MÉTODOS MATEMÁTICOS DE LA FÍSICA

GUÍA VARIABLE COMPLEJA I

1 Ejercicios 1 números complejos

1. Evaluate the following powers of i.

(a) i8
(b) i11
(c) i42
(d) i105

2. Write the given number in the form a + ib.

(a) 2i3 − 3i2 + 5i

(b) 3i5 − i4 + 7i3 − 10i2 − 9
(c) 5i + i23 − i20
18
 3
(d) 2i + −i + 5i−5 − 12i
6 2

In Problems 3 − 20, write the given number in the form a + ib

3. (5 − 9i) + (2 − 4i)
4. 3(4 − i) − 3(5 + 2i)
5. i(5 + 7i)
6. i(4 − i) + 4i(1 + 2i)
7. (2 − 3i)(4

+ i)

8. 12 − 14 i 23 + 35 i
1
9. 3i + 2−i
i
10. 1+i
11. 2−4i
3+5i
12. 10−5i
6+2i
(3−i)(2+3i)
13. 1+i
(1+i)(1−2i)
14. (2+i)(4−3i)
(5−4i)−(3+7i)
15. (4+2i)+(2−3i)
(4+5i)+2i3
16. (2+i)2
17. i(1 − i)(2 − i)(2 + 6i)
18. (1 + i)2 (1 − i)3
1
19. (3 + 6i) + (4 − i)(3 + 5i) + 2−i
 2
2−i
20. (2 + 3i) 1+2i

1
 ∗
In Problems 21 − 24, use the binomial theorem

n n−1 n(n − 1) n−2 2

(A + B)n = An + A B+ A B + ···
1! 2!
n(n − 1)(n − 2) · · · (n − k + 1) n−k k
+ A B + · · · + Bn
k!
where n = 1, 2, 3, . . . , to write the given number in the form a + ib

21. (2 + 3i)2

3
22. 1 − 21 i
23. (−2 + 2i)5
24. (1 + i)8

In Problems 25 and 26, find Re(z) and Im(z)

  
i 1
25. z = 3−i 2+3i
1
26. z= (1+i)(1−2i)(1+3i)

In Problems 27 − 30, let z = x + iy. Express the given quantity in terms of x and y

27. Re(1/z)

28. Re z 2
29. Im(2z + 4z̄
− 4i)
30. Im z̄ 2 + z 2

In Problems 31 − 34, let z = x + iy. Express the given quantity in terms of the symbols Re(z) and
Im(z)

31. Re(iz)
32. Im(iz)
33. Im((1 +
i)z)
34. Re z 2

In Problems 35 and 36, show that the indicated numbers satisfy the given equation. In each
case explain why additional solutions can be found.
√ √
35. z 2 + i = 0, z1 = − 22 + 22 i. Find an additional solution, z2
36. z 4 = −4; z1 = 1 + i, z2 = −1 + i. Find two additional solutions, z3 and z4

In Problems 37 − 42, solve each equation for z = a + ib

37. 2z = i(2 + 9i)

38. z − 2z̄ + 7 − 6i = 0

2
39. z 2 = i
40. z̄ 2 = 4z
2−i
41. z + 2z̄ = 1+3i
z
42. 1+z̄ = 3 + 4i

In Problems 43 and 44, solve the given system of equations for z1 and z2

43.
iz1 − iz2 = 2 + 10i
−z1 + (1 − i)z2 = 3 − 5i

44.
iz1 + (1 + i)z2 = 1 + 2i
(2 − i)z1 + 2iz2 = 4i

2 Ejercicios 2 números complejos

In Problems 1 − 4, interpret z1 and z2 as vectors. Graph z1 , z2 , and the indicated sum and differ-
ence as vectors.

1. z1 = 4 + 2i, z2 = −2 + 5i; z1 + z2 , z1 − z2
2. z1 = 1 − i, z2 = 1 + i; z1 + z2 , z1 − z2
3. z1 = 5 + 4i, z2 = −3i; 3z1 + 5z2 , z1 − 2z2
4. z1 = 4 − 3i, z2 = −2 + 3i; 2z1 + 4z2 , z1 − z2

5. Given that z1 = 5 − 2i and z2 = −1 − i, find a vector z3 in the same direction as z1 + z2

but four times as long.

6. (a) Plot the points z1 = −2 − 8i, z2 = 3i, z3 = −6 − 5i

(b) The points in part (a) determine a triangle with vertices at z1 , z2 , and z3 respectively. Express
each side of the triangle as a difference of vectors.

7. In Problem 6, determine whether the points z1 , z2 , and z3 are the vertices of a right trian-
gle.

8. The three points z1 = 1 + 5i, z2 = −4 − i, z3 = 3 + i are vertices of a triangle. Find the

length of the median from z1 to the side z3 − z2

In Problems 9 − 12, find the modulus of the given complex number.

9. (1 − i)2
10. i(2 − i) − 4 1 + 14 i

3
 2i
11. 3−4i
1−2i 2−i
12. 1+i + 1−i

In Problems 13 and 14, let z = x + iy. Express the given quantity in terms of x and y

13. |z − 1 − 3i|2
14. z + 5z̄

In Problems 15 and 16, determine which of the given two complex numbers is closest to the
origin. Which is closest to 1 + i?

15. 10 + 8i, 11 − 6i
16. 12 − 14 i, 32 + 61 i

In Problems 17 − 26, describe the set of points z in the complex plane that satisfy the given
equation.

17. Re((1 + i)z − 1) = 0

18. [Im(iz̄)]2 = 2
19. |z − i| = |z − 1|
20. z̄ = z −1


21. Im z 2 = 2

√
22. Re z 2 = | 3 − i|
23. |z − 1| = 1
24. |z − i| = 2|z − 1|
25. |z − 2| = Re(z)
26. |z| = Re(z)

In Problems 27 and 28, establish the given inequality.

27. If |z| = 2, then |z + 6 + 8i|≤ 13

28. If |z| = 1, then 1 ≤ z 2 − 3 ≤ 4

29. Find an upper bound for the modulus of 3z 2 + 2z + 1 if |z| ≤ 1

30. Find an upper bound for
the reciprocal

 of the modulus of z 4 − 5z 2 + 6 if |z| = 2. [
4 2 2 2
Hint: z − 5z + 6 = z − 3 z − 2 .

In Problems 31 and 32, find a number z that satisfies the given equation.

31. |z| − z = 2 + i
32. |z|2 + 1 + 12i = 6z

4
3 Ejercicios 3 números complejos
In Problems 1 − 10, write the given complex number in polar form first using an argument
θ 6= Arg(z) and then using θ = Arg(z)

1. 2
2. −10
3. −3i
4. 6i
5. 1 + i
6. 5 −
√ 5i
7. − 3 +√i
8. −2 − 2 3i
3
9. −1+i
10. √123+i

In Problems 11 and 12, use a calculator to write the given complex number in polar form first
using an argument θ 6= Λ rg(z) and then using θ = Arg(z)
√ √
11. − 2 + 7i
12 · −12 − 5i

In Problems 13 and 14, write the complex number whose polar coordinates (r, θ) are given in
the form a + ib. Use a calculator if necessary.

13. (4, −5π/3)

14. (2, 2)

In Problems 15 − 18, write the complex number whose polar form is given in the form a + ib.
Use a calculator if necessary.

= 5 cos 7π 7π


15. z 6 + i sin 6
√
= 8 2 cos 11π sin 11π


16. z 4 + i
4
17. z = 6 cos π8 + i sin π8

18. z = 10 cos π5 + i sin π5

In Problems 19 and 20, use (6) and (7) to find z1 z2 and z1 /z2 . Write the number in the form
a + ib

19. z1 = 2 cos π8 + i sin π8 , z2 = 4 cos 3π + i sin 3π

√ √ 8 8
20. z1 = 2 cos π4 + i sin π4 , z2 = 3 cos 12 π π



+ i sin 12

In Problems 21 − 24, write each complex number in polar form. Obtain the polar form of the
given number. Finally, write the polar form in the form a + ib

5
 √
21. (3 − 3i)(5 + 5 3i)
22. (4 + 4i)(−1 + i)
−i
23. 1+i
√ √
2+√6i
24. −1+ 3i

In Problems 25 − 30, use (9) to compute the indicated powers.

√
25. (1 + 3i)9
26. (2 − 2i)5
1

10
27. + 21 i
√2 √
28.(− 2 + 6i)4
 √ √
12
29 · 2 cos π8 + i 2 sin π8
2π 6
30 · 3 cos 2π
√

9 + i sin 9

In Problems 31 and 32, write the given complex number in polar form and in then in the form a+ib

12 
5
31. cos π9 + i sin π9 2 cos π6 + i sin π6
3
[8(cos 3π
8 +i sin 8 )]
3π
32 · 10
[2(cos 16
π π
+i sin 16 )]
33. Use de Moivre’s formula (10) with n = 2 to find trigonometric identities for cos 2θ and
sin 2θ

34. Use de Moivre’s formula (10) with n = 3 to find trigonometric identities for cos 3θ and
sin 3θ

In Problems 35 and 36, find a positive integer n for which the equality holds.
√ n
35 · 23 + 12 i = −1
 √ √ n
36. − 22 + 22 i = 1

4 Ejercicios 4 números complejos

In Problems 1 − 14, use (4) to compute all roots. Give the principal nth root in each case. Sketch
the roots uv, w1 , . . . , wn = 1 on an appropriate circle centered at the origin.

1. (8)1/3
2. (−1)1/4
3. (−9)1/2
4. (−125)1/3

6
5. (i)1/2
6. (−i)1/3
7. (−1 + i)1/3
8. (1 + i)1/5
√
9. (−1 + √3i)1/2
10. (−1 − 3i)1/4
11. (3 + 4i)1/2
12. (5 + 12i)1/2
 1/8
16i
13. 1+i
 1/6
14. √1+i3+i
15. (a) Verify that (4 + 3i)2 = 7 + 24i
(b) Use part (a) to find the two values of (7 + 24i)1/2 .

16. Rework Problem 15 using (4).

17. Find all solutions of the equation z 4 + 1 = 0.

18. Use the fact that 8i = (2 + 2i)2 to find all solutions of the equation

z 2 − 8z + 16 = 8i

The n distinct n th roots of unity are the solutions of the equation wn = 1

Problems 19 − 22 deal with roots of unity.

19. (a) Show that the n nth roots of unity are given by
2kπ 2kπ
(1)1/n = cos + i sin , k = 0, 1, 2, . . . , n − 1
n n
(b) Find n nth roots of unity for n = 3, n = 4, and n = 5
(c) Carefully plot the roots of unity found in part (b). Sketch the regular polygons formed with
the roots as vertices.

20. Suppose w is a cube root of unity corresponding to k = 1. See Problem 19(a).

(a) How are w and w2 related?

(b) Verify by direct computation that

1 + w + w2 = 0

(c) Explain how the result in part (b) follows from the basic definition that w is a cube root of 1,
that is, w3 = 1.[Hint: Factor.]

21. For a fixed n, if we take k = 1 in Problem 19(a), we obtain the root

2π 2π
wn = cos + i sin
n n

7
Explain why the n nth roots of unity can then be written

1, wn , wn2 , u2n , . . . , wnn−1

22. Consider the equation (z + 2)n + z n = 0, where n is a positive integer. By any means, solve
the equation for z when n = 1. When n = 2.

23. Consider the equation in Problem 22.

(a) In the complex plane, determine the location of all solutions z when n = 6 [Hint: Write
the equation in the form [(z + 2)/(−z)]6 = 1 and use part (a) of Problem 19.]
(b) Reexamine the solutions of the equation in Problem 22 for n = 1 and n = 2. Form a conjecture
as to the location of all solutions of (z + 2)n + z n = 0

24. For the n nth roots of unity given in Problem 21, show that

1 + wn + wn2 + wn3 + · · · + wnn−1 = 0

[Hint: Multiply the sum 1 + wn + wn2 + wn3 + · · · + wnn−1 by wn − 1.

If m and n are positive integers with no common factors, then the n values of the rational power
z m/n are √ h m m i
wk = n rm cos (θ + 2kπ) + i sin (θ + 2kπ) (∗)
n n
k = 0, 1, 2, . . . , n − 1. The wk are the n distinct solutions of wn = z m .

25. (a) First compute the set of values i1/2 using

√ 
uk = n r cos θ+2kπ θ+2kπ



n + i sin n (∗∗)

3
where k = 0, 1, 2, . . . , n − 1. Then compute i1/2 using z n = rn (cos nθ + i sin nθ).

1/2
(b) Now compute i3 . Then compute i3 using (∗∗). Compare these values with the results of
part (a).
(c) Lastly, compute i3/2 using formula (∗).

26. Use (∗) to find all solutions of the equation w2 = (−1 + i)5

5 Ejercicios 5 números complejos

In Problems 1 − 12, sketch the graph of the given equation in the complex plane.

1. |z − 4 + 3i| = 5
2. |z + 2 + 2i| = 2
3. |z + 3i| = 2

8
4. |2z − 1| = 4
5. Re(z) = 5
6. lm(z) = −2
7. Im(z + 3i) = 6
8. lm(z − i) = Re(z + 4 − 3i)
9. | Re(1 + iz)| = 3
10. z 2 + z̄ 2
= 2
11. Re z 2 = 1
12. arg(z) = π/4

In Problems 13 − 24, sketch the set S of points in the complex plane sat isfying the given inequal-
ity. Determine whether the set is (a) open, (b) closed, (c) a domain, (d) bounded, or (e) connected.

13. Re(z) < −1

14. | Re(z)| > 2
15. Im(z) > 3
16. Re((2 + i)z + 1) > 0
17. 2 < Re(z − 1) < 4
18. −1 ≤ lm(z)

<4
19. Re z 2 > 0
20. lm(z) < Re(z)
21. |z − i| > 1
22. 2 < |z − i| < 3
23. 1 ≤ |z − 1 − i| < 2
24.2 ≤ |z − 3 + 4i| ≤ 5

25. Give the boundary points of the sets in Problems 13 − 24

26. Consider the set S consisting of the complex plane with the circle |z| = 5 deleted. Give
the boundary points of S. Is S connected?

9
In Problems 27 and 28, sketch the set of points in the complex plane satisfying the given inequality.

27. 0 ≤ arg(z) ≤ π/6

28. −π < arg(z) < π/2

In Problems 29 and 30, describe the shaded set in the given figure using arg(z) and an inequality.

In Problems 31 and 32, solve the given pair of simultaneous equations.

31. |z| = 2, |z − 2| = 2
32. |z − i| = 5, arg(z) = π/4

6 Ejercicios 6 números complejos

In Problems 1 − 6, solve the given quadratic equation using the quadratic formula. Then use
az 2 + bz + c = a (z − z1 ) (z − z2 ) to factor the polynomial.

1. z 2 + iz − 2 = 0
2. iz 2 − z + i = 0
3. z 2 − (1 + i)z + 6 − 17i = 0
4. z 2 − (1 + 9i)z
√ − 20 + 5i = 0
5. z 2 + 2z − 3i = 0
6. 3z 2 + (2 − 3i)z − 1 − 3i = 0 [Hint: See Problem 15 in Exercises 1.4.

In Problems 7 − 12, express the given complex number in the exponential form z = reiθ .

7. − 10
8. −2πi
9. −4 − 4i
2
10. 1+i
11. (3 − i)2
12. (1 + i)20

In Problems 13 − 16, find solutions of the given homogeneous differential equation.

13. y 00 − 4y 0 + 13y = 0
14. 3y 00 + 2y 0 + y = 0
15. y 00 + y 0 + y = 0
16. y 00 + 2y 0 + 4y = 0

In Problems 17 and 18, find the steady-state charge qp (t) and steady-state current ip (t) for the
LRC -series circuit described by the given differential equation. Find the complex impedance and

10
impedance of the circuit.
2
17. 0.5 ddt2q + 3 dq
dt + 12.5q = 10 cos 5t
d2 q
18. dt2 + 2 dq
dt + 2q = 100 sin t
1/2
−b+(b2 −4ac)
19. Discuss how z = 2a can be used to find the four roots of z 4 − 2z 2 + 1 − 2i = 0
Carry out your ideas.

20. If z1 is a root of a polynomial equation with real coefficients, then its conjugate z2 = z̄1
is also a root. Prove this result in the case of a quadratic equation az 2 + bz + c = 0, where a = 0, b,
and c are real.

In Problems 21 and 22, use Problem 20 and az 2 + bz + c = a (z − z1 ) (z − z2 ) to factor the given

quadratic polynomial if the indicated complex number is one root.

21. 4z 2 + 12z + 34 = 0; z1 = − 23 + 52 i
√
22. 5z 2 − 2z + 4 = 0; z1 = 15 + 519 i

23. (a) Find a quadratic polynomial equation for which 2 − i is one root.
(b) Is your answer to part (a) unique? Elaborate in detail.

24. If z1 is a root of a polynomial equation with nonreal coefficients, then its conjugate z2 = z̄1 is
not a root. Prove this result in the case of a quadratic equation az 2 + bz + c = 0, where at least
one of the coefficients a 6= 0, b, or c is not real. Use your work from Problem 20 and indicate at
what point out we can make this conclusion.

28. (a) Verify that y1 = cos θ and y2 = sin θ satisfy the homogeneous linear secondorder differential
2
equation ddθy2 + y = 0. Since the set of solutions consisting of y1 and y2 is linearly independent, the
general solution of the differential equation is y = c1 cos θ + c2 sin θ
(b) Verify that y = eiθ , where i is the imaginary unit and θ is a real variable, also satisfies the
differential equation given in part (a).
(c) Since y = eiθ is a solution of the differential equation, it must be obtainable from the general
solution given in part (a); in other words, there must exist specific coefficients c1 and c2 such that
eiθ = c1 cos θ + c2 sin θ. Verify from y = eiθ that y(0) = 1 and y 0 (0) = i. Use these two conditions
to determine c1 and c2

29. Find a homogeneous linear second-order differential equation for which y = e−5x cos 2x is
a solution.
2
30. (a) By differentiating Equation L ddt2q + R dqdt +
1
Cq = E0 sin γt with respect to t, show
that the current in the LRC circuit is described by

d2 i di 1
L + R + i = E0 γ cos γt
dt2 dt C

11
(b) Use the method of undetermined coefficients to find a particular solution ip1 (t) = Aejγt of the
differential equation
d2 i di 1
L 2 + R + i = E0 γejγt
dt dt C
(c) How can the result of part (b) be used to find a particular solution ip (t) of the differential
equation in part (a). Carry out your thoughts and verify that ip (t) is the same as
 
E0 R X
ip (t) = sin γt − cos γt
Z Z Z

where p
X = Lγ − 1/Cγ and Z= X 2 + R2

31. Complex Matrices In this project we assume that you have either had some experience with
matrices or are willing to learn something about them. Certain complex matrices, that is, matrices
whose entries are complex numbers, are important in applied mathematics. An n × n complex
matrix A is said to be: Hermitian if ĀT = A Skew-Hermitian if A ~ T = −A Unitary

if ĀT = A−1

Here the symbol Ā means the conjugate of the matrix A, which is the matrix obtained by taking
the conjugate of each entry of A.ĀT is then the transpose of Ā, which is the matrix obtained by
interchanging the rows with the columns. The negative −A is the matrix formed by negating all
the entries of A; the matrix A−1 is the multiplicative inverse of A.

(a) Which of the following matrices are Hermitian, skew-Hermitian, or unitary?

 
3i 10 −10 − 2i
A =  −10 0 4+i 
10 − 2i −4 + i −5i
 
1 0 0
2+i −2+i 
B =  0 √10 √10 

2+i 2−i
0 √ 10
√
10
 
2 1 + 7i −6 + 2i
C =  1 − 7i 4 1+i 
−6 − 2i 1 − i 0
(b) What can be said about the entries on the main diagonal of a Hermitian matrix? Prove your
assertion.
(c) What can be said about the entries on the main diagonal of a skewHermitian matrix? Prove
your assertion.
(d) Prove that the eigenvalues of a Hermitian matrix are real.
(e) Prove that the eigenvalues of a skew-Hermitian matrix are either pure imaginary or zero.

12
(f) Prove that the eigenvalues of unitary matrix are unimodular; that is, |λ| = 1. Describe where
these eigenvalues are located in the complex plane.
(g) Prove that the modulus of a unitary matrix is one, that is, | det A| = 1
(h) Do some additional reading and find an application of each of these types of matrices.
(i) What are the real analogues of these three matrices?

7 Ejercicios 7 números complejos

3.1 Two complex numbers z and w are given by z = 3 + 4i and w = 2 − i. On an Argand diagram,
plot

(a) z + w, (b)w − z, (c)wz, (d)z/w,

(e) z ∗ w + w∗ z, (f )w2 , (g) ln z, (h)(1 + z + w)1/2

3.2 By considering the real and imaginary parts of the product eiθ eiφ prove the standard for-
mulae for cos(θ + φ) and sin(θ + φ).

3.3 By writing π/12 = (π/3) − (π/4) and considering eiπ/12 , evaluate cot(π/12)

3.4 Find the locus in the complex z -plane of points that satisfy the following equations.
 
1+it
(a) z − c = ρ 1−it , where c is complex, ρ is real and t is a real parameter that varies in
the range −∞ < t < ∞.
(b) z = a+bt+ct2 , in which t is a real parameter and a, b, and c are complex numbers with b/c real.

3.5 Evaluate

(a) Re(exp 2iz)
√

2
(b) Im
 cosh z , (c) (−1 + 3i)1/2


(d) exp i1/2


,
3
(e) exp i ,

√ 
(f) Im 2i+3 , ( g ) i i , (h) ln ( 3 + i)3 .

3.6 Find the equations in terms of x and y of the sets of points in the Argand diagram that
satisfy the following:

(a) Re z 2 =
Im2 z
2
2
(b) Im z /z = −i
(c) arg[z/(z − 1)] = π/2

13
3.7 Show that the locus of all points z = x + iy in the complex plane that satisfy

|z − ia| = λ|z + ia|, λ > 0


 


is a circle of radius 2λa/ 1 − λ2  centred on the point z = ia 1 + λ2 / 1 − λ2 Sketch the
circles for a few typical values of λ, including λ < 1, λ > 1 and λ = 1 3.8 The two sets of points
z = a, z = b, z = c, and z = A, z = B, z = C are the corners of two similar triangles in the Argand
diagram. Express in terms of a, b, . . . , C.

(a) the equalities of corresponding angles, and

(b) the constant ratio of corresponding sides, in the two triangles. By noting that any complex
quantity can be expressed as
z = |z| exp(i arg z)
deduce that
a(B − C) + b(C − A) + c(A − B) = 0
3.9 For the real constant a find the loci of all points z = x + iy in the complex plane that satisfy
n  o
(a) Re ln z−ia
z+ia = c, c > 0
n  o
(b) Im ln z−iaz+ia = k, 0 ≤ k ≤ π/2 Identify the two families of curves and verify that in
case (b) all curves pass through the two points ±ia.

3.10 The most general type of transformation between one Argand diagram, in the z -plane,
and another, in the Z -plane, that gives one and only one value of Z for each value of z (and
conversely) is known as the general bilinear transformation and takes the form

aZ + b
z=
cZ + d
(a) Confirm that the transformation from the Z -plane to the z -plane is also a general bilinear
transformation.
(b) Recalling that the equation of a circle can be written in the form
 
 z − z1 
 z − z2  = λ, λ 6= 1
 

show that the general bilinear transformation transforms circles into circles (or straight lines).
What is the condition that z1 , z2 and λ must satisfy if the transformed circle is to be a straight
line?
 
3.11 Sketch the
 parts of the Argand diagram in which (a) Re z 2 < 0, z 1/2  ≤ 2 (b) 0 ≤
arg z ∗ ≤ π/2 (c) exp z 3  → 0 as |z| → ∞ What is the area of the region in which all three sets of
conditions are satisfied?

3.12 Denote the n th roots of unity by 1, ωn , ωn2 , . . . , ωnn−1

14
(a) Prove that
Pn−1
(i) r=0 ωnr = 0
Qn−1
(ii) r=0 ωnr = (−1)n+1

(b) Express x2 + y 2 + z 2 − yz − zx − xy as the product of two factors, each linear in x, y and

z, with coefficients dependent on the third roots of unity (and those of the x terms arbitrarily
taken as real).

3.13 Prove that x2m+1 − a2m+1 , where m is an integer ≥ 1, can be written as

m    
Y 2πr
x2m+1 − a2m+1 = (x − a) x2 − 2ax cos + a2
r=1
2m + 1

3.14 The complex position vectors of two parallel interacting equal fluid vortices moving with
their axes of rotation always perpendicular to the z -plane are z1 and z2 . The equations governing
their motions are
dz1∗ i dz2∗ i
=− , =−
dt z1 − z2 dt z2 − z1
2 2
Deduce that (a) z1 + z2 , (b) |z1 − z2 | and (c) |z1 | + |z2 | are all constant in time, and hence
describe the motion geometrically.

3.15 Solve the equation

z 7 − 4z 6 + 6z 5 − 6z 4 + 6z 3 − 12z 2 + 8z + 4 = 0
(a) by examining the effect of setting z 3 equal to 2, and then
(b) by factorising and using the binomial expansion of (z + a)4 Plot the seven roots of the equation
on an Argand plot, exemplifying that complex roots of a polynomial equation always occur in
conjugate pairs if the polynomial has real coefficients.

3.16 The polynomial f (z) is defined by

f (z) = z 5 − 6z 4 + 15z 3 − 34z 2 + 36z − 48
(a) Show that the equation f (z) = 0 has roots of the form z = λi, where λ is real, and hence
factorize f (z).
(b) Show further that the cubic factor of f (z) can be written in the form (z + a)3 + b, where a and
b are real, and hence solve the equation f (z) = 0 completely.

3.17 The binomial expansion of (1 + x)n , discussed in chapter 1, can be written for a positive
integer n as
Xn
(1 + x)n = n
C r xr
r=0

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where n Cr = n!/[r!(n − r)!]

(a) Use de Moivre’s theorem to show that the sum

S1 (n) = n C0 − n C2 + n C4 − · · · + (−1)mn C2m , n − 1 ≤ 2m ≤ n
has the value 2n/2 cos(nπ/4).
(b) Derive a similar result for the sum
S2 (n) = n C1 − n C3 + n C5 − · · · + (−1)mn C2m+1 , n − 1 ≤ 2m + 1 ≤ n
and verify it for the cases n = 6, 7 and 8.

3.18 By considering (1 + exp iθ)n , prove that

Pn n
Pr=0 Cr cos rθ = 2n cosn (θ/2) cos(nθ/2)
n n n n
r=0 Cr sin rθ = 2 cos (θ/2) sin(nθ/2)

where n Cr = n!/[r!(n − r)!]

3.19 Use de Moivre’s theorem with n = 4 to prove that

cos 4θ = 8 cos4 θ − 8 cos2 θ + 1
and deduce that
√ !1/2
π 2+ 2
cos =
8 4
3.20 Express sin4 θ entirely in terms of the trigonometric functions of multiple angles and deduce
that its average value over a complete cycle is 38 .

3.21 Use de Moivre’s theorem to prove that

t5 − 10t3 + 5t
tan 5θ =
5t4 − 10t2 + 1
where t = tan θ. Deduce the values of tan(nπ/10) for n = 1, 2, 3, 4

3.22 Prove the following results involving hyperbolic functions. (a) That
   
x+y x−y
cosh x − cosh y = 2 sinh sinh
2 2

(b) That, if y = sinh−1 x

d2 y dy
x2 + 1 +x =0
dx2 dx

3.23 Determine the conditions under which the equation

a cosh x + b sinh x = c, c>0

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has zero, one, or two real solutions for x. What is the solution if a2 = c2 + b2 ?

3.24 Use the definitions and properties of hyperbolic functions to do the following:

(a) Solve cosh x = sinh x + 2 sech x √

(b) Show that the real solution x of tanh x = cosech x can be written in the form x = ln(u + u).
Find an explicit value for u
(c) Evaluate tanh x when x is the real solution of cosh 2x = 2 cosh x

3.25 Express sinh4 x in terms of hyperbolic cosines of multiples of x, and hence find the real
solutions of
2 cosh 4x − 8 cosh 2x + 5 = 0

3.26 In the theory of special relativity, the relationship between the position and time co-
ordinates of an event, as measured in two frames of reference that have parallel x -axes, can be
expressed in terms of hyperbolic functions. If the coordinates are x and t in one frame and x0 and
t0 in the other, then the relationship take the form

x0 = x cosh φ − ct sinh φ
ct0 = −x sinh φ + ct cosh φ

Express x and ct in terms of x0 , ct0 and φ and show that

2 2
x2 − (ct)2 = (x0 ) − (ct0 )

3.27 A closed barrel has as its curved surface the surface obtained by rotating about the x -axis
the part of the curve
y = a[2 − cosh(x/a)]
lying in the range −b ≤ x ≤ b, where b < a cosh−1 2. Show that the total surface area, A, of the
barrel is given by
A = πa[9a − 8a exp(−b/a) + a exp(−2b/a) − 2b]

3.28 The principal value of the logarithmic function of a complex variable is defined to have its
argument in the range −π < arg z ≤ π. By writing z = tan w in terms of exponentials show that
 
−1 1 1 + iz
tan z = ln
2i 1 − iz

Use this result to evaluate √ !

−1 2 3 − 3i
tan
7

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