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Consumer Behavior Among Filipinos: A Quantitative Study About Vanity,


Materialism, and Gender Differences

Article · April 2017

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S. Te Amiel Joshua Abellar Velecina


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“Consumer Behavior Among Filipinos: A Quantitative Study About Vanity, Materialism,

and Gender Differences”

Presented to:

The Faculty of the Psychology Department

College of Liberal Arts

In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the course

Quantitative Research for Psychology Majors

QUANRES

Submitted by:

Japson, Frank Anthony

Te, Stephanie Rose

Velecina, Amiel Joshua

Submitted to:

Ms. Patricia D. Simon


FILIPINO CONSUMER BEHAVIOR

Table of Contents

ABSTRACT 2

INTRODUCTION 3

Review of Related Literature 4

The Role of Advertising 4

The Rise of Materialism 6

Vanity 6

Materialism and Consumer Vanity 8

Anxiety as a Mediator 8

Differences Between Genders 9

Metrosexuality in the Philippines 1​0

Statement of the Problem 1​1

Conceptual Framework 1​1

Significance of the study 1​2

METHOD 1​3

Respondents 1​3

Measure 1​3

Procedures 1​4

Analysis 1​5

RESULTS 1​5

DISCUSSION 19

Limitations of the Study 2​0

CONCLUSION 2​1

Recommendations 2​2

REFERENCES 2​3

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Abstract

With the change brought by innovation and economic progress to the world, people around

the globe have shifted their spending behaviors from functional to materialistic and aesthetic

purposes. Driven by this behavior, vanity became an area of study for numerous researchers, made

popular as a predictor of a person’s materialism (Chang et al., 2011). Choosing vanity goods over

spending for functionalism can be seen as problematic given the economic status of the majority of

Filipinos. The lack of information about the consumer behavior of Filipinos, specifically about the

matters of vanity and materialism, influenced the realization of the paper. 200 Filipino individuals

were surveyed for this study which was mainly intended to find answers to following the

hypotheses: 1) ​Consumer vanity is positively related to anxiety. ​2) Consumer vanity and

materialism are positively related​. 3) ​Anxiety is positively related to materialism, 4) ​The

relationship between consumer vanity and materialism is mediated by anxiety, ​and 5) There

is no difference in consumer vanity and materialism between Filipino males and females.

Substantially, the results were found to be coherent with the hypotheses, showing evidence of a

significant relationship of vanity and anxiety with materialism independently, and showing no

significant differences among the genders with regards to materialism and vanity. However, the

data failed to show evidence that supports anxiety as a mediator between vanity and materialism.

The study intends to add on to the existing consumer behavior research, specifically to aid in

advertising that targets the Filipino demographic, by providing significant information on Filipino

consumer behavior and to take advantage of the rising metrosexuality in the Philippines.

Keywords: ​Consumer Behavior, Philippines, Vanity, Anxiety, Gender, Metrosexual

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Introduction

Modernization of civilizations created innovations that has greatly increased the quality of

life compared to the age of hunters and nomads. Far from the old ways of life, society now has

access, not only to needs, but also wants; faster and easier than perilously scouring in forests.

Basic needs have become so accessible nowadays that people look for more value from the goods

they acquire. From gathering for quantity, utility, function and necessity--consumption for mere

survival--society now has a culture of spending for more than just utility. Be it for sensory or

symbolic desires, these and other factors which play a great role in today’s consumerist society.

Encouraged by advertising and mass media, extra-utilitarian factors have contributed to building a

culture where happiness and success is measurable by material achievement. This largely

observable behavior has been defined ​by Wang & Waller (2006) as consumer vanity: the

underlying consumer value orientation wherein consumer behavior is influenced by a fixation with

physical appearance and success, thus making consumers spend more for aesthetics than for

function or need. Personal preference scales substantially in decision-making for consumers. The

global market has been segmented into different groups, labeled by their preferences, guiding

producers on how to sell to their consumers. This study aims to substantiate the manifestations of

consumer vanity ​and its relation to materialism and whether anxiety can be seen as an explanation

of the relationship.

Review of Related Literature

In the middle ages, resources from other countries were usually attained by the use of

swords of the more powerful countries. After the enlightenment period, these power countries

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realized that trading with resource-rich countries not only took less time, but less gold as well. The

past four centuries saw more and more countries open up their economies which resulted in the

rise of a new class form: the bourgeoisie, or middle class. The nouveau rich middle class, which

was mostly made up of traders and merchants, gained enough power in numbers to go against the

highly exclusive autocratic ruling and pushed for more rights that started the spark of democracy

(Acemoglu & Robinson, 2012). The rise of the bourgeoisie and democracy also aided in a decline

in violence since citizens were less interested in participating in wars and preferred to spend their

time making money (Pinker, 2011).

That, along with the industrial revolution, has fast-forwarded us to the present where

swords and war ships have been replaced with individualism and hedonism. Society gained an

obsession driven by money as it permitted extravagances and signified prestige. Money, now more

available to be acquired by the masses, has made it easier to focus on one’s image and social status

by obtaining materialistic goods that would appeal to sensory and symbolic desires instead of the

usual basic necessities (Wang & Weller, 2006). Now, instead of being influenced by utilitarian and

functional needs, people’s purchasing behavior is influenced by advertisements that puts an

emphasis on vanity and materialistic pleasure (Chang et al., 2011).

The Role of Advertising

Advertising has helped increase consumer culture by portraying physical attractiveness and

material goods as a gateway to happiness and success. Advertising is defined as a promotional

marketing strategy companies use to create awareness about their products and services with the

goal being to generate a response from the target audience (Mogire & Oloko, 2014). Originating

from the West, mass media, along with advertising, have played a major role in the creation,

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learning, and sharing of these consumer habits with Lasch (1978; 1984) stating that various studies

have shown that advertising is one of the most powerful media to “manipulate” while Bandura's

(1978) social learning behavior theory states that, with behavior coming from family, peers, and

mass media, it is mass media that has the greatest influence. The genius of manipulative

advertising relies on creating a false consciousness and praising self-expression through vanity and

materialism (Abela, 2006; Durvasula & Lyonski, 2008).

While choosing which products to buy, consumers’ decisions vary between the types and

the adjustments advertisers do to reflect this (Peter & Olson, 1999). Multiple research have found

the most effective ways to advertise specific products to different demographics including rational

vs emotional, local vs global appeal, and functional vs experiential in both low and high-GDP

countries (Heath, 2011; Ford, Mueller, & Taylor 2011). For example, studies have found that

functional advertising works better in low-GDP countries, while high-GDP countries react better

to experiential ads (Zarantonello, Schmitt, & Jedidi, 20l4).

One of the low-GDP countries used in the study was the Philippines (Zarantonello,

Schmitt, & Jedidi, 20l4) and although it stated that it responded better to rational and functional

advertisements compared to emotional and experiential, a study saw that certain products gained

high involvement with emotional commercials, specifically vanity products (eg: hair coloring,

perfume, facial soap, jewelry, fashion apparel, and cosmetics) (Agatep-Valmoria, 2007). Previous

research has found vanity as a useful marketing strategy to promote many products and services

such as cosmetics, clothing, and body treatment (Solomon, 1985, 1992) by emphasizing an

elevated social status and an increase in individual charm (Chang et. al, 2011). And it paid off.

Ajay Shingh Kapur, equity strategist of Bank of America Merrill Lynch, stated in 2015 that the

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vanity industry was worth $3.7 trillion, about the size of the fourth largest economy in the world,

Germany, and the market was projected to grow to $4.5 trillion by 2018 (Tahara-Stubbs, 2015).

The Rise of Materialism

Materialism can be defined in many ways, but mainly as a devotion towards obtaining and

spending on earthly needs and material desires (Durvasula & Lyonski, 2010). Chang et al. (2011)

added that materialism is a belief wherein happiness is gained through material satisfaction, and

that the latter is composed of three components: acquisition centrality, acquisition happiness and

possession defined success. Furthermore, materialism is seen as the cause of overspending and

compulsive shopping which led to a shift in consumer culture. With more countries taking part in

the globalization era, the desires for modernity have resulted in the embracing of more Western

values that are associated with materialism and has led to cultures of excessive consumerism and

marketing (Mady et al., 2011).

Vanity

Vanity, a human quality that is swayed by social pressure, can be defined with two

domains: physical vanity and achievement vanity. This can be divided even further into four sub

parts: concern for physical appearance, positive view of physical appearance, concern for

achievement, and a positive view of achievement (Netemeyer et al, 1995). There are mainly two

philosophies about vanity. The first states that vanity is derived by primary and biogenic needs and

is affected by parental socialization and genes (Durvasula, Lyonski, & Watson, 2001). At the other

end, the second philosophy suggests that vanity is a secondary trait mainly influenced by the

environment and socio-economic conditions (Mason, 1981).

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Physical Vanity:

A concern for physical appearance, means that one feels the need to compete with others in

terms of physical appearance, while a positive view of physical appearance means that one gets

validation from others regarding their attractive physical appearance. Research have shown that

while a concern for physical appearance direct positive attitudes towards consumption (such as

good eating habits and exercising), it can also lead to negative attitudes as well (eating disorder,

addictive behavior, and cosmetic surgeries) in order to reach one’s goals (Bloch & Richins, 1992;

Hirschman, 1992; Kleine & Kleine, 2000).

Achievement vanity:

A concern for achievement means that one has made a successful achievement, and a view

for achievement means that other people know about one's successful achievements (Netemeyer et

al., 1995). There is numerous evidence that creates a link between consumption of products and

personal achievement and shows that people concerned with their achievement buy items in order

to convey status or success (Belk, 1985; Hirschman, 1990).

Consumer vanity:

Consumer vanity connects the two concepts for it is viewed as a self-identity concept that

induces both physical and achievement views and concerns. A shift in consumer culture affected

the notion of self-identity making material achievement and physical appearance have an

increasingly important role to define oneself. Wang & Weller (2006) defines consumer vanity as

the underlying consumer value orientation wherein consumer behavior is influenced by a fixation

with physical appearance and success, thus making consumers spend more for aesthetics than for

function or need. Goods and services that advertisements have linked to consumer vanity include

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perfumes, cosmetic surgeries, luxury cars, dietary products, fashion, and so on.

Materialism and Consumer Vanity

There is a strong positive relationship between consumer vanity and materialism

(Netemeyer et al., 1995; Chang, 1999). Pursuing brand name goods and expecting praise reveal

that consumers use possessions as a symbol of one’s personal success. If this also applies to

Filipinos, it suggests that those who give high importance to physical appearance and personal

achievement would also score high in materialism.

H1: Consumer vanity and materialism are positively related.

Anxiety as a Mediator

With giving importance to material wealth as a symbol of success, studies have found

another trait with close relationships to both vanity and materialism: anxiety. Defined as the

subjective discomfort state that consists of worry, shame, fear, or shyness, anxiety has been linked

to nervousness and uneasiness (Izard et al, 1984; Chang, 1999) is also one of the negative

emotions that can make an individual more susceptible to addictive buying (Faber & Christenson,

1996).

Anxiety and consumer vanity

Placing high importance in one’s looks and showing off success by materialistic

possessions can cause internal anxiety due to trends constantly changing which, in order to not fall

behind, will continuously be pursued (Yang, 2001). According to social learning theory, those who

care about how others view their physical appearance will spend time on it but, if they lack the

money to purchase the products, it will consequently lead to money anxiety (Netemeyer et al.,

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1995; Chang et. al, 2011). With that being said, the study proposes that:

H2: Consumer vanity is positively related to anxiety.

Anxiety and materialism

High consumer vanity results in negative attitudes, high anxiety, and frustration, as those

people believe that material possessions will give them satisfaction and beauty, thus finding

themselves chasing the constant changing fashion trends (Richins and Dawson, 1992; Chang et. al,

2011). This interpersonal anxiety in materialists who see acquisitions as a symbol of happiness and

success leads to them being stuck in a cycle of long term purchasing activities such as

continuously comparing their clothing with peers and having their purchasing decisions influenced

by those around them (Magkosa & Mohube, 2007) which leads to the hypothesis that:

H3: Anxiety is positively related to materialism.

With that being said, it could infer that the effect of consumer vanity to materialism can best be

explained by anxiety or:

H4: The relationship between consumer vanity and materialism is mediated by

anxiety.

Differences Between Genders

Previous studies have found that women were more prone to consumer vanity thus leading

to them being highly susceptible to materialism compared to men (Wu, 1997). Women’s

preoccupation with physical appearance involves the use of clothes and cosmetics to emphasize

their physical attributes, which causes them to spend more money buying expensive goods to

demonstrate their status (Chui & Sidin 2011). While men may buy a 3-in-1-shower product,

women, who pay more attention to physical appearance, may prefer numerous products targeting

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specific areas (Chang et. al, 2011). However, the 21st century saw the rise of metropolitan young

males showing great interest in men’s fashion, cosmetic products, and personal care due to

changes in lifestyle, employment, feminism, and gay movements (Lee, 2004). Choosing to

showcase their identity, power, success, and value by spending good money in their physical

appearance, metrosexual men may help in minimizing the gap between males and females in terms

of materialism (Pan & Jamnia, 2015).

Metrosexuality in the Philippines

The Philippines has also seen an increase in metrosexuality. Synovate Inc’s 2004 study

found that 58% of Filipino men surveyed said that looking good was “very important” to them

whereas 48% felt that they were “sexually attractive”. Metrosexuality, usually referring to urban

males, have found its way to provinces such as Rizal where fishermen admitted to wearing

custom-made masks to protect their faces, When asked for their reason, one answered “Para

proteksyon sa mga lamok, init ng araw- pag malakas ang hangin nangingitim agad kami. Para pogi

pa rin.” (Bautista, 2013).

With vanity products being marketed to Filipinos by the use of emotional advertisements

that trigger the consumers’ need to increase their social value, and with the Philippines seeing a

recent increase in metrosexuals, it is possible to assume that the discrepancy between consumer

vanity and materialism in males and females will not be significantly different, diverging from the

results of previous studies (Chang et al., 2011; Chui & Sidin, 2011; Wang & Waller, 2006):

H5: There is no difference in consumer vanity and materialism between Filipino

males and females.

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Statement of the Problem

The purpose of this study was to see how consumer behavior of Filipinos compare to

previous studies. It seeks to see if anxiety can serve as a mediator to help explain the relationship

between consumer vanity and materialism. It also seeks to test if the differences in gender with

regards to materialism and consumer vanity would differ from existing findings.

Conceptual Framework

The researchers hypothesize that, though past studies show consumer vanity having a

significant effect on materialism, said effect may be further elaborated and clarified when we

include anxiety using the mediation model. The researchers also hypothesize that there is a little to

no difference in consumer vanity and materialism between the two genders specifically among

Filipinos.

Significance of the study

Aesthetic appeal and symbolism has always had value in the Philippines. Evident with the

practices during the pre-colonial times, ethnic embroidery. and weaving have always involved

lavish decors and symbolical patterns. This culture carries on today, showing itself in how

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products are portrayed here in the Philippines. Advertising drives consumption, and the mass

media scene continues to be one that heavily involves appeals to personal preferences. Continuing

with a consumption behavior largely influenced by impulses depending on sensory appeal, the

Filipino demographic has become more alike in spending behavior with more progressed western

nations, than its neighboring countries and other nations with similar economical and progressive

status.

Given the recent rise of globalization, numerous consumer behavior research have been

made. However, there is currently little to no research about Filipinos and this paper aims to bridge

that gap. Addressing the relationship between consumer vanity, anxiety, and materialism among

Filipinos could aid in supporting the already existing consumer behavior theories. While most

existing studies specify that females are more susceptible to consumer vanity and materialism, this

paper seeks to show that given the recent rise of metrosexuality in the Philippines, the data would

differ by showing more equal results between the two genders.

The researchers believe it is important to have studies more grounded in the Filipino

context, as there is currently a scarcity of research regarding local consumer behavior. If the results

of this research show similar trends to past literature, in could aid in strengthening the already

existing consumer behavior theories. If different results are obtained, it could highlight the

limitations of related publications.

Lastly, as of now, there is yet to be any research that studies the relationship between the

three factors, namely: anxiety, consumer vanity, and materialism, especially using anxiety as a

mediation, and the difference it may have in both the Philippine context, and in the different

gender demographics.

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Method

Respondents

Using convenience sampling, a sample of 215 Filipinos aged 15-40+ answered an online

survey. The survey, entitled “Spending Habits of Filipinos” masked the true nature of the study. A

small description indicating the confidentiality of their answers was placed at the beginning as well

as a question asking for their consent in agreeing to participate in the study. The validation check

questions eliminated 15 participants which brought down the total number of valid data to 200

respondents consisting of 103 males and 97 females.

Measure

The research method followed a quantitative design and the 61-item survey included basic

demographic questions, three validation check questions, and three scales: vanity, materialism, and

general anxiety. The validation check questions asked the participant to choose a specific choice to

see if they were paying attention to the questions thus ensuring that the data they submitted was

viable.

The scale of vanity traits was based on the vanity scale of Netemeyer et al. (1995), a

7-point Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree and 7 = strongly agree), which included questions on

one’s view of physical appearance as well as their view on achievement. The scale consisted of

four distinct yet related concepts of vanity: 5 items regarding physical-concern (i.e.: the way I look

is extremely important to me), 6 regarding physical-view (i.e.: my looks are very appealing to

others), 5 regarding achievement-concern (i.e.: professional achievements are an obsession to me),

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and 5 regarding achievement-view (i.e.: I am a good example of professional success), totaling the

number of items to 21.

Materialism was based on Richins and Dawson’s (1992) Material Value Scale (MVS), a

5-point Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree and 5 = strongly agree) consisting of 18 questions about

acquisition centrality (i.e.: I like to own things that impress people), acquisition as the pursuit of

happiness (i.e.: I’d be happier if I could afford to buy more things), and possession-defined success

(i.e.: some of the most important achievements in life include acquiring material possessions).

Lastly, the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale (HADS) was used to measure anxiety.

The HADS (Zigmond and Snaith, 1983) is a 14-item questionnaire used to determine anxiety and

depression. The 7 items that measured anxiety, which follow a 4-point Likert scale (0 = not at all

and 3 = often), were added to the survey and asked respondents to rate statements such as “I feel

tense or wound up” and “worrying thoughts go through my mind”.

Procedures

The researchers began with creating the survey in Google Forms and then proceeded to

obtain participants online by the following methods: personally messaging known acquaintances to

answer the survey, asking associates to share the survey to others, and posting the link of the

survey on Facebook and Reddit. The participants were informed that it would take no more than

fifteen minutes to answer and all questions were to be kept confidential and used for academic

purposes only. A short thank you message was shown at the end of the survey upon completion.

Analysis

After obtaining the necessary number of respondents, the data was organized using

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Microsoft Excel. Participants who failed to answer the validation items were excluded and the

remaining data was further analyzed in SPSS in order to derive the descriptive statistics,

Cronbach’s alpha, and be subjected to mediation analysis and ​t​-test.

Results

Reliability

When tested for the reliability, the scales used for vanity, materialism, and anxiety received

Cronbach’s ​α of 0.92, 0.88, and 0.88 respectively, indicating that they had good inter-item

reliability.

Results

Descriptive Statistics: ​The participants came from different age groups and ranged between

15-40+ years old and 92% of the participants were observed to be single. Lastly, 49.5% of the

participants had a monthly individual income of Php 15,000.

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Figure 1: ​Graph of distribution of participants by age groups

Figure 2: ​Graph of distribution of participants by civil status

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Figure 3: ​Graph of distribution of participants by monthly income

Mediation Evaluation: ​Regression analysis was used to investigate the hypothesis that anxiety

mediates the effect of consumer vanity on materialism. The results indicated a significant

relationship on path a (X → Y), showing a significant direct effect between consumer vanity (X)

and materialism (Y) (p-value = .0027 < .05). However, path b (X → M) shows that consumer

vanity was not a significant predictor of anxiety (M) (p-value = .31 > .05), showing failure for

evidence of mediation. Path c (M → Y), nevertheless, shows anxiety to be a significant predictor

of materialism (p-value = .003 < .05). The indirect effect was tested using the bootstrap estimation

approach with 1000 samples and indicated that the indirect coefficient was .0357 showing that

mediation did not occur.

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Figure 4: ​Mediation analysis model with anxiety as a mediator to materialism and consumer

vanity.

Gender Differences: ​In order to test the differences between genders regarding consumer vanity

and materialism, independent ​t-​tests were conducted for each variable. The results indicate that

while females (M = 4.11, SD = 0.98) had higher scores of vanity compared to males (M = 4.10,

SD = 0.97), the difference (p-value = 0.96) was not statistically significant. On the other hand,

males (M = 2.91, SD = 0.63) scored higher on materialism than females (M = 2.86, SD = 0.58) but

the difference was also found to be statistically insignificant (p-value = 0.56).

Table 1

T-test Results Comparing Males and Females on Consumer Vanity

Mean- Mean- t- value df p Valid N Valid N Std. Dev. - Std. Dev. -


Female Male -Feale -Male Female Male

4.11 4.10 0.04 198 0.96 97 103 0.98 0.97

Table 2

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T-test Results Comparing Males and Females on Materialism

Mean- Mean- t- value df p Valid N Valid N Std. Dev. - Std. Dev. -


Female Male -Female -Male Female Male

2.86 2.91 -0.58 198 0.56 97 103 0.58 0.63

Discussion

The purpose of this study was to see if the results obtained could bridge the gap in literature

pertaining to the lack of consumer behavior research in the Philippines. Using previous findings as

a basis, the researchers hypothesized that vanity and materialism would have a significant

relationship amongst Filipinos. The results were consistent with the related literature and showed

that Filipinos who gave high importance to physical appearance and personal achievement also

scored high in materialism. Also fitting with previous journal articles was the result showing a

significant relationship between anxiety and materialism indicating that the existing consumer

behavior theories tested in other countries were also applicable to Filipinos.

The data, however, failed to show a significant relationship between consumer vanity and

anxiety, contrary to other journals. The data also failed to show anxiety as a mediator between

consumer vanity and materialism, suggesting that it did not directly contribute to explaining the

variance between the two, specifically amongst Filipinos. Given that there were no existing studies

that directly supported anxiety as a mediator between materialism and consumer vanity, the results

should be interpreted with caution as it is possible that a better designed study could have given

more definitive results.

Another result that differed from previous findings was that there were no significant

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differences between males and females when it came to materialism and vanity, supporting the

hypothesis of the researchers. This lack of a difference, however, cannot be used as an

interpretation that it was specifically due to metrosexuality. Although some studies and news

articles do indicate that there is an abundance of metrosexuals in the Philippines (Bautista, 2014),

it is insufficient to be used as a definite conclusion. Given that males and females have similar

levels of vanity and materialism, commercial and market interests can take advantage of this and

broaden their range of male products to target specific needs.

Limitations of the Study

Given that the data was obtained by convenience sampling, as well as being limited to 200

respondents, the results obtained were insufficient to be used as a general indicator of the Filipino

population. The majority of the respondents were of similar age (49% being 21-25 years old), civil

status (92% being single), and monthly individual income (49.5% earning less than PHP 15,000),

which may have affected the validity of the data. Also failing to add a scale to measure the

metrosexuality of the respondents, the data cannot be deemed reliable as showing that

metrosexuality was the reason for the lack of significant differences between genders in terms of

vanity and materialism.

As mentioned above, no existing research found by the researchers directly supported the

hypothesis that anxiety was a mediator between materialism and anxiety. The design of the study,

such as the particular scales used, could also be a factor regarding the validity of the data.

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Conclusion

The study, despite the limitations, was able to come up with the following results: 1) vanity

has a significant effect on materialism. 2) anxiety fails to mediate between consumer vanity and

materialism, although showing a significant relationship with materialism alone, and 3) there is no

significant differences between the scores of Filipino males and females regarding consumer

vanity and materialism, showing evidence that both genders in the Philippines have similar

spending behavior. Having determined these statements, it can be deducted that Filipino spending

behavior and materialism is influenced with vanity on males and females alike. This phenomena

may be caused by the large influence of Western culture brought by the period of Western

colonization and the rising globalization (Frith & Frith, 1990). Furthermore, findings about the

lack of significant difference on spending behavior (materialism and consumer vanity) among

genders show great opportunities on the male vanity products market on behalf of companies.

These phenomena however, could also be caused by how advertising and media influenced

the thoughts of the Filipino consumers similarly on how the studies Bandura (1978), Lasch (1978;

1984), Abela (2006) and Durvasula & Lyonski (2008) describe advertising as the most powerful

way to influence the consuming behavior of the masses. The high focus on vanity and the

wide-variety of male vanity products in the Philippines could have shaped the overall behavior of

Filipinos towards the consumption of goods.

Finally, the research shows consistency with the results of Cheng et al. (2011), which was

based in Taiwan. The researchers of the past study however used different scales and measured

fashion anxiety, instead of general anxiety. Despite of this differences, it can be seen consistency

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that the anxiety variable of both studies fails to mediate, specifically by showing no relation with

consumer vanity, and that in both studies alike materialism shows significant effect to the other

two variables. These consistencies can be grounds of evidence that Filipinos have similar

consumer habits as Taiwan, however more research is recommended to confirm this statement.

Recommendations

Future research should consider either attaining a broader sample to better reflect the Filipino

population or re-examine related literature and focus on more specific pools (such as with regards to

age or monthly individual income). Different scales may also be used to measure anxiety,

materialism, and vanity, to determine the possibility of anxiety mediating the two if the design were

altered. Future research could also further study the lack of differences between genders regarding

vanity and materialism. It would be interesting to see if increasing the sample size would obtain

similar results and, if it does, what reasons could be used as an explanation.

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