Fire Fighting Robot Using Arduino 2020-21

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

The design of a small autonomous Fire Fighting Robot using Arduino. The Fire Fighting Robot is
designed to search for a fire of the specific dimensions, extinguish the fire. This mission is divided into smaller
tasks, and each task is implemented in the most efficient manner such as self-autonomous start of the robot,
navigation of the robot in every room step by step, finds the fire in a specific room, approaches the fire at a
very fixed distance, extinguishes it and finally returning to the front of the house.
According to National Crime Records Bureau (NCRB), it is estimated that more than 1.2 lakh deaths
have been caused because of fire accidents in India from 2010-2014.Even though there are a lot of precautions
taken for Fire accidents, these natural/man-made disasters do occur now and then. In the event of a fire breakout,
to rescue people and to put out the fire we are forced to use human resources which are not safe. With the
advancement of technology especially in Robotics it is very much possible to replace humans with robots for
fighting the fire. This would improve the efficiency of firefighters and would also prevent them from risking
human lives.
In this project, we will learn how to build a simple Firefighting robot using Arduino that could move towards
the fire and pump out water around it to put down the fire. It is a very simple robot that would teach us the
underlying concept of robotics; that would be able to build more sophisticated robots.

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Fig.1.1: Industrial fire accident

Fig.1.2: Hotel fire accident

Fig.1.3: Hospital fire accident

1.1 ROBOTICS

A mechanical device that sometimes resembles a human and can perform a variety of often complex
human tasks on command or by being programmed in advance is defined as a ROBOT. A Robot never
becomes fulfill until it can take decisions. We can’t go for computers for the computation & intelligence.
But we can use single chip microcontrollers for controlling. This robot is not going to do any big tasks
there will only be predefined tasks. The robot’s full control is embedded into one chip which is otherwise
known as embedded systems designing.

OPEN SYSTEM:
An open system is the normal desktop computer where you can use it for any tasks. If you want to
process text documents you can install MS-word if you want to send mail you can use outlook express and
counts on.

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EMBEDDED SYSTEM:

An embedded system is the system where you can use it for a specific task.

1.1.1 TYPES OF ROBOTS

i. Redundant Robots
ii. Space Robots
iii. Flexible Robots
iv. Parallel actuated Robots and Closed loop Robots
v. Walking Robots
vi. Model based controlling Robots
vii. Force controlling Robots

1.1.2 ROBOT INTELLIGANCE AND VISION

Intelligence as pertaining to human beings, is a very small and profound quality which cannot
be learnt or taught and cannot be described in terms and knowledge alone. Again, knowledge
Is much more than a collection of pieces of information. As the so-called machine intelligence of the
present time basically stems from the information and logic coded in computer, we cannot expect true
‘intelligence in a robot right now in the sense of the robot having true ‘understanding’. Still, the
intelligence robots, as they are called, constitute an extremely popular topic in robotics, because they
can perform various tasks in an apparently intelligence manner.

The dream of perfection for the science of robotics is a system equipped with high
performance sensors and stereo vision. Such that it can work in unstructured environment where
changes in scenario may be rapid and unexpected. In addition, certain degree of fault-tolerance is
described with decision with decision making capabilities such that it can perform tasks assigned to as
long as they are physically possible. The maturity of this technique is expected to provide tremendous
decision -making capabilities to the robots.

With the advancement of technology especially in Robotics it is very much possible to

replace humans with robots for fighting the fire. This would improve the efficiency of firefighters and

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would also prevent them from risking human lives.

In this project, we will learn how to build a simple Firefighting robot using Arduino that could
move towards the fire and pump out water around it to put down the fire. It is a very simple robot that
would teach us the underlying concept of robotics; you would be able to build more sophisticated robots
once you understand the following basics.

1.2 FIRE FIGHTING ROBOT

Fire Fighting Robot is operated to detect the fire and also to extinguish it. It can be operated
in two modes one is manual mode and other is autonomous mode. Manual mode is operated using
joysticks and for autonomous mode there is no human intervention. In manual mode direction of the robot
is controlled using joysticks, even pump is operated manually. In autonomous mode IR sensors are used
to detect the fire and robot is coded accordingly to move in the direction of detected fire. A good
replacement of fireman in dangerous places.

Fig.1.4: Firefighting robot

1.3 OBJECTIVE

The main objective of our project is as follows,

i. Design and development of low-cost firefighting robot.
ii. Run automatically firefighting robot.
iii. Extinguish fire

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1.4 ORGANIZATION OF REPORT

Chapter 2 provides an insight literature survey about various technology/Methodology respect to the existing
technology and devices.
Chapter 3 provides brief details about the block diagram and the specification of components.
Chapter 4 outlines the expected outcome. The report is concluded with reference.

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CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE SURVEY

This chapter gives information about various Firefighting robot and their descriptions are as follows.

1. Design and Implementation of RF Based Fire Fighting Robot

In this paper, the project supposes a movable robotic vehicle with a remote controller by using RF
module and microcontroller 8051.The robot operates in two mode navigation mode in which we control
the robot and in second mode i.e., arm control mode in which we control the arm and the spray action
of the robot. The mode can be known by the indicating LED, which when ‘on’ indicate that robot is in
arm control mode. On the remote control we have 4 buttons, namely up, down, right and left. To switch
between two modes right and left key has to be pressed simultaneously. The up and down buttons
control the forward and backward movement of the robot respectively. The other two buttons control
the right and left turn of the robot. When in the arm control mode up and down button is use to set the
angle of the spraying arm and left key is used to spray. So once the robot control unit is turned on, we
have our system up and running. The controlling unit and the remote-control unit communicate using
RF communication. This robot is not quite a huge one and designed to be easy transportation.

2. War Field Fire Fighting Robot with Fire Fighting Circuit

The project is designed to develop a robotic vehicle using Bluetooth. Basically, the project is designed
to develop a robotic vehicle named War Field Spying Robot using RF technology for remote operation
attached with smart cell phone having IP web cam application for monitoring purpose. The robot along
with smart cell phone can wirelessly transmit real time video and will give confidential information
regarding opposite parties. An 8051 series of microcontroller is used for the desired operation. The
commands are sent to the receiver, at the transmitter side with push buttons, to control the movement
of the Robot to move forward, backward and left or right. Two DC motors are interfaced, at the receiving
side to the microcontroller, which control the movement of Robotic vehicle. A smart cell phone with IP
web cam application is mounted on the robot body for spying purpose even in complete darkness by

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using infrared lighting. This will send the videos wirelessly at the transmitter side (laptop). This is kind
of robot can be helpful for spying purpose in war fields and in order to minimize the attacks like 26/11
in Mumbai in future. It can also be helpful where living beings cannot reach.

3. Fire Fighter Spy Robot

The Fire Fighting Robot is designed to search for a fire in a small floor plan of a house of the specific
dimensions, extinguish the fire with the help of the front fan of a toy hovercraft, and then return to the
front of the house. The circuit implemented consists mainly of two different sub-circuits. The first part
comprises of making the robot follow a black strip. This was done using a comparator circuit using the
LDR whose reference voltage was fixed using the potentiometer. This was based on the phenomenon
that the resistance of the LDR decreases as the intensity of light falling on it increases. In our case, the
light reflected from the white surface is more than that from the black surface. Therefore, the voltage in
positive terminal of the comparator remains high as long as the robot is moving on white surface. If the
black surface come under one of the two LDR’s the motor corresponding to that LDR stops, the other
making it move away from the black line. But as the other LDR crosses the black line, its motor stops,
the other forcing it in other direction, resulting in it following the black line thus using a source follower
circuit. The second part comprised of using LDR’s and IR Receivers to detect flame. The dual Op-Amp
LM358 was used for the same. The two comparator circuits were used. For LDR, the working was same,
but for IR receiver the voltage and not the resistance vary according to the intensity of light. Thus the
two ends of IR-receiver were connected to ground and positive terminal of the comparator .The output
of these two were Oared and given to a mono-stable 555 timer with time period of 4 sec.555 was used
because when the robot sees the fire ,the fan Literature Survey on Fire Fighter Robot (IJSRD/Vol.
5/Issue 01/2017/087) All rights reserved by www.ijsrd.com 337 starts and the motors stop but when fan
starts the intensity of light decreases and hence the two motors start again and there is a chance that the
motor starts before the fire is extinguished .The 555 helps in generating a high pulse of about 4 seconds
which will not depend on the intensity of light for the same duration .Thus, this will make sure that the
fire is extinguished before moving ahead. Once the fire is extinguished it will retain its original motion.

4. Automatic Fire Fighting Robot

“Automatic Fire Fighting Robot” project employs the electrical thermostat technology for the
controlling the fire 24 hrs. The system is cost effective, has a wide application which when implement
can show good and effective result. It can be use deliberately in industrial applications, commercial and
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in domestic sectors where the requirement of automatic work demands. Synchronization of various
equipment involve in the system i.e., Thermostat Sensor, water jet, wireless remote and wireless android
device Wi-Fi enabled Camera. This is mean to simulate the real-world operation of Robot performing
a fire extinguishing function. Fuzzy logic provided an appropriate solution to the otherwise complex
task of mathematically deriving an exact model for the nonlinear control system upon which
conventional control techniques could then be applied. Making Robot wireless increases the effective
area of operation, thereby making it possible to control the robot from remote location. Keeping all
above factors in mind the Robot is capable of being remotely controlled and live video buffering i.e.,
possessing a multimedia interface was convinced and developed.

5. Control of an Autonomous Industrial Fire Fighting Mobile Robot

The robot performs analog to digital conversion on 5 infrared sensors: two to control the motion of
robot and three for candle detection. The infrared sensor is used as input sensor which is connected at
different levels of the robot chassis. The infrared sensor senses the infrared rays coming out of the fire
and it feeds the signals to the microcontroller. The microcontroller in turn controls the extinguishing
system. The pumping motor in extinguishing system controls the flow of water. Infrared sensors are
used to control the movement of robot. These sensors send the signal to the microcontroller whether
they are on the black line or white line. Accordingly, the microcontroller performs a set of operations
and controls the robot movement through D.C. geared motors. This is fully automatic process and no
manual support is needed. Microcontroller At-mega 32 is used for this purpose. The FFMR moves to
the fire location and use five infrared sensors to detect fire event. If the fire event is true, the FFMR
must fight the fire source using extinguisher. Whenever a flame gets detected by the robot, its motion
will stop and the pumping mechanism of the robot gets turned on to extinguish the fire with the help of
water. Robot will be able to detect flames coming out of fire if a fire blows up in or around its path.
Since a small amount of water can also decrease the intensity of flames coming out of fire, therefore the
pumping mechanism will work for a definite amount of time to ensure that the fire is completely
extinguished.

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CHAPTER 3

METHODALOGY

This chapter provides brief details about the block diagram and the specification of
components

3.1 HARDWARE DETAILS:

The various hardware components used in the project are listed below:
• Arduino UNO Board
• Flame sensor or Fire sensor
• Servo Motor SG90
• L293D Motor Driver Module
• Mini Water Pump
• Small Bread Board
• Robot Chassis with motors and Wheels
• Container or can
• Power supply
• Connecting wires

ARDUINO UNO BOARD:

The Arduino Uno is a microcontroller board based on the ATmega328 is shown in fig 3.1. It has 14 digital
input/output pins (of which 6 can be used as PWM outputs), 6 Analog inputs, a 16 MHz ceramic resonator, a USB
connection, a power jack, an ICSP header, and a reset button. It contains all the hardware pins needed to support the
microcontroller; by connecting it to a computer with a USB cable or power it with an AC-to-DC adapter or battery to get
started. Arduino MCU are pre- programmed with boot loader that simplices uploading of program to the on-chip
flash memory.

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Fig.3.1: ARDUINO UNO BOARD

FLAME SENSOR OR FIRE SENSOR:

To sense fire, we use the Fire sensor module (flame sensor) that is shown below fig.3.2. As we can see
these sensors have an IR Receiver (Photodiode) which is used to detect the fire. When fire burns it emits
a small amount of Infra-red light, this light will be received by the IR receiver on the sensor module. Then
we use an Op-Amp to check for change in voltage across the IR Receiver, so that if a fire is detected the
output pin (DO) will give 0V(LOW) and if the is no fire the output pin will be 5V(HIGH). So, we place three
such sensors in three directions of the robot to sense on which direction the fire is burning.

Fig.3.2: FLAME SENSOR

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SERVO MOTOR (SG90):

A servo motor is a linear or rotary actuator that provides fast precision position control for closed-loop position
control applications. Unlike large industrial motors, a servo motor is not used for continuous energy conversion.
Servo motors have a high-speed response due to low inertia and are designed with small diameter and long
rotor length. Servo motors work on servo mechanism that uses position feedback to control the speed and final
position of the motor. Internally, a servo motor combines a motor, feedback circuit, controller and other
electronic circuit.

Fig.3.3: SERVO MOTOR

L293 MOTOR DRIVER MODULE:

It is a low voltage operating device like other ICs. The other ICs could have the same functions like L293d but
they cannot provide the high voltage to the motor. L293d provides the continuous bidirectional Direct Current
to the Motor. It is also known as motor driver.

The Polarity of current can change at any time without affecting the whole IC or any other device in
the circuit. L293d has an internal H-bridge installed for two motors.

H-Bridge is an electrical circuit that enables the load in a bidirectional way. L293d bridge is controlled by
external low voltage signals. It may be small in size, but its power output capacity is higher than our expectation.
It could control any DC motor speed and direction with a voltage range of 4.5 – 36 Volts. Its diodes also save
the controlling device and IC from back EMF. To control the max 600mA amount of current an internal
“Darlington transistor sink” installed in it, which could be used to control a large amount of current by providing
a small amount of current. It has also internal “pseudo-Darlington source” which amplifies the input signal to
control the high voltage DC motor without any interception.

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Fig.3.4: BLOCK DAIGRAM OF MOTOR DRIVER Fig.3.5: MOTOR DRIVER

POWER SUPPLY:

This project is designed to run on a 9V battery source. It is expected to deliver the necessary voltage
level needed by the microcontroller and the other devices. These devices required a 5V supply instead of the
9V, hence the need for a voltage regulator. The LM7805 chip is used to regulate the 9v to 5V supply for the
whole design. The 9V battery source is regulated to a 5V by a voltage regulator. The capacitor is used to
increase the transient response off the regulator.

DC MOTORS:

In this project we use simple DC motor for the rotation of the wheel which are responsible for the movement
of the robot. Usually, DC motors convert electrical energy into mechanical energy.

WATER PUMP:

Pump is a mechanical device which is used to pump water on to the fire to extinguish it. It uses simple motor
to pump water

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Mechanical:

Chassis Specifications

Firstly, we needed to analyse what the robot needed to achieve and how we were to design and build a chassis
to meet those requirements. We decided to keep the robot chassis as simple as possible to achieve the tasks it
needed to. We discussed the specifications of the robot and came to a number of conclusions.

The robot needed to be: light in weight, small and an easy shape to move around the table and avoid obstacles
and cheap to manufacture. Initial concepts We had two initial ideas for the shape of the chassis. The first was
a rectangular platform with two drive wheels and a pivot bearing at the rear

Fig.3.6: Robot chassis

3.2 SOFTWARE DETAILS

Software used in our project is Keil C. Its details are as follows:

Keil (IDE) MicroVision3

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Keil Software development tools are used to create products for practically every industry: consumer
electronics, industrial control, networking, office automation, automotive, space exploration. Micro Vision
Two is a second-generation IDE that simplifies project development and application testing. With Micro Vision
Two, we can easily create embedded applications in a mixture of C and assembly. Real-time applications
benefit from our highly optimized C libraries and real-time kernels.

MicroVision3 provides a centralized front-end interface for the compiler, assembler, linker, debugger, and
other development tools. The Project Window in MicroVision3 displays the current target, groups, and source
files that comprise our project. Rather than creating a single target for each project, MicroVision2allows
multiple targets for each project file. So, with a single project file, we can create a target for simulating, a target
for our emulator, and a production target for programming into EPROM {E-PROM}.

Each target is composed of one or more groups which are in turn composed of one or more source files. Groups
let us divide the source files into functional blocks or assign source files to different team members. Options
may be configured at each level of the project. This gives us a great deal of freedom and flexibility when
organizing our application. In addition to the on-line help, MicroVision3 provides on-line versions of the
development tool manuals as well as the device manuals.

Keil C Compilers are based on the ANSI standard and include extensions necessary to support the 8051, 251,
and 166 microcontroller families. The optimizer in our compiler is tuned for each specific architecture and
provides the highest level of code density and execution speed.

The Keil C compilers give full us control over our embedded platform. We decide which register banks are
used, when to access certain memory areas, which variables are stored in bits, when and how to use special
function registers, and so on. Without ever writing any assembly code we may even write interrupt service
routines in C. Code generated by the Keil C Compiler compares with that of a professional assembly
programmer. This is due to the level of optimizations that are performed. One such optimization is global
register optimization.

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By analysing which registers are used in each function, the compiler can better optimize register usage program-
wide and generate smaller, faster programs. This is accomplished by iterative compilation steps during the
make process. The MicroVision3 debugger is designed to make testing your programs as efficient as possible.
While editing and debugging your programs, text and code attributes are displayed in the source window. As
you step through your program, the current line is marked with a yellow arrow. Code coverage shows you
which lines of your program have been executed. Green means the line has been run. Grey means is having
not.

Breakpoints are clearly marked in the source window. Red for enabled, white for disabled. These attributes
make following program flow easier than ever. The features of the Micro Vision Two debugger don’t stop
there. When simulating your programs, you not only get source-level, symbolic simulation. You also get on-
chip peripheral simulation. Dialog boxes display the condition of all peripherals and on-chip components.

3.3 BLOCK DIAGRAM

The block diagram of the Firefighting robot using Arduino is shown in the fig 3.7. Arduino Uno is
the heart of the system. It controls the majority operations of the system using At-mega microcontroller.
Arduino is scripted by the Arduino IDE software.

The main controlling unit i.e., Arduino, which is connected with fire sensing unit. The fire sensing unit consist
of IR receiver... The receiving unit consist of Arduino, at receiving unit. While at the transmitting side there is
an Arduino which controls the actions of robot based on the conditions and commands given by the user. The
project consists of main control part to which, fire-extinguishing part, driving part and power part are connected.
The extinguishing part contains a water pump which is used for water sprinkling from a miniature water tank,
this sprinkler will be driven by motors and water pump. The driving part consists of a motor driver. The 4
wheels can be operated using 2 motors in which 2 front wheels are operated by one motor and back wheels are
operated by the other one by providing suitable logics with the help of Arduino Uno software. The power part
consists of a high-power battery of 12 V and 5V is used.

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This unit consist of sprinkler pump, water tank. The robot unit supplied with powered with battery of
specification 12 v,1.2amp. In-order to sense fire we use the Fire sensor (Temp sensor) which is used to detect
the fire. The output pin (DO) will give 0V(LOW) and if the is no fire the output pin will be 5V(HIGH). So, we
place three such sensors in three directions of the robot to sense on which direction the fire is burning. We
detect the direction of the fire we can use the motors to move near the fire by driving our motors through the
L293 motor driver module.

Fig.3.7: Block diagram of firefighting robot using Arduino

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3.4 CRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Fig.3.8: Circuit diagram of firefighting robot using Arduino

3.5 FLOW CHART

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Fig.3.9: Flow chart of fire sensor module

Steps involved in fire sensor module are as follows,

STEP 1: Initializes input pins

STEP 2: Senses the fire if fire is detected in any one sensor.
STEP 3: Reads the value
STEP 4: If condition is yes, i.e., measured value >threshold value. It turns right, left or front where fire is
detected or else it goes back to initial condition stop.

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Programming the Arduino

#include <Servo.h> //include servo.h library

Servo myservo;

int pos = 0;
boolean fire = false;

#define Left 9 // left sensor

#define Right 10 // right sensor
#define Forward 8 //front sensor

#define LM1 2 // left motor

#define LM2 3 // left motor
#define RM1 4 // right motor
#define RM2 5 // right motor
#define pump 6

void setup()
{
pinMode(Left, INPUT);
pinMode(Right, INPUT);
pinMode(Forward, INPUT);
pinMode(LM1, OUTPUT);
pinMode(LM2, OUTPUT);
pinMode(RM1, OUTPUT);
pinMode(RM2, OUTPUT);
pinMode(pump, OUTPUT);

myservo.attach(11);
myservo.write(90);
}

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void put_off_fire()
{
delay (500);

digitalWrite(LM1, HIGH);
digitalWrite(LM2, HIGH);
digitalWrite(RM1, HIGH);
digitalWrite(RM2, HIGH);

digitalWrite(pump, HIGH);
delay(500);

for (pos = 50; pos <= 130; pos += 1) {

myservo.write(pos);
delay(10);
}
for (pos = 130; pos >= 50; pos -= 1) {
myservo.write(pos);
delay(10);
}

digitalWrite(pump,LOW);
myservo.write(90);

fire=false;
}

void loop()
{
myservo.write(90); //Sweep_Servo();

if (digitalRead(Left) ==1 && digitalRead(Right)==1 && digitalRead(Forward) ==1)

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digitalWrite(LM1, HIGH);
digitalWrite(LM2, HIGH);
digitalWrite(RM1, HIGH);
digitalWrite(RM2, HIGH);
}

else if (digitalRead(Forward) ==0)

{
digitalWrite(LM1, HIGH);
digitalWrite(LM2, LOW);
digitalWrite(RM1, HIGH);
digitalWrite(RM2, LOW);
fire = true;
}

else if (digitalRead(Left) ==0)

{
digitalWrite(LM1, HIGH);
digitalWrite(LM2, LOW);
digitalWrite(RM1, HIGH);
digitalWrite(RM2, HIGH);
}

else if (digitalRead(Right) ==0)

{
digitalWrite(LM1, HIGH);
digitalWrite(LM2, HIGH);
digitalWrite(RM1, HIGH);
digitalWrite(RM2, LOW);
}

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delay(300);//change this value to increase the distance

while (fire == true)

{
put_off_fire();
}
}

3.6 ADVANTAGES

• Reduce human effort.

• Not sensitive to weather conditions.
• Reliable and economical.
• Minimization of
- financial loss
- a threat to a human life.
• Reduce the risk of injury to humans.

3.7 APPLICATION

• Factory
• Fire department
• High explosion area
• Chemical industries
• Petrol station
• Small business stores and Restaurants

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Fig.3.10: Firefighting robot in chemical industries

Fig.3.11: firefighting robot in high explosion area

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CHAPTER 4

RESULTS

This chapter provides project outcome and it is conculed with refernce future scope .

Here we sucussfully developed and impelmented the low cost fire fighting robot using arduino.

Fig.4.1 firefighting robot

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CONCLUSION

This paper gives a detailed mechanism about the real time industrial fire-fighting robot that can move through
a model structure, sense the occurrence of fire accident continuously, intimates the respective personnel and
then extinguish it with the help of pumping mechanism. The results show that the proposed fire-fighting robot
using Arduino prototype is successfully implemented.

Fire causes tremendous damage and losses of human life and property. It is sometimes impossible for the fire
fighter personnel to access the site of fire because of explosive material, smoke and high temperature. Though
this we can conclude that the robot can be placed where human lives are at risk. The robot can operate in
environment which is out of human reach in very short time. In such environment, fire fighter robot can be
useful for fire extinguishing. Also, we can monitor it manually and autonomously

FUTURE SCOPE

In the present condition the motion of our robot can be controlled only up to certain distance. It can be extended
and improved by using a more robust and long ranged communication system. Presently our robot has a water
tank and pump to extinguish a fire. It can be extended to a real fire extinguisher by replacing the water tank by
a carbon dioxide carrier which can enable to extinguish the fire of all types.

The performance of robot can be improved by using more effective heat reflector for the body of robot. The
robot can also a fully automated to detect the obstacles and handle them as well.

The application-oriented developments also be incorporated such as

• Fire annunciators can be interfaced with the robot; Area under control can be increased. The signal is
taken as references the robot can be move the specified address, detect and extinguish the fire.

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• Trip circuits can be connected to the robot which trips the electrical circuit under worst case.

• In remote areas the intimation is done through communication from the robot, which is easily
established in our robot

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REFRENCE

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Definitions, Information and General Principles, IEC/TS 60815-1, 2008

[2] IEEE Standard for High-Voltage Testing Techniques, IEEE Std. 2013.

[3] S. Zhao, X. Jiang, Z. Zhang, J. Hu and L. Shu,” Flashover Voltage Prediction of Composite Insulators
Based on the Characteristics of Lean age Current,” IEEE Trans. Power Delivery, Vol. 28, No. 3, pp. 1699-
1708, 2013.

[4] S. Venkataraman and R. S. Gorur,” Prediction of Flashover Voltage of Non-Ceramic Insulators under
Contaminated Conditions,” Power, Dielectric and Energy Management at NERIST (ICPDEN), pp. 1-5, 2015

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Dept. of ECE, Page 27

ACSCE.