Porphyry-Epithermal Short Course — Part 5

Porphyry Cu-Mo-Au and Related

Epithermal Au Systems
Part 5: Epithermal Deposits

Jeremy P. Richards
Dept. Earth & Atmospheric Sciences
University of Alberta
Edmonton, Alberta, T6G 2E3, Canada
Jeremy.Richards@UAlberta.CA

Relationship between epithermal systems and

volcanism; the 1970s view (Sillitoe, 1973)

Fig. 1 in Sillitoe, R.H., 1973, The tops and bottoms of porphyry copper deposits: Economic Geology, v. 68, p. 799–815.

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Porphyry-Epithermal Short Course — Part 5

The 1980s epithermal revolution:

Analogues of geothermal systems

Champagne Pool, Waiotapu geothermal area, New Zealand

Epithermal deposits:
• Low-temperature, shallow crustal deposits.
• Enriched in a wide variety of unusual elements:
Au, Ag, As, Sb, Hg, Te, Se, Bi, V, U, base metals.
• Epithermal deposits occur as veins, breccias, and
disseminations.
• Hosted by volcanic or sedimentary sequences, and
may also occur in orogenic terrains (high-level
expressions of vein-type mesothermal systems?).
• Most commonly found in young geological terrains —
preservation problem.

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Porphyry-Epithermal Short Course — Part 5

Three main types of

epithermal deposits:
(a) High sulfidation (acid-sulfate): HS fluids
appear to be derived from near-surface
geothermal activity associated with
shallow-level intrusive and volcanic
activity (calderas, stratovolcanoes);
timing of mineralization coincides closely
with age of the host rocks.
Evans, A.M., 1993, Ore geology and
industrial minerals, an introduction,
(b) Low sulfidation (adularia-sericite):
3rd edn: Blackwell Scientific, 390 p. commonly post-dates volcanic host rocks
by ≥1 m.y.; hosted by varying lithologies,
implying little genetic relationship to
country rock. Systems appear to be
related to deeper-seated sources of
magmatic heat.
Newly recognized class:
(c)  Intermediate sulfidation (base metal
sulfides, illite).

Epithermal deposit characteristics:

• Shallow environment: Typically ≤1 km depth of formation,
but may be deeper if fluids contain CO2.
• Ore fluid: 50°–300°C; 1–10 ppb Au.
LS: <5 eq. wt.% NaCl, near-neutral.
IS: 1–10 eq. wt.% NaCl, weakly acidic.
HS: <5 eq. wt.% NaCl, sometimes more saline, acidic.
• Sources of fluids:
LS: dominated by groundwater circulation.
IS: magmatic fluids and groundwaters (mixing);
HS: dominated by magmatic fluids;
• Sources of metals:
Metals and other volatiles derived from deep (magmatic)
sources (HS, IS), or by leaching of metals from host
volcanic/sedimentary rocks by heated groundwaters (LS).

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Porphyry-Epithermal Short Course — Part 5

Epithermal deposit characteristics cont:

• Structure: Permeability and structure exercise strong
controls on ore-forming processes and the location of
high grade (bonanza) zones.
• Textures:
LS: Open vuggy cavities, crustification, symmetrical
banding, hydraulic breccias.
HS: “Vuggy silica”, porosity and breccia cements.

IS vein, Mala Noche

vein system,
Zacatecas, Mexico

• Ore minerals:
LS: Au°, Ag°, electrum, Ag2S, sulfosalts, tellurides,
selenides, pyrite, arsenopyrite, minor base-metal-
sulfides. Commonly vertically zoned in base and
precious metals.
HS: Au°, electrum, pyrite, enargite, covellite, digenite.
IS: Au°, electrum, pyrite, tetrahedrite-tennantite,
adundant base-metal-sulfides (sphalerite, galena,
chalcopyrite).

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Porphyry-Epithermal Short Course — Part 5

• Gangue minerals:
LS: Quartz, chalcedony, calcite, adularia, baryte,
rhodochrosite (+ fluorite, roscoelite in alkalic-type
epithermal).
IS: Quartz, carbonates (rhodochrosite).
HS: Residual vuggy quartz, alunite, kaolinite.
• Alteration minerals:
LS: Quartz, adularia, sericite/illite, chlorite;
IS: Quartz, illite.
HS: Silica, alunite, pyrophyllite, kaolinite, diaspore.

Alteration minerals
in epithermal
systems

Fig. 3.1 from Hedenquist, J.W.,

Izawa, E., Arribas, A., and White,
N.C., 1996, Epithermal gold
deposits: Styles, characteristics, and
exploration: Resource Geology
Special Publication No. 1, 16 p.

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Porphyry-Epithermal Short Course — Part 5

The fumarolic–epithermal environment

Hedenquist, J.W., Izawa, E., Arribas, A., and White, N.C., 1996, Epithermal gold deposits:
Styles, characteristics, and exploration: Resource Geology Special Publication No. 1, 16 p.

Active fumaroles on Volcán Lastarría, Chile

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Porphyry-Epithermal Short Course — Part 5

Active fumaroles on
Taftan volcano, SE Iran

Mina Julia sulfur mine, NW Argentina

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Porphyry-Epithermal Short Course — Part 5

Sulfate fumaroles, Corrida de Cori, NW Argentina

Left: Gypsum fumarole spires

surrounded by volcanic bombs (black).
Right: Anydrite veins feeding fossil
fumaroles.

The epithermal ore-forming environment

Interm
ediate
sulfida
ti on

Hedenquist, J.W., Izawa, E., Arribas, A., and White, N.C., 1996, Epithermal gold deposits:
Styles, characteristics, and exploration: Resource Geology Special Publication No. 1, 16 p.

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Porphyry-Epithermal Short Course — Part 5

Lepanto HS epithermal system linked to FSE porphyry

Shinohara, H., and Hedenquist, J.W., 1997, Constraints on magma degassing beneath the Far
Southeast porphyry Cu-Au deposit, Philippines: Journal of Petrology, v. 38, p. 1741–1752.

10 RICHARD H. SILLITOE

High-sulfidation epithermal
disseminated Au ± Ag ± Cu
Relationship
Intermediate-
sulfidation
between
epithermal Au-Ag

porphyry and
High-sulfidation
lode Cu-Au ± Ag
HS–IS
Base of
lithocap Carbonate-replacement
Zn-Pb-Ag ± Au (or Cu)
epithermal
Distal Au/Zn-Pb
skarn
deposits
Sediment-
Subepithermal hosted distal-
vein Zn-Cu-Pb- disseminated
Ag ± Au Au-As ± Sb ± Hg
Marble
front
Porphyry
Cu ± Au ± Mo Proximal
Cu-Au skarn

1km

1km

Late-mineral porphyry LITHOCAP Phreatic breccia

PORPHYRY Intermineral magmatic-hydrothermal breccia Dacite porphyry plug-dome
STOCK
Intermineral porphyry Lacustrine sediment
MAAR-
Early porphyry DIATREME Late phreatomagmatic breccia
COMPLEX
PRECURSOR Equigranular intrusive rock Early phreatomagmatic breccia
PLUTON
Late-mineral porphyry
Dacite dome
V V V
V V
Felsic tuff unit
HOST V V
Sillitoe, R.H., 2010, Porphyry
ROCKS Andesitic volcanic unit
V V V
copper systems: Economic
Subvolcanic basement / carbonate horizon Geology, v. 105, p. 3–41.

FIG. 6. Anatomy of a telescoped porphyry Cu system showing spatial interrelationships of a centrally located porphyry Cu
± Au ± Mo deposit in a multiphase porphyry stock and its immediate host rocks; peripheral proximal and distal skarn, car-
bonate-replacement (chimney-manto), and sediment-hosted (distal-disseminated) deposits in a carbonate unit and subep-
ithermal veins in noncarbonate rocks; and overlying high- and intermediate-sulfidation epithermal deposits in and alongside
the lithocap environment. The legend explains the temporal sequence of rock types, with the porphyry stock predating maar-
diatreme emplacement, which in turn overlaps lithocap development and phreatic brecciation. Only uncommonly do indi-
vidual systems contain several of the deposit types illustrated, as discussed in the text (see Table 3). Notwithstanding the as-
sertion that cartoons of this sort (including Fig. 10) add little to the understanding of porphyry Cu genesis (Seedorff and
Einaudi, 2004), they embody the relationships observed in the field and, hence, aid the explorationist. Modified from Silli-
toe (1995b, 1999b, 2000).

© Richards (2016)
0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00 10
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Porphyry-Epithermal Short Course — Part 5

High-sulfidation epithermal deposits

• Examples: El Indio (Chile), Goldfield (NV), Pueblo
Viejo (Dominican Republic).
• Alteration caused by acidic, sulfate-bearing fluids:
4 SO2 + 4 H2O ⇔ H2S + 3 H2SO4
• Commonly associated with calc-alkaline rocks (high
SO2-content).
• Alteration is characterized by argillic/advanced
argillic assemblages, typically with alunite, diaspore.
• Variable Ag/Au ratios, important concentrations of
Cu, and may contain anomalous concentrations of
Bi, Mo, Te, W.
• Ore minerals include base metal sulfides, sulfates,
sulfosalts (enargite), Au°, electrum, but no selenides.

Colloform banded pyrite

and euhedral enargite
Chelopech HS gold
deposit, Bulgaria

Chelopech

Marchev (2005)

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Porphyry-Epithermal Short Course — Part 5

Argillic and advanced argillic alteration

Argillic alteration is the product of cooler, acidic (lower
aK+/aH+) fluids, and is characterized by the breakdown of
aluminosilicate minerals to clays. When magmatic fluids cool,
the sulfur that they carry disproportionates from SO2 (S4+),
which is the dominant dissolved species at high temperature,
to a mixture of H2S (S2–) and sulfuric acid (S6+):
4 SO2 + 4 H2O → H2S + 3 HSO4– + 3 H+

K-feldspar + acid → clay (kaolinite) + Qz + K+

2 KAlSi3O8 + 2 H+ + H2O → Al2Si2O5(OH)4 + 4 SiO2 + 2 K+
Thus, as high temperature solute-laden or gaseous
hydrothermal fluids cool, they become increasingly acidic, and
argillic to advanced argillic alteration results.
Hydroxyl groups in clay minerals have a characteristic
spectral response which can be discriminated by LANDSAT
imagery.

Hydrothermal
alteration
zones
associated
with rhyolitic
Antofalla tuffs and
West
domes in a
Vn. Antofalla
large
volcanic
complex
(Antofalla,
Salar
Argentina)
Antofalla
East
de

Antofalla
10 km

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Porphyry-Epithermal Short Course — Part 5

Landsat bands
5/7 showing
water/ice and
hydrothermal
alteration on
Antofalla West Volcán
epithermal system
Antofalla
Snow on
Vn. Antofalla

Antofalla East
epithermal system
Spring
10 km

Advanced argillic alteration:

Late, cooler still, highly acidic magmatic fluids
(not present in the original Lowell & Guilbert model, because
not well preserved in the Laramide porphyries)

• Characterized by complete replacement of rock by clay

minerals (commonly kaolinite or pyrophyllite), ± quartz.
Alunite [KAl3(SO4)2(OH)6] and diaspore [AlO(OH)] are also
characteristic of this alteration assemblage.
• Little is left chemically of the original rock except Si and Al
— most other components are leached out by the highly
acidic (very low aK+/aH+) fluids.

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Porphyry-Epithermal Short Course — Part 5

Silverton HS
deposit, CO

El Indio HS
deposit, Chile

HS: Advanced argillic

alteration: alunite-silica
body surrounded by
quartz-kaolinite
(Aras, Iran)

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Porphyry-Epithermal Short Course — Part 5

Vuggy silica
lithocap
overlying
alunite-
cemented
breccia,

Co. Laguna
Pedernal,
NW Argentina

Vn. Antofalla: 6409m

Lithocap 5000m
Alunite-clay
alteration
Pb-Zn-Ag veins

3500m

Silicified lithocap above high-sulfidation

epithermal Au mineralization, with marginal
intermediate sulfidation Pb-Zn-Ag veins
Silica-cemented
Volcán Antofalla, Argentina alunite breccia

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Intermediate-sulfidation
epithermal deposits
Distal Pb-Zn-Ag epithermal
veins (IS) in underlying
sedimentary rocks beneath
volcanic sequence
Quebrada de las Minas,
Volcán Antofalla

IS vein, Mala Noche vein system, Zacatecas, Mexico:

Early sphalerite with later vuggy quartz and bladed calcite (replaced by pyrite)

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Porphyry-Epithermal Short Course — Part 5

Efemçukuru IS Au deposit,
Western Turkey
High grades (up to 210 g/t Au over 1 m)
in quartz-rhodonite-rhodochrosite veins,
with minor sphalerite and galena.

Bonanza-type (low sulfidation) epithermal deposits

Panteleyev, A., 1988, A Canadian Cordilleran model for epithermal gold-silver deposits, in Roberts, R.G., and Sheahan,
P.A., eds., 1988, Ore deposit models: Geoscience Canada Reprint Series 3, Geol. Assoc. Canada, p.31–43.

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Hishikari, Japan
Low-sulfidation epithermal deposits
• Examples: Tonapah (NV), Creede (CO),
Pachuca-Real del Monte (Mexico),
Hishikari (Japan).
• Derived from near-neutral, bisulfide-
bearing fluids.
• Commonly associated with rhyolitic rocks.
• Alteration is characterized by Qz-adularia-
carbonate-sericite assemblages.
• High Ag/Au ratios, variable concentrations
of Cu, and anomalous Mo, W, Mn, F, Se.
• Ore minerals include base metal sulfides,
sulfates, sulfosalts, selenides, Au°,
electrum.

www.jamstec.go.jp/jamstec-e/XBR/suger/en/therod21.html

Typical boiling textures

(bladed calcite, vuggy quartz)
Pachapaqui Pb-Zn-Ag mine, Péru

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Porphyry-Epithermal Short Course — Part 5

Hedenquist et al. (1996)

Distal low-
sulfidation
epithermal Au
mineralization
Hishikari, Japan

Sakurajima volcano

Alkalic-type low-sulfidation
epithermal Au
mineralization
Porgera, Papua New Guinea

Bonanza grades over

1000 g/t

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Porphyry-Epithermal Short Course — Part 5

Porgera
early (A)
veins

(Stage I)

A veins cutting Tetrahedrite,

intrusion arsenopyrite,
sphalerite, (Au°)
Pyrite, galena,
arsenopyrite, and Au° Galena, sphalerite,
rare chalcopyrite arsenopyrite, (Au°)

Au° in pyrite

Porgera A veins:
Fluid inclusions

FIs in sphalerite

(Th = 300–350°C)

Hypersaline FIs in early

quartz with phyllic
alteration

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Porphyry-Epithermal Short Course — Part 5

Early IS-type base-

metal-sulfide-
carbonate A vein
with late LS-type
vuggy quartz D
vein, showing
paragenetic
sequence (A → D)
(Note: This A–D vein
terminology is mine-specific,
and not related to Gustafson
& Hunt’s (1975) porphyry vein
terminology)

Breccia-type D veins with visible Au°

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Porgera
D veins

(Stage II)

Typical brecciated Au-Ag tellurides with

D vein pyrite
Au-Ag tellurides
Roscoelite with pseudomorphing
pyrite and Au° bladed calcite in Py

Au° with
pyrite,
tetrahedrite

Porgera D
veins:
Fluid
inclusions

Typical layered D vein: Au FIs in growth zones

occurs near the fine- in vuggy quartz

grained margin (Th ≈ 150°C)

Rare vapor-rich FIs Rare CO2-rich FIs

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Epithermal fluid chemistry

O and H isotopic compositions of various ore-forming
fluids suggest that exchanged meteoric waters are
the dominant fluids present in most LS deposits, but
magmatic waters form IS and HS deposits.

LS HS

Ohmoto, H., 1986, Stable isotope geochemistry of ore deposits, Shinohara, H., and Hedenquist, J.W., 1997, Constraints on
in Valley, J.W., Taylor, H.P., and O’Neil, J.R., eds., Stable magma degassing beneath the Far Southeast porphyry Cu-Au
isotopes in high temperature geological processes: Mineral. deposit, Philippines: Journal of Petrology, v. 38, p. 1741–1752.
Soc. Amer., Reviews in Mineralogy, v. 16, p. 491-599.

Possible pathways
for magmatic fluids
to contract to
moderate salinity
liquids:
(1) condensation,
(2) non-condensation
paths of Heinrich et
al. (2004) and
Hedenquist et al.
(1998), respectively.
Hedenquist, J.W., Arribas, A., Jr.,
and Reynolds, J.R., 1998,
Evolution of an intrusion-centered
hydrothermal system: Far
Southeast–Lepanto porphyry and
epithermal Cu-Au deposits,
Philippines: Economic Geology, v.
93, p. 373–404.
Heinrich, C.A., Dreisner, T.,
Steffánson, A., and Seward, T.M.,
2004, Magmatic vapor contraction
and the transport of gold from the
porphyry environment to
Modified from Richards, J.P., 2011, Magmatic to hydrothermal metal fluxes epithermal ore deposits: Geology,
in convergent and collided margins: Ore Geology Reviews, v. 40, p. 1–26. v. 32, p. 761–764.

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Porphyry-Epithermal Short Course — Part 5

Physico-chemical
conditions of
HS epithermal ore
formation
LS
250°C, ΣS = 0.02 m,
salinity = 1 m

Fig. 6 in Heald, P., Foley, N.K., and

Hayba, D.O., 1987, Comparative
anatomy of volcanic-hosted epithermal
deposits: acid-sulfate and adularia-
sericite types: Economic Geology, v. 82,
p. 1–26.

HS

LS
Hm
Py

250°C, ΣS = 0.02 m,
salinity = 1 m

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Porphyry-Epithermal Short Course — Part 5

HS

LS
Tennantite
Enargite

250°C, ΣS = 0.02 m,
salinity = 1 m

HS

LS

Kaol K-spar

250°C, ΣS = 0.02 m,
salinity = 1 m

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Alun Kaol
Anglesite (PbSO4)
Galena
HS

LS

250°C, ΣS = 0.02 m,
salinity = 1 m

HS Physico-chemical
conditions of
epithermal ore
formation

250°C, salinity
=1m

LS

From Evans (1993), modified from:

Fig. 5 in Heald, P., Foley, N.K., and
Hayba, D.O., 1987, Comparative
anatomy of volcanic-hosted epithermal
deposits: acid-sulfate and adularia-
sericite types: Economic Geology, v. 82,
p. 1–26.

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Porphyry-Epithermal Short Course — Part 5

HS

Enargite
Tenn
Fe-rich Sp Py LS

Hm
Chl

250°C, salinity
=1m

Alun
Covellite Kaol
Digenite HS

Py + Bornite
Chalcopyrite Fe-poor Sp Py
Hm

LS

250°C, salinity
=1m

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An updated view,
identifying IS-type
systems, and the
similarity of HS ore to
IS-stage fluids.

End-member LS
systems are shown
ranging to more
reducing conditions.

Hedenquist, J.W., Claveria, R.J.R.,

and Villafuerte, G.P., 2001, Types of
sulfide-rich epithermal deposits, and
their affiliation to porphyry systems:
Lepanto–Victoria–Far Southeast
deposits, Philippines, as examples:
ProExplo Congreso, Lima, Perú,
24-28 April 2001, 29 p.

Gold transport and deposition

Gold dissolution as bisulfide complexes
(e.g., Au(HS)2–):
[Au]measured in natural fluids ≥ 1.5 ppb

Experimentally determined solubilities:

[Au(HS)2–] ≈ 11.1 ppb
[AuCl2–] ≈ 1.2 x 10–7 ppb

Therefore, Au is mainly dissolved as

bisulfide rather than chloride complexes.

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Precipitation of Au caused by destabilization of Au-

bisulfide complexes:
Reduction ± acidification:
Au(HS)2– + H+ + 1/2H2O → Au° + 2H2S + 1/4O2
Oxidation ± neutralization:
Au(HS)2– + 33/4O2 + 1/2H2O → Au° + 2SO42– + 3H+

Champagne Pool,
Waiotapu geothermal
area, New Zealand

Gold solubility in relation to acidity and oxidation state

ppm ppm

Fig. 17 in Hedenquist, J.W., and Henley, R.W., 1985, Hydrothermal eruptions in the Waiotapu geothermal system, New Zealand:
their origin, associated breccias, and relation to precious metal mineralization: Economic Geology, v. 80, p. 1640–1668.

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Boiling is also an effective ore forming process. Gases such as CO2

and H2S are lost to the vapour phase, resulting in changes in pH, fo2, and T:

Au(HS)2– + H+ + 1/2H2O → Au° + 2H2S(g)↑ + 1/4O2

HCO3– + H+ → H2O + CO2(g)↑ (pH increases with loss of CO2 gas)
Zn2+ + HS– → ZnS + H+ (sulfides and calcite ppt with increasing pH)
Ca2+ + HCO3– → CaCO3 + H+ (bladed calcite)
Ca2+ + 2HCO3– → CaCO3 + H2O + CO2(g)↑ (bladed calcite)

Gold and Ag-tellurides

Bladed calcite and pseudomorphing
vuggy Qz, bladed calcite in Py,
Pachapaqui, Peru Porgera, PNG

PPL Casts of bladed

calcite in quartz
Casposo LS epithermal
Au deposit,
NW Argentina

XPL

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Boiling point–depth relationships for pure and saline waters,

and CO2-bearing waters

CO2 increases the depth

(pressure) or lowers the
temperature of boiling (phase
separation or effervescence)

Fig. 2.2b in Henley, R.W., Truesdell, A.H., Barton, P.D., Jr., and Fig. 5.16 in Bodnar, R.J., Reynolds, T.J., and Kuehn,
Whitney, J.A., 1984, Fluid–mineral equilibria in hydrothermal C.A., 1985, Fluid inclusion systematics in epithermal
systems: Reviews in Economic Geology, v. 1, 267 p. systems: Reviews in Economic Geology, v. 2, p. 73–97.

Wallrock sulfidization is also effective:

“FeO” + 2H2S + 1/2O2 → FeS2 + 2H2O
2Au(HS)2– + “FeO” + 2H+ → 2Au° + FeS2 + 2H2S↑ + H2O

Pyritized Mt,
Porgera Au
deposit, PNG

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Summary
• Epithermal deposits are divided into three main categories: Low
sulfidation (a.k.a., adularia-sericite); high sulfidation (a.k.a.
acid-sulfate); intermediate sulfidation deposits feature more
abundant base-metal-sulfides and illite, and may reflect higher
salinity fluids; commonly associated with HS systems.
• HS deposits are closely related to magmatic activity; fluids of
direct magmatic origin. Early intense acidic alteration by
magmatic volatiles provides permeability, followed (sometimes)
by later less-acidic mineralizing fluids.
• IS deposits commonly distally related to HS systems; fluids are
less acidic (illite alteration) and saline (base metal sulfides).
• LS deposits are commonly distal to magmatic activity, and post-
date it by ≥1 m.y. Fluids dominantly of meteoric origin, although
some magmatic fluid may be present. Metals may be derived
from country rocks or magmas. Boiling is a characteristic ore
depositional mechanism. Includes alkalic-type deposits.

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