
which converts kinetic energy into pressure
energy.
• The process liquid enters the suction
nozzle and then into eye (centre) of
a revolving device known as an
impeller.

• When the impeller rotates, it spins

the liquid sitting in the cavities
between the vanes outward and
provides centrifugal acceleration.

• As liquid leaves the eye of the

impeller a low-pressure area is
created causing more liquid to flow
toward the inlet.

• Because the impeller blades are

curved the fluid is pushed in
tangential and radial direction by the
centrifugal force.
• Stationary components
Casing:
casings are two types: volute casing and circular casing.
Volute casing are generally used for high head
Circular casing are used in cases of low head and high capacity.

• A volute is a curved funnel increasing in area to the discharge port . As the area of the
cross-section increases, the volute reduces the speed of the liquid and
increases the pressure of the liquid.
• Circular casing have stationary diffusion vanes surrounding the impeller
periphery that convert velocity energy to pressure energy. Conventionally,
the diffusers are applied to multi-stage pumps.

• Circular casings can be either of solid casing or split casing.

• solid casing implies a design in which the entire casing including the
discharge nozzle is all contained in one casting or fabricated piece.
• A split casing implies two or more parts are fastened together.
• Other stationary components:

• Seal chamber and stuffing boxes

• When the sealing is achieved by means of a mechanical seal, the chamber is
commonly referred to as a Seal Chamber.
• When the sealing is achieved by means of packing, the chamber is referred
to as a Stuffing Box.
• Both the seal chamber and the stuffing box have the primary function of
protecting the pump against leakage at the point where the shaft passes out
through the pump pressure casing..
• Rotating components:
• Impeller :
• The impeller is the main rotating part that provides the centrifugal acceleration
to the fluid. They are classified as:

• Based on major direction of flow in reference to the axis of

rotation.
Radial flow : low flow an high head design
Axial flow : high flow and low head design
Mixed flow

• Based on mechanical construction

closed : shrouds or side walls enclosing the vanes.
Open : no shrouds or side wall to enclose the vane.
Semi open or vortex type design.
• Closed: requires wear rings and
these wear rings provide another
maintenance problem
• Open/semi open : these are less
likely to clog but no manual
adjustment to the volute and to
prevent recirculation.
• Vortex: good for solid and stringy
materials but are less efficient than
conventional designs.
• Shaft:
• The basic purpose of a centrifugal pump shaft is to transmit the torques
encountered when starting and during operation while supporting the impeller
and other rotating parts. It must do this job with a deflection less than the
minimum clearance between the rotating and stationary parts.
• Criteria for Pump Selection
• Positive displacement, reciprocating
Pumps are normally used where high head
is required at a low flow rate.

Specific speed for centrifugal pump lies

Between 400 and 10,000 depending upon
the impeller. Impellers are classified as
Radial – speed 400 to 1000
Mixed flow – 1500 to 7000
Axial flow – above 7000
Ns – specific speed
• Priming: pumps can lose prime and this will require the pump to be primed by
adding liquid to the pump and inlet pipes to get the pump started. Loss of
"prime" is usually due to ingestion of air into the pump.

• Cavitaion: is the formation and then immediate implosion of cavities in a

• liquid i.e. small liquid-free zones ("bubbles") – that are the consequence of
forces acting upon the liquid.
• It usually occurs when a liquid is subjected to rapid changes of pressure that
cause the formation of cavities where the pressure is relatively low.
• It is a general case with high vapour pressure liquids and when liquids are
maintained at high temperatures.
• Cavitation degrades the performance
of a pump, resulting in a fluctuating flow rate
and discharge pressure.
Cavitation can also be destructive to pump
Internal components.
• Charecteristic curves:

• Capacity: Capacity means the flow rate with which liquid is moved or pushed
by the pump to the desired point in the process.

• The capacity depends on a number of factors like:

 Process liquid characteristics i.e. density, viscosity
 Size of the pump and its inlet and outlet sections
 Impeller size
 Impeller rotational speed RPM
 Size and shape of cavities between the vanes
 Pump suction and discharge temperature and pressure conditions.

Q =A* V
V=n*d n = impeller speed
d = impeller diameter
• Head : The head term is used to measure the kinetic energy created by the
pump.
• In other words, head is a measurement of the height of a liquid column that
the pump could create from the kinetic energy imparted to the liquid.
Imagine a pipe shooting a jet of water straight up into the air, the height the
water goes up would be the head.
• Pump characteristic curves
 Head vs. capacity:

q = volumetric flow rate

∆H = head (mts)
Ap = cross sectional area
β = angle made by the impeller tip with the tangent to the circle.
U2 = peripheral velocity
Typical system and pump performance curves
• System curve:
 ∆H = static head + frictional head + other head losses.
 Example 5.3: of Coulson & Richardson volume 6, 3rd edition
• Pipes:

Schedule number: The wall thickness of the pipe is indicated by the schedule no.
Which increases with increase in wall thickness.

• Available nos. 5, 5S, 10, 20, 30, 40, 60, 80, 100, 120, 140, 160, STD, XS and
XXS. The most common ones used are schedules 40 and 80
• Ten schedule numbers, 10,20,30,40, 60, 80, 100, 120, 140, and 160, are in use, but with pipe less
than 8 in. in diameter only numbers 40, 80, 120, and 160 are common.

N
Schedule no. = Ps*1000/σs Ps = Safe working pressure mm2

σs = Safe working stress N

mm2
 
t   P*d 
 20d  P 

• Wall thickness
P = internal pressure (bar)
d = pipe OD (mm)
σd = design stress (N/mm2)
• What does Nominal Pipe Size or NPS mean?
• In 1927 the American Standard Association replaced the previously used
Iron Pipe Sizing (IPS) with Nominal Pipe Sizing (NPS). This North
American standard is used on pipes for high or low pressures and
temperatures. The NPS size represents the approximate inside diameter
(not outside) of the pipe; if the schedule number on a set size is changed, it
does effect the inside diameter (ID) but not the outside diameter
(OD). Example:

• NPS OD Schedule # Wall Thickness ID

• 1.000” 1.315” SCH 40 0.133” 1.049” (approx.)
• 1.000” 1.315” SCH 80 0.179” 0.957” (approx.)

• All pipes are specified using the NPS and schedule numbers. It is the
schedule number that determines the approximate inside diameter.
• http://ds.arcelormittal.com/repo/Projects%20Oil%20and%20
Gas/Pipe%20Schedule.pdf
• Pipe size selection :
• Economic pipe diameter:
• The capital cost of a pipe run increases with diameter, whereas the pumping
costs decrease with increasing diameter. The most economic pipe diameter
will be the one which gives the lowest annual operating cost.
Cost equations are developed by considering 1 meter length of pipe

Bd n
• Purchase cost: $/m

where, ‘B’ and ‘n’ are constants depends on pipe material and schedule.
Bd n (1 F )
• Installed cost =

where, the factor ‘F’ includes the cost of valves, fittings and erection, fo a
typical run of pipe.
• The capital cost can be included in the operating cost as an annual capital
charge. There will also be an annual charge for mantainence based on the
capital cost,
Bd n (1 F )(a  b)
Cc =
Where,
Cc = annualized capital cost of the piping, $/m.yr a = capital
annualization factor, 1/yr
b = maintainence cost as fraction of installed capital, 1/yr

Power require for pumping a fluid is

Power = volumetric flow rate x pressure drop

Only the frictional pressure drop need to be considered.

• For turbulent flow in clean stainless steel pipes the fanning fiction factor is
given as:
C  0.04 Re 0.16
f

• Fanning pressure drop

4.84
P  0.125G 1.84  0.16  1d i
Where,
N
∆P = pressure drop, (Pma2)
N
µ = viscosity, m2s

The annual pumping costs will be given by: Ap G

Cw  P
1000  
A = plant attainment, hours/year
p = cost of power, $/kWh Ap
cw  1.25x10 4 G 2.84  0.16  2 d i4.84
η= pump efficiency 
• The total annual operating cost
Ct  Cc  Cw

d
• Optimal diameter : (Ct )  0
ddi
1/ 4.84n 
 21011  ApG2.840.162 
dopt   
 EB(1 F)(a  b) 

A 106 carbon steel pipe: d i , o p t  0 . 6 6 4 G 0.51

 0 . 3 6
d i , o p t  0 . 5 3 4 G 0.43 0.3
25 to 200 mm,
250 to 600 mm,
d i,opt  0.550G 0.49  0.35
304 stainless steel pipe:
d i,opt  0.465G 0.43  0.31
25 to 200 mm,
250 to 600 mm,
• Estimate the optimum pipe diameter for a flow of HCl of 7000 kg/h at 5 bar,
15⁰C, stainless steel pipe. Molar volume 22.4m3 / ,kmato1l bar and 0⁰C.

Solution:
Using ideal gas equation , P=(ρ/M)*RT

Therefore, density at operating conditions,

 P  T 
2   2  1 1
 P1   T 2 

1   weight    Mol.Wt. 
  36.5 / 22.4
Where,  volum e   m olarvolume 
• Substituting,
Density at operating conditions, = (36.5/22.4)*(5/1)*(273/288)
= 7.72 kg/m3

Optimum diameter, =
 7000 
0.52

260   x7.72 0.37  172.4mm

 3600 

Use 180mm pipe.

Carbon steel pipe:
d,optimum D = 293 G0.53 ρ0.37
Stainless steel pipe:
d,optimum D = 260 G0.52ρ0.37