Porphyry-Epithermal Short Course — Part 8

Porphyry Cu-Mo-Au and Related

Epithermal Au Systems
Part 8: Exploration Indices for
Discovery of Porphyry and
Epithermal Deposits

Jeremy P. Richards
Dept. Earth & Atmospheric Sciences
University of Alberta
Edmonton, Alberta, T6G 2E3, Canada
Jeremy.Richards@UAlberta.CA

Porphyry Cu±Mo±Au Exploration

Key considerations:
• Large porphyry Cu deposits (PCDs) have large
hydrothermal alteration footprints, commonly extending
many kilometres around the deposit, which may itself
have a footprint of up to ~1 km2.
• Most outcropping PCDs have already been discovered,
even in remote regions through the use of satellite data.
• Exploration must now focus on covered or partially
covered deposits by:
(i) Recognition of distal geochemical and mineralogical
signatures observable in regional or peripheral rocks;
and
(ii) Indirect geochemical and geophysical techniques
that can “see” below cover.

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Porphyry-Epithermal Short Course — Part 8

Target Size
• Porphyry Cu deposits come in all sizes, from small
subeconomic systems displaying weak alteration and a
few small veins, to giant deposits with alteration zones
covering 100s of km2, and intensely veined and
mineralized centres.
• While small deposits may be economic (e.g., if grades
are high), most exploration is focused on the discovery
of large deposits (hundreds to billions of tonnes of ore)
due to economies of scale and long mine life.
• Unless such large deposits are completely covered by
younger rocks (or overthrust), some evidence for their
existence is usually visible.
• Even the locations of fully concealed deposits can be
predicted to some degree from, for example, regional
tectonomagmatic and structural studies.

Porphyry deposits are small parts of large hydrothermal

systems, themselves linked to vertically and laterally
extensive magmatic systems — they are hard to miss!

Richards,
J.P., 2011:
Ore
Geology
Reviews, v.
40, p. 1–26.

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Regional geological
maps commonly contain
sufficient information to
identify prospective
areas.
This region in Sonora,
10 km Mexico, shows extensive
areas of Laramide
volcanic and shallowly-
exposed plutonic rocks,
as well as widespread
hydrothermal alteration
and mineral occurrences.
(Tecoripa, 1:250,000
geological map; Mexican
Geological Survey).

Similarly prospective
area, with a
suggestive name:
Los Verdes
(Tecoripa, 1:250,000
geological map; Mexican
Geological Survey).
20 km

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Large alteration zone and

evidence for locally intense
veining in country rocks
(Tameapa porphyry Cu-Mo
prospect, Mexico).

Large phyllic alteration

zone with oxidized sulfides
(pyrite) and supergene
clay overprint (Rio Amarillo
porphyry Cu-Mo prospect,
Mexico) — supergene
chalcocite enrichment
potential.

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Porphyry-Epithermal Short Course — Part 8

100 km

On the other hand, a small area of

arc volcanoplutonic rocks, with a
small phyllic alteration zone and very
restricted vein formation, suggesting
low prospectivity (NE Iran).

Regional Alteration Mapping

• Propylitic alteration is generated in country rocks by the
circulation of heated groundwaters, and may extend for
many kilometres around a heat source, typically an
igneous intrusion. Note that this can be any intrusion,
and not necessarily a porphyry system.
• Attempts have been made to chemically distinguish
between chlorite and epidote generated by propylitic
alteration versus regional low-grade metamorphism.
• Recently, Cooke et al (2014) and Wilkinson et al. (2015)
have used trace element compositions of hydrothermal
epidote and chlorite to map chemical and temperature
gradients in propylitic alteration zones, as a vector
towards high-temperature centres.
Cooke, D.R., Baker, M., Hollings, P., Sweet, G., Chang, Z., Danyushevsky, L., Gilbert, S., Zhou, T., White, N.C., Gemmell, J.B.,
and Inglis, S., 2014, New advances in detecting the distal geochemical footprints of porphyry systems—epidote mineral
chemistry as a tool for vectoring and fertility assessments: Society of Economic Geologists, Special Publication 18, p. 127–152.
Wilkinson, J.J., Chang, Z., Cooke, D.R., Baker, M.J., Wilkinson, C.C., Inglis, S., Chen, H., and Gemmell, J.B., 2015, The
chlorite proximitor: A new tool for detecting porphyry ore deposits: Journal of Geochemical Exploration, v. 152, p. 10–26.

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Porphyry-Epithermal Short Course — Part 8

The “green rock” alteration environment around porphyries

Cooke et al., 2014: Society of Economic Geologists, Special Publication 18, p. 127–152.

Cooke et al., 2014: Society of Economic Geologists, Special Publication 18, p. 127–152.

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Porphyry-Epithermal Short Course — Part 8

Cooke et al., 2014: Society of Economic Geologists, Special Publication 18, p. 127–152.

Ti/Sr and V/Ni ratios

in hydrothermal
chlorite decrease
with decreasing
temperature, away
from the centre of the
hydrothermal system
(Wilkinson et al.,
2015).

Richards, J.P., 2016, News & Views—

Clues to hidden copper deposits:
Nature Geoscience, v. 9, p. 195–196.

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Porphyry-Epithermal Short Course — Part 8

Multispectral remotely sensed data can be used to identify Fe-

oxides and hydroxyl-bearing minerals such as hydrothermal clays

Kaolinite   Pixels in red represent potential areas of occurrence of

kaolinite, whereas those in green represent alunite and the
ones in blue iron-bearing minerals. Mixtures of kaolinite+alunite
appear yellow, of kaolinite+iron-bearing minerals are magenta
(purple) and of alunite+iron-bearing minerals are cyan (light
Iron     blue). Pixels in white are likely to contain these three minerals.
Minerals    Alunite  

Propylitic alteration (chlorite-

epidote) extends for >100 km2
around the Escondida-Zaldívar-
Chimborazo porphyry triplet in
Chile, and phyllic (sericite)
alteration extends for 10s km2
around individual centres.
This large alteration zone was
recognized early in a regional
exploration program in northern
Chile by Getty Oil Company and
Utah International (1978–1981),
who were looking for the next
Chuquicamata beneath cover.
Phyllic alteration
Propylitic alteration
Richards, J.P., Boyce, A.J., and Pringle, M.S.,
5km 2001: Economic Geology, v. 96, p. 271–305.

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Porphyry-Epithermal Short Course — Part 8

David Lowell’s (1991) account of the 1981 discovery of the

giant Escondida orebody in the Atacama Desert, northern Chile

Exploration model
for a covered
porphyry deposit
with chalcocite
enrichment
blanket developed
in the pyritic phyllic
alteration zone

Lowell, J.D., 1991, The

discovery of the La Escondida
orebody: Economic Geology,
Monograph 8, p. 300–313.

Widespread propylitic,
and more localized
potassic (biotite) and
phyllic (leached
quartz-sericite)
Zaldivar alteration mapped in
isolated outcrops in
the Escondida–
Zaldivar area.
Rock and gravel
Escondida
geochemical surveys
revealed strong Cu
and Mo anomalies.
“Super-leaching”
recognized.
Lowell, J.D., 1991, The
discovery of the La Escondida
orebody: Economic Geology,
Monograph 8, p. 300–313.

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RC drill-hole locations:
The first 5 holes (150–180
m deep) drilled between
Zaldivar and Escondida
Zaldivar
encountered sparse
mineralization in propylitic
and weak phyllic alteration
(≤0.25% Cu).
Holes 6–9 (300–450 m
deep) were drilled on
Escondida leached outcrops on Cerro
Grande; hole #6 intersected
241 m of super-leached
rock, then 52 m of
supergene chalcocite
averaging 1.51% Cu.
Lowell, J.D., 1991: Economic Geology,
Monograph 8, p. 300–313.

Drill-holes 6–9 delineated a 50–165 m-thick chalcocite

enrichment blanket (0.7–1.5% Cu) below 137–365 m of
leached rock. Interesting, but not spectacular.
Follow-up drilling in late 1981 below gravels to the south of
Cerro Colorado hit the jackpot with DDH 61: 250 m @ 3% Cu.

Ortiz, F.J., 1995, Discovery of the Escondida porphyry copper deposit in the Antofagasta region,
northern Chile, March 1981, in Pierce, F.W., and Bolm, J.G., eds., Porphyry copper deposits of
the American Cordillera: Tucson, Arizona Geological Society Digest 20, p. 613–624.

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Porphyry-Epithermal Short Course — Part 8

Supergene chalcocite
and cuprite (red)
coating and replacing
primary pyrite in phyllic
alteration
(Escondida and Zaldívar
porphyries, Chile)

La Escondida
1.7 Gt @ 1.59% Cu, 0.015% Mo

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Lithogeochemical and
Igneous Mineralogical Methods
• Porphyry Cu±Mo±Au deposits are associated with I-
type, hydrous, oxidized arc (or arc-related) magmas.
• Fertile igneous rocks can be identified from whole-
rock lithogeochemical and mineral compositions,
providing a regional vector to prospective suites.

Whole-rock Sr/Y ratios: Magmatic water content

• Sr is strongly partitioned into plagioclase, and Y into
hornblende crystallizing from I-type magmas.
• High magmatic water contents promote early and
abundant crystallization of amphibole (leading to
decrease in Y), but delay the crystallization of plagioclase
(leading to increase in Sr); consequently, hydrous arc
magmas develop high Sr/Y ratios with differentiation.

Richards, J.P., Spell, T., Rameh, E., Razique, A., and Fletcher, T., 2012, High Sr/Y magmas reflect arc maturity,
high magmatic water content, and porphyry Cu±Mo±Au potential: Economic Geology, v. 107, p. 295–332.

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Whole-rock Eu anomalies: Magmatic water content

• Eu2+ substitutes for Ca2+ in plagioclase. Consequently,
plagioclase fractionation from dry magmas leads to
negative Eu anomalies on normalized REE diagrams.
• Conversely, suppression of plagioclase crystallization in
hydrous magmas results in absence of Eu anomaly.

Compositions
of porphyry-
related (middle
Eu Eocene) and
barren
(Paleocene)
igneous rocks,
Lut Block,
eastern Iran.

Richards et al., 2012:

Economic Geology,
v. 107, p. 295–332.

Whole-rock Eu anomalies
The Eu anomaly can also be expressed as:
Eun/Eu* = Eun/√(Smn x Gdn)
Fertile (hydrous) igneous suites should have Eun/Eu* ≥ 1,
whereas values < 1 indicate plagioclase fractionation (from
relatively dry magmas).

Compositions
of porphyry-
related (Kuh
Panj-type) and
barren (Jebal
Barez-type)
igneous rocks,
Kerman
porphyry belt,
east-central
Iran.
Richards et al., 2012:
Economic Geology,
v. 107, p. 295–332.

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Zircon Eu anomalies: Magmatic water content

Zircon strongly partitions REE, and LA-ICP-MS analyses
can be used to measure the Eu anomaly as a relative
indication of magmatic water content.

Dilles, J.H., Kent, A.J.R., Wooden, J.L., Tosdal, R.M., Koleszar, A., Lee, R.G., and Farmer, L.P., 2015, Zircon
compositional evidence for sulfur-degassing from ore-forming arc magmas: Economic Geology, v. 110, p. 241–251.

Zircon Ce anomalies: Oxidation state

On the other hand, Ce4+ substitutes for Zr4+ in zircon, and is
preferentially enriched relative to Ce3+ in zircons from oxidized
magmas. The Ce anomaly is not so easy to measure accurately,
but Lu et al. (2016) show that the (Ce/Nd)/Y ratio provides a
good discriminant, especially when coupled with Eu/Eu*.

Lu et al., 2016, Zircon

compositions as a
pathfinder for porphyry
Cu ± Mo ± Au mineral
deposits: SEG Special
Publication No. 19, in
press.

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Excess-Al in plagioclase: Magmatic water content

Williamson et al. (2016) have also shown that anomalously
high Al-contents in plagioclase phenocrysts from igneous
rocks may also indicate high magmatic H2O contents (due
to co-substitution of AlAl3SiO8 and [ ]Si4O8, although why
this is caused by high H2O content is currently unclear).

Williamson, B.J.,
Herrington, R.J.,
and Morris, A.,
2016, Porphyry
copper enrichment
linked to excess
aluminium in
plagioclase: Nature
Geoscience, v. 9,
p. 237–241.

Geophysical Surveys

Dentith, M., and Mudge, S.T., 2014,

Geophysics for the Mineral
Exploration Geoscientist: Cambridge
University Press, 438 p.

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Porphyry-Epithermal Short Course — Part 8

Comparison of
areal coverage of
various geophysical
exploration
methods (for the
equivalent cost of a
300 m DDH)

Dentith and
Mudge (2014)

Geophysical Methods
Porphyry Cu deposits have areally large and quite distinctive
geophysical signatures:
• Magnetic: Hydrothermal magnetite in potassic alteration
may give a small magnetic high relative to magnetite-
destructive phyllic alteration (magnetic low).
• Electrical chargeability: Abundant disseminated pyrite (up
to 50%) in phyllic alteration can give a strong chargeability
(IP) signature.
• Resistivity: The potassic core of porphyry systems is
relatively resistive (sulfide contents usually <5%, no clays).
• Radiometric: Potassium enrichment in potassic and phyllic
alteration zones can give a strong K radiometric signature.
• Gravity: Potentially useful if sufficient contrast between
lithologies, such as host intrusions and country rocks.

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Porphyry-Epithermal Short Course — Part 8
3D ZTEM and MT model of an epithermal system B3

regional ZTEM survey over the deposit area, and the availability
of geologic information from the drill core. The exposed part of
the Newton deposit has been classified as an intermediate-sulfida-
tion epithermal deposit, but there are indications in the drill core
that it is underlain by a porphyry deposit (McClenaghan, 2013; L.
Liu, personal communication, 2015). Geophysical, geological,
Generalized petrophysical properties of a porphyry system
a) b)
and geochemical exploration in the area has been conducted since
the 1970s by several companies and include ground-based DC re-
sistivity and IP measurements (Pressacco, 2012). The most recent
drilling program from 2009 to 2012 was conducted by Amarc Re-
sources Ltd., and comprised 89 diamond drillholes with a total
length of 27,944 m.
c)

3D ZTEM and MT model of an epithermal system B3

regional ZTEM survey over the deposit area, and the availability
d)
of geologic information e)
from the drill core. The exposed part of
the Newton deposit has been classified as an intermediate-sulfida-
tion epithermal deposit, but there are indications in the drill core
that it is underlain by a porphyry deposit (McClenaghan, 2013; L.
Liu, personal communication, 2015). Geophysical, geological,
and geochemical exploration in the area has been conducted since
f)
the 1970s by several companies and include ground-based DC re-
sistivity and IP measurements (Pressacco, 2012). The most recent
drilling program from 2009 to 2012 was conducted by Amarc Re-
sources Ltd., and comprised 89 diamond drillholes with a total
length of 27,944 m.

a) b) c) High 10–100

Hübert, J., Lee, B.M., Liu, L., Unsworth, M.J., Richards, J.P., Abbassi, B., Cheng, L.Z., Oldenburg, D.W., Legault, J.M.,
and Rebagliati, M., 2016, Three-dimensional imaging of a Ag-Au-rich epithermal system in British Columbia, Canada,
using airborne z-axis tipper electromagnetic and ground-based magnetotelluric data: Geophysics, v. 81, p. B1–B12.

Figure 1. Schematic representation of an epithermal-porphyry system with petrophysical properties. (a) Geologic cross section with the sug-
gested present-day surface at two possible levels of erosion. (b) Location of alteration styles common for porphyry and epithermal systems.
(c) Mineralization styles associated with porphyry, intermediate sulfidation epithermal (IS), and high sulfidation (HS) epithermal deposits.
Generalized geophysical properties of a porphyry system
(d-f) Expected magnetic susceptibility, electric resistivity, and chargeability responses over the eroded and uneroded system. Based on the
models of Lowell and Guilbert (1970), Sillitoe (2010), and petrophysical values of Mitchinson et al. (2013). Abbreviations: Cp, chalcopyrite
and Py, pyrite.

d) e) f)

High 10–100

Exposed
Exposed
potassic core
potassic core

Figure 1. Schematic representation of an epithermal-porphyry system with petrophysical properties. (a) Geologic cross section with the sug-
gested present-day surface at two possible levels of erosion. (b) Location of alteration styles common for porphyry and epithermal systems.
(c) Mineralization styles associated with porphyry, intermediate sulfidation epithermal (IS), and high sulfidation (HS) epithermal deposits.
(d-f) Expected magnetic susceptibility, electric resistivity, and chargeability responses over the eroded and uneroded system. Based on the
models of Lowell and Guilbert (1970), Sillitoe (2010), and petrophysical values of Mitchinson et al. (2013). Abbreviations: Cp, chalcopyrite
and Py, pyrite.

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Magnetic Surveys
• Hydrothermal magnetite in potassic alteration may give
a small magnetic high relative to magnetite-destructive
phyllic alteration (magnetic low).
• However, unaltered or propylitically altered coeval I-type
volcanic and plutonic rocks can also give strong
magnetic responses, commonly much larger than the
signal from potassic alteration. It may be necessary to
filter out high background magnetic responses to reveal
subtle anomalies associated with potassic alteration.

Escondida regional
aeromagnetic
anomaly reflecting
Chimborazo source plutonism
Zaldívar Behn et al. (2001) showed that
Escondida
the Escondida, Zaldívar, and
Chimborazo PCDs are located
within a ~30 km-diameter
magnetic low, which they
interpret to represent an
underlying source plutonic
system of batholithic proportions.

Behn, G., Camus, F., Carrasco, P., and Ware, H., 2001,
Aeromagnetic signature of porphyry copper systems in
northern Chile and its geological implications: Economic
Geology, v. 96, p. 239–248.

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Chuquicamata,
El Abra El Abra
aeromagnetic
anomalies

Behn et al. (2001) showed

similar large magnetic lows
Radomiro
Tomic
associated with the
Chuquicamata Chuquicamata and El Abra
porphyry systems.

MM

Opache Behn, G., Camus, F., Carrasco, P., and Ware, H., 2001,
Aeromagnetic signature of porphyry copper systems in
northern Chile and its geological implications: Economic
Geology, v. 96, p. 239–248.

Reduced-to-pole
aeromagnetic map of
the giant Bingham
Cu-Mo-Au porphyry
deposit, Utah
Strongly mineralized
rocks are relatively
non-magnetic
compared to
magnetite-bearing
unmineralized
monzonite intrusions
and skarns

Porter, J.P., Schroeder, K., and

Austin, G., 2012, Geology of the
Bingham Canyon Porphyry Cu-
Mo-Au Deposit, Utah: Society of
Economic Geologists, Special
Publication 16, p. 127–146.

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Regional magnetic high associated with arc plutonic rocks:

Porphyry deposits located in relative magnetic lows (Guichon
Creek batholith, British Columbia)

Roy, B., and Clowes, R.M., 2000, Seismic and potential-field imaging of the Guichon Creek batholith, British
Columbia, Canada, to delineate structures hosting porphyry copper deposits: Geophysics, v. 65, p. 1418–1434.

Porphyry deposits located in magnetic lows (Guichon Creek)

Roy, B., and Clowes,

R.M., 2000:
Geophysics, v. 65, p.
1418–1434.

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Ground magnetic survey over a porphyry Cu deposit, showing

moderate magnetic high associated with the core of the deposit
surrounded by a magnetic low (phyllic alteration) and a broader
magnetic high in andesitic country rocks (NE Turkey).

Electromagnetic Surveys
• Chargeability (induced-polarization; IP) surveys
measure the abundance of isolated chargeable
minerals such as sulfides (but also clays, saline water,
etc.). Disseminated pyrite in phyllic alteration zones
typically shows a strong IP response.
• Conductivity (or resistivity) surveys measure the
abundance of connected chargeable minerals such as
sulfides in veins or massive lenses (but also clays,
saline water, graphite, etc.).
• Because the potassic cores of porphyry deposits are
not characterized by abundant disseminated or
connected sulfides, orebodies tend to have low
conductivity and chargeability (relative to the pyrite-rich
phyllic alteration zone).

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Porphyry-Epithermal Short Course — Part 8

Chargeability (IP response) as a function of

abundance of disseminated or vein sulfides

Dentith and
Mudge (2014)

Chargeability (IP response) of different sulfides: note strong

response of pyrite and chalcocite (phyllic and supergene zones)

Dentith and
Mudge (2014)

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Resistivity as a function of abundance of disseminated or vein

sulfides: typical disseminated ore is not strongly conductive.

Dentith and
Mudge (2014)

IP cross-section and map view draped on d.e.m.

http://www.geomaster-engineering.com/equip.htm

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Ivanhoe Mines’ Oyu Tolgoi porphyry Cu-Au discovery

measured and indicated resource of
2.25 Gt @ 0.94% Cu, 0.35 g/t Au

Oyu Tolgoi deposit long section

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Typhoon deep-penetrating IP survey used to

detect deep chargeability anomalies to the
north of the original discovery area

http://www.hpxploration.com

Oyu Tolgoi 2003

drill plan on
Typhoon IP
survey

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Hugo North
drill plan on
IP survey

Hugo North drill sections

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DDH OTD 976

Unusually high abundance of vein and disseminated
sulfides led to strong IP response

Northern Dynasty Minerals’ Pebble porphyry Cu-Au

discovery: An (almost) blind target below cover

Phyllic alteration and

quartz stockwork in
small hill exposed
through cover

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Where to hide a giant porphyry deposit?

Moose pasture is always good!

And why use one helicopter when three is better!

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Pebble:

Measured and indicated
5
resource of 6.44 Gt @
RELIANCE ON OTHER EXPERTS
In preparing this Technical Report, the authors also relied upon information provided by
Northern Dynasty, namely:
• 0.40% Cu, 0.34 g/t Au
Northern Dynasty provided the information on mineral claims and permits in Section 6
and on environmental, socioeconomic, community engagement and cultural study
programs in Sections 20.1, 20.2 and 20.3.
• Northern Dynasty’s general corporate counsel, Bernhard Zinkhofer, B.Comm., LL.B,
partner, Lang Michener LLP, provided the disclosure on the Pebble Limited Partnership.

6 PROPERTY DESCRIPTION AND LOCATION

6.1 Property Description
The Pebble property is centered at latitude 59º53’54” N and longitude 155º17’44” W in the
Bristol Bay region of southwest Alaska, 320 km southwest of Anchorage and 27 km northwest of
the village of Iliamna (Figure 6.1). It is in USGS topographic maps, Iliamna D6 and D7, in
Townships 3 - 5 South, Ranges 34 - 37 West, Seward Meridian.

Figure 6.1 Property Location

Northern Dynasty Minerals (2011)
7

The Pebble porphyry deposit is associated with a large

IP anomaly, but not definitively

Northern Dynasty Minerals (2011)

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Porphyry-Epithermal Short Course — Part 8

Z-axis Tipper Electromagnetic (ZTEM) survey was flown over

Pebble in 2009 by Geotech. The deposit is mostly covered by
younger volcano-sedimentary rocks, but a large resistivity
anomaly is shown extending to at least 1000 m below surface.

In detail, the ZTEM survey revealed a slightly more resistive core

associated with potassic alteration, surrounded by a lower
resistivity clay/phyllic halo. This was best seen at lower
frequencies that could penetrate below the cover sequence.

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Condor Consulting carried out data processing of Spectrem

Airborne EM and ZTEM
over the surveys
Pebble Deposit, AK. conducted at Pebble, and confirmed the
correlation of the orebody with higher resistivity...

... but found poorer

correlation with
chargeability (as
expected).
Figure 6: DC resistivity and Tau outcomes over deposit.

Figure 7: Section for L21370 over Pebble deposit showing Spectrem conductivity depth inversion and CuEq results.
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Gravity Surveys: Cripple Creek alkalic epithermal Au deposit

Dentith
and
Mudge
(2014)

Radiometric Surveys: Waihi-Waitekauri epithermal Au-Ag system

Magnetic

K K/eTh

Dentith and
Mudge
(2014)

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Structural Controls on Porphyry Formation

Modified from Richards,

J.P., 2003, Tectono-
magmatic precursors for
porphyry Cu-(Mo-Au)
deposit formation:
Economic Geology, v. 98,
p. 1515–1533.

Regional tectonic controls on arc magma emplacement

Stress relaxation
(transpression or
transtension) after
an extended
period of
compressional
tectonics (which
builds up a large
MASH zone)
considered
optimal for
voluminous upper
crustal plutonism.

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Relationship between localization of major porphyry

deposits and regional-scale fault systems

5km
Lang, J.R., and Gregory, M.J., 2012, SEG Special Publication 16, p. 167–185.

Relationship between
regional crustal
structure and porphyry
clusters in Chile

From Richards (2000: Soc.

Economic Geologists Newsletter,
No. 42, p. 1, 14–20).
Based on maps from Sillitoe
(1992) and Salfity (1985)

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 Porphyry-Epithermal Short Course — Part 8
neidades cortical-litosféricas que dieron origen a
ontinuidades de basamento. Con el objetivo de
el significado de dichas relaciones espaciales se
un programa de investigación en geodinámica
que contempló la revisión exhaustiva de los
les antecedentes geológicos disponibles para este
o, los cuales fueron complementados con estudios
os distritales, además de mediciones de gravedad
, obtención de registros de sismicidad natural
ca y análisis de antecedentes aeromagnéticos
es, orientados a proponer un modelo de evolución
magmática de la corteza y sus implicancias en la
énesis de sistemas porfíricos Mio-Pliocenos de la
andina. En efecto, las mediciones de gravedad
realizadas en el marco de este programa (Yáñez et
7a; Yáñez & Rivera, 2009) y ajustadas por Leiva
considerando antecedentes provenientes de
sismológicos de Maksymovicz (2007) localizados
s 30° y 34°S, muestran la presencia de extensas
ías Residuales de Bouguer interpretadas como
s Densos Subcorticales” (NDS) y modelados como
tabulares con densidad de 3,0 gr/cm3, con un
promedio de 5 km, ubicados a una profundidad
y 15 km. Los NDS aparecen segmentados por
ntos gravimétricos NW y NE separando de norte a
loque Salamanca (B-SAL), el Bloque La Ligua
) y el Bloque Mapocho – El Volcán (B-MEV,
& Rivera, 2009) en cuyos márgenes orientales se
respectivamente, la mina Los Pelambres; los
os West Wall y Vizcachitas; y las minas Río Blanco
Bronces y El Teniente y el proyecto Rosario de
(Figura 1). Adicionalmente, los registros de
ad natural intraplaca, también obtenidos en el
e este programa de investigación en base a redes
de sismógrafos, muestran que la mayor parte de los
ros de los sismos con magnitud mayor que 3
forman patrones ordenados de sismicidad según
ntos WNW-NW, ENE-NE y NS, coincidiendo con
e alto Vp/Vs con orientaciones similares. Ambos
os, isópacas de sismicidad y tomografía sísmica, se
an como la expresión subcortical de extensas
de Daño” (ZDD, Yáñez et al., 2007b) en las cuales
ntra parte importante de la actividad tectónica del
ún patrones transversales a la cadena andina. De la
manera, los datos aeromagnéticos muestran
ntos con orientaciones similares a las señaladas,
do extensas anomalías WNW entre la costa y la
n central asociadas a discontinuidades corticales.
nterpretación de los antecedentes geológicos
les para Chile Central, ajustados en base a los
modelos de anomalías y lineamientos
tricos, isópacas de sismicidad, tomografía sísmica
y anomalías magnéticas, en general dispuestas de
oblicua a la cadena andina, sugieren que las
discontinuidades de basamento y cobertura
tan rasgos estructurales antiguos en el registro
o y penetrativos hacia niveles corticales profundos
nterpretan como Estructuras Translitosféricas NW-
© Richards (2016)
Figura 1. Modelo de Anomalía Residual de Bouguer para Chile Figura 2. Mapa Geotectónico de Chile Central, ajustado según
Central según Leiva (2010).
WNW (ETL Valparaíso – Volcán Maipo) y NE-ENE (ETL
San Antonio – Aconcagua)(Figura 2). Dichas ETL’sposiblemente transcontinental, de los sistemas de fallas
podrían corresponder a anisotropías de basamento deoblicuas ha sido reafirmada en base a los nuevos
origen incierto, posiblemente asociadas a zonas de sutura,antecedentes gravimétricos y de sismicidad natural
bordes de prismas de acreción, colisiones de microplacasintraplaca del segmento, los cuales sugieren la presencia de
y/o relictos de arcos tectonomagmáticos, como parte de laNDS y ZDD, respectivamente, ubicadas en niveles
evolución del proto-margen continental sudamericanosubcorticales y limitadas por lineamientos transversales
(Rivera & Yáñez, 2009).
3. Discusión
Los elementos estructurales transversales reconocidos en
los principales distritos mineros coinciden con la
prolongación de ETL´s, indicando la estrecha relación
espacial entre depósitos minerales y estructuras corticales.
Adicionalmente, la naturaleza translitosférica, y
datos geológicos, gravimétricos, aeromagnéticos y de sismicidad
intraplaca, mostrando fallas transversales y principales ETL’s.
que coinciden con la proyección en profundidad de las
ETL’s. Los grandes yacimientos del segmento, además de
The Escondida-Zaldívar-
los principales prospectos (Vizcachitas, West Wall, Sulfato
y Rosario de Rengo), se ubican directamente o en las
Chimborazo magmatic centre
proximidades de los NDS que actuarían condicionando la
deformación cortical en el entorno de los mismos
in Chile is localized within the
definiendo patrones de migración y ascenso de fluidos
mineralizados a lo largo de los márgenes menos
“damage zone” intersection of
competentes, y favoreciendo la acumulación de magmas en
la base más competente. No se descarta que los NDS más
a regional arc-parallel N–S fault
system and a transverse NW–
SE fault system.
The porphyry deposits
themselves may be localized
by individual fault strands, but
these are commonly obscured
by pluton emplacement (unless
they are reactivated later).
Richards, J.P., Boyce, A.J., and Pringle, M.S.,
5km 2001: Economic Geology, v. 96, p. 271–305.
que actuar como una barrera al ascenso de los magmas
sean la fuente de metales con la cual éstos interactúan en
su base originando sistemas enriquecidos en cobre. Dicha
Lithospheric
hipótesis de trabajo se encuentra en evaluación. En
síntesis, la ubicación de estructuras translitosféricas, o
blocks in
“zonas de daño” en general, sumado a la existencia de
“bloques densos” asociados a anomalías gravimétricas
Central Andes
positivas en niveles subcorticales, deberían ser
considerados elementos geodinámicos de primer orden en
el control del ascenso y emplazamiento, y eventualmente
defined by
en la génesis, de los sistemas hidrotermales Mio-Pliocenos
que constituyen los principales yacimientos de Cu-Mo
gravity and
ubicados en este segmento del territorio.
structure;
Agradecimientos major
orebodies
Agradecemos al Sr. at Jorge Camacho Vidakovic, Gerente
General de Exploraciones Mineras Andinas S.A., y al Sr.
edges
Carlos Hueteof these
Lira, Gerente de Exploraciones de Codelco-
Chile, por autorizar la publicación de este estudio. Al Dr.
Gonzalo Yáñez quién fue actor fundamental en la
blocks
elaboración de este modelo.
Referencias
Los Pelambres
Leiva, M. 2010. Modelo Gravimétrico de Chile Central (31°S-34°S).
Rio Tesis
Blanco Magíster en Geofísica (Inédito), Universidad de Chile,
Departamento de Geofísica.
Maksymowicz, A. 2007. Modelo 3D del moho bajo la zona de Chile
El Teniente
central y oeste de Argentina (31°S-34°S), utilizando funciones de
recepción. Tesis Magíster en Geofísica (Inédito), Universidad de
Chile. Departamento de Geofísica.
Rivera, O. & Yáñez, G. 2007. Geotectonic Evolution of the Central
Chile Oligo-Miocene Volcanic Arc, 33-34°S: Towards a
Rivera, O., and Cerda,
Multidisciplinary A.,
Re-interpretation of the Inherited Lithospheric
2012, Structures.
Los PórfidosIn GEOSUR 2007, Congreso Internacional sobre
cupríferos
Geología y Geofísica del Hemisferio Sur, Santiago, Chile, Libro
de Chile Central: Significado
de Resúmenes, p. 138.
de Rivera,
estructuras translitosféricas
O. & Yáñez, G. 2009. Naturaleza y Rol de Estructuras
Translitosféricas
y anomalías en la Evolución
gravimétricas en del Arco Volcánico Oligo-
Mioceno de Chile Central entre los 32° y 34° S. In XII Congreso
la metalogénesis Andina. XIII
Geológico Chileno, Simposio S9 Tectónica y Deformación
Congreso Geológico Chileno,
Cortical Andina, Actas S9_092, 5p. Santiago, Chile.
Actas, 3 p.
Yáñez, G.; Vera, E.; Tassara, A.; Piquer, J. & Rivera, O. 2007a.
Tectonomagmatic control of giant ore deposits in the subduction
factory of the high Andes between 32º-36ºS (Anillo ACT-18):
Gravimetric results. In GEOSUR 2007, Congreso Internacional
sobre Geología y Geofísica del Hemisferio Sur, Santiago, Chile.
Libro de Resúmenes, p. 177.
Yáñez, G.; Pardo, M.; Comte, D.; Rivera, O.; Farías, M.; Vera, E.;
Baeza, L. & Monfret, T. 2007b. Damage zone and the occurrence
of world-class porphyry copper deposits in the active margin of
Chile: evidences from natural seismicity experiments. In
GEOSUR 2007, Congreso Internacional sobre Geología y
Geofísica del Hemisferio Sur, Santiago, Chile. Libro de
Resúmenes, p. 176.
Yáñez, G. & Rivera, O. 2009. Geophysical Constraints of the
Mapocho El Volcán Block (MEV-B), and its Geological
Significance. In XII Congreso Geológico Chileno, Simposio S9
Tectónica y Deformación Cortical Andina, Actas S9_094, 4p.
Santiago, Chile.
35
Porphyry-Epithermal Short Course — Part 8

Localization of the giant

El Teniente porphyry Cu-
Mo deposit at the
intersection of regional
NW–SE and NE–SW fault
systems.

Cannell, J., Cooke, D.R., Walshe, J.L., and

Stein, H., 2005, Geology, mineralization,
alteration, and structural evolution of the El
Teniente porphyry Cu-Mo deposit: Economic
5km Geology, v. 100, p. 979–1003.

Localization of
the giant
Pebble
porphyry Cu-Au
deposit in
relation to a
major arc-
parallel fault
system.

Lang, J.R., and Gregory,

M.J., 2012, Magmatic-
hydrothermal-structural
evolution of the giant Pebble
porphyry Cu-Au-Mo deposit
with implications for
exploration in southwest
Alaska: Society of Economic
Geologists, Special
Publication 16, p. 167–185.

5km

© Richards (2016)
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Porphyry-Epithermal Short Course — Part 8

Structural localization of
cupolas and porphyry
deposits above arc
batholiths:
Pre-existing structural
architecture may control
the initial localization of
breccia pipes, shallow
plutons/dikes, and
hydrothermal systems
(cupolas).

Tosdal, R.M., and Richards, J.P., 2001,

Magmatic and structural controls on the
development of porphyry Cu±Mo±Au
deposits: SEG, Reviews in Economic
Geology, v. 14, 157–181.

Structural Controls on Epithermal Ore Deposits

Oyarzun, R., Lillo,

J., Oyarzun, J.,
and Higueras, P.,
2007, Plate
interactions,
evolving magmatic
styles, and
inheritance of
structural paths:
Development of
the gold-rich,
Miocene El Indio
epithermal belt,
Northern Chile:
International
Geology Review, v.
49, p. 844–853.

© Richards (2016)
37
Porphyry-Epithermal Short Course — Part 8

Structural controls on
Miocene epithermal
Au deposits in the El
Indio belt, Chile:
Primary control by
arc-parallel
structures; secondary
control by NW–SE-
trending cross
structures

Bissig, T., Clark, A.H., Rainbow, A., and

Montgomery, A., 2015, Physiographic
and tectonic settings of high-sulfidation
epithermal gold–silver deposits of the
Andes and their controls on mineralizing
processes: Ore Geology Reviews, v. 65,
p. 327–364.

At the end of the day, geological, geochemical,

geophysical, and structural smarts may put
you in the right vicinity, but serendipity may
ultimately guide discovery —
The Porgera alkalic-type epithermal Au
deposit as an example

© Richards (2016)
38
Porphyry-Epithermal Short Course — Part 8

The Porgera Gold

Deposit, Papua New
Guinea
First discovered in 1929, but
economic mineralization not
discovered until 1982/1983. Mine
opened in 1990, with reserves of
51.5 Mt @ 0.23 oz/t Au (7 g/t Au).
Placer Pacific Ltd. (1992)
High grade zones reached >10
oz/t (>300 g/t), with bonanza
grades over 1000 g/t.
Total gold mined from 1990–2006
plus reserves = 25 Moz Au.

Porgera
gold
deposit,
PNG

Richards, J.P., 1990,

Petrology and
geochemistry of alkalic
intrusives at the Porgera
gold deposit, Papua New
Guinea: Journal of
Geochemical
Exploration, v. 35, p.
141–199.

© Richards (2016)
39
Porphyry-Epithermal Short Course — Part 8

Porgera
gold
deposit,
PNG

Richards, J.P., 1990:

Journal of
Geochemical
Exploration, v. 35, p.
141–199.

The Porgera
Gold Deposit

Roamane Fault

Placer Pacific Ltd. (1992)

© Richards (2016)
40
Porphyry-Epithermal Short Course — Part 8

Placer Pacific Ltd. (1992)

Gold pour at the

Porgera mine.
Each doré ingot is worth
~US$200,000.
Currently pouring ~50,000
oz/month (2006)

© Richards (2016)
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Porphyry-Epithermal Short Course — Part 8

Summary
• Regional structural, lithogeochemical, mineralogical, and
geophysical surveys are designed to identify prospective
suites of igneous rocks that might be associated with
porphyry (or epithermal) deposits.
• Such surveys can be effective in identifying distal signatures
of prospectivity, either peripherally or below cover.
• Follow-up geochemical and geophysical surveys can identify
mineralized zones within these prospective domains.
• Most large porphyry (and epithermal) ore deposits have
substantial magmatic and hydrothermal signatures — they
are hard to hide, unless completely covered. Mineralized
zones within these larger systems may be harder to identify,
however.

© Richards (2016)
42