Master of Science Course in Mechanical Engineering

Politecnico di Milano

Stability analysis of a
winglike profile

Control and Actuating Devices for Mechanical Systems

Edoardo Sabbioni

1
 Vibrations of a winglike profile
Analysis of the vibrations of a winglike profile (or airfoil) run over by a flow

x
Wind speed m, J
U θ

c/2 k/2 c/2 k/2 2 dofs: θ, x

When a body is exposed to wind, it experiences a force, called aerodynamic force.

Aerodynamic forces can be regarded as a force field

2
 Cross section of a wing

Cross section of a
suspended bridge deck

F
xz
θ

b
B

3
 Aerodynamic forces
When a body is run over by a flow, it experiences, on its surface, local normal
pressures (p) and skin frictions (τ). Local normal pressures and skin frictions can
be reduced to an equivalent resultant force, the aerodynamic force (F), applied in a
point called centre of pressures (P), generally different from the centre of gravity
(cog) of the body.

FL
F

p
τ
Vr
P FD

The resultant force can be divided into 2 components:

§  the drag force (FD) directed as the relative speed between the body and the
wind (Vr)
§  the lift force (FL) directed perpendicularly to the drag force

4
 Aerodynamic forces
If the aerodynamic force is reduced to the cog of the body, the equivalent system
of forces is made of:
§  the drag force (FD)
§  the lift force (FL)
§  the pitching moment (MP) depending on the distance between the body cog
and the centre of pressures

FL
MP
p
τ
Vr
α FD

In order to calculate the resultant aerodynamic forces, the distribution of normal

pressures and skin frictions along the body surface should be integrated (CFD,
Computational Fluid Dynamics). This procedure requires an high computational
cost, thus an experimental approach is often preferred (wind tunnel tests).

5
 Aerodynamic forces
Aerodynamic forces depend on :
§  the shape of the body
§  the relative angle of attack between the flow and the body

ρUd
§  turbulence conditions (Reynolds number, Re = )
µ

Slender body, Re = 7000 Bluff body, Re = 26

Angle of attack = 0° Angle of attack = 0°

6
 Aerodynamic forces
Aerodynamic forces depend on :
§  the shape of the body
§  the relative angle of attack between the flow and the body (α)

ρUd
§  turbulence conditions (Reynolds number, Re = )
µ

Slender body, Re = 7000 Slender body, Re = 7000

Angle of attack = 0° Angle of attack = 23°

7
 Aerodynamic forces
Aerodynamic forces depend on :
§  the shape of the body
§  the relative angle of attack between the flow and the body

ρUd
§  turbulence conditions (Reynolds number, Re = )
µ

Bluff body, Re = 1.56 Bluff body, Re = 26

Angle of attack = 0° Angle of attack = 0°

8
 Aerodynamic forces
Aerodynamic forces depend on :
§  the shape of the body
§  the relative angle of attack between the flow and the body

ρUd
§  turbulence conditions (Reynolds number, Re = )
µ
§  ρ: fluid density
Streamline Parabola
Pipewall §  U: mean fluid velocity
§  d: characteristic dimension
of the body
§  µ: fluid kinematic viscosity

Laminar flow Laminar flow Turbulent

(symmetric) (asymmetric) flow

Re<800-1000 Re>800-1000

9
 Aerodynamic forces
If a flow separation happens, vortices are created in the wake of the body and
detach periodically from either sides of the body (vortex shedding). Alternating
low-pressure vortices on the downstream side of the object are thus created.
When the body is fixed (doesn’t move), the consequent aerodynamic forces
are a random process showing a peak in their power spectral density (PSD)
in correspondence of a peculiar frequency, called Strouhal frequency (i.e. the
frequency at which vortex shedding takes place ):

csU
fs = cs: Strouhal number (characteristic of the body)
d

fs
Frequency [Hz]

PSD of the aerodynamic force due to

vortex shedding (fixed body)
10
 Aerodynamic forces
If the body is free to move perpendicularly to the flow and the frequency of
vortex shedding (fs) matches the resonance frequency of the structure (f0), the
body, excited in resonance, begins to vibrate.
In this condition, the aerodynamic forces are no more a random process, but
they become an almost harmonic excitation having frequency equal to the one of
the structure (resonance frequency). Thus vortex shedding and structure
vibrations are synchronized, this leading to an increase of the vibration
amplitude (the structure movement can become self-sustaining).

11
 Aerodynamic forces
In general, the aerodynamic forces can be expressed as:

⎧ 1 FL
F = ⋅ ρ ⋅ C ⋅ S ⋅ V 2 MP
⎪ D 2 D r
Vr
⎪
⎪ 1 α
F
⎨ L = ⋅ ρ ⋅ CL ⋅ S ⋅ Vr2 (1)
⎪ 2
⎪ 1 2
M
⎪ P 2= ⋅ ρ ⋅ C M ⋅ S ⋅ C ⋅ Vr FD
⎩
C
ρ: fluid (air) density
Vr: relative velocity between the body and the flow
S: reference body surface
C: characteristic dimension of the body (usually the chord of the body)
α: angle of attack between the fluid and the body (yaw angle)
CD, CL, CM: mean aerodynamic coefficients of drag, lift and pitch

12
 Aerodynamic forces

Mean aerodynamic coefficients are able to reproduce only mean force

components, not the random component associated with vortex shedding

For wild ranges of Reynolds number

(Re), mean aerodynamic coefficients
can be assumed constant and a
function only of the angle of attack α

The aerodynamic coefficients can be

calculated by integrating the Navier-
Stokes equations (CFD calculations)
or through experimental wind tunnel
tests on scale models

13
 Aerodynamic forces
Eq. (1) are representative of the aerodynamic forces in steady-state flow
conditions, i.e. when the angle between the body and the flow remains constant.
Eq. (1) can be still assumed reliable if changes in the direction of Vr (due to the
movement of the body, the direction of the flow, the velocity of the flow) are very
slow (quasi-static). The flow conditions can be assumed to be quasi-static if the
reduced frequency (fr) of the system is small.

f0 §  f0: natural frequency of the vibrating body

fr = §  U: mean fluid velocity
(U / C ) §  C: chord of the body

U/C represents a frequency associated with the time needed to a fluid particle to
pass through the region of space filled by the body.

Experimental wind tunnel tests are carried out in static conditions.

If the body doesn’t move (f0=0), the reduced frequency is equal to zero and eq. (1)
are rigorous.
When f0 increases, the dependence of the aerodynamic forces on the body
vibrations increases. Thus the aerodynamic coefficients experimentally identified
in static conditions, must be corrected (corrected quasi-static theory). 14
 Aerodynamic forces
Mean aerodynamic coefficients vs. angle of attack

Vr
MP FL
C CD
C α

CM FD CL
CD
α α
CM

CL

Winglke profile Rectangular profile

15
 Vibrations of a winglike profile
Analysis of the vibrations of a winglike profile (or airfoil) run over by a flow

x
Wind speed m, J
U θ

c/2 k/2 c/2 k/2 2 dofs: θ, x

l
b1

Quasi-static conditions between the body and the flow are assumed

16
 Equations of motion
Equations of motion l
J θ
"$m x + cx + kx = FL cos ψ − FD sin ψ θ
#
$% J θ + cθθ + kθθ = M P
U k c
( x + lθ ) x + lθ
( )
where: m
x 2 2
cθ = cl 2 ; kθ = kl 2 k c
( x − lθ ) x − lθ
( )
2 2
Eq. of motion, in a matrix form, can be rewritten as:

!m 0 $'  x * !c 0 $' x * !k 0 $' x * '. FL cos ψ − FD sin ψ *.

# &( + + # &( + + #

&( + = ( + (2)
"0 J %)θ , "0 cθ %)θ , "0 kθ %)θ , .) M P .,
! M $ 
" s % z + "Cs % z + " K s % z = F
! $ ! $

⎧ x ⎫
where: z = ⎨ ⎬
⎩θ ⎭
17
 Equations of motion
Equations of motion
"$m x + cx + kx = FL cos ψ − FD sin ψ FL
#
%$ J θ + cθθ + kθθ = M P MP
α θ
where:
2 2
Vr
cθ = cl ; kθ = kl ψ
FD
U
Eq. of motion, in a matrix form, can be rewritten as:

!m 0 $'  x * !c 0 $' x * !k 0 $' x * '. FL cos ψ − FD sin ψ *. (2)

# &( + + # &( + + #

&( + = ( +
"0 J %)θ , "0 cθ %)θ , "0 kθ %)θ , ). M P ,.
! M $ 
" s % z + "Cs % z + " K s % z = F
! $ ! $

⎧ x ⎫
where: z = ⎨ ⎬
⎩θ ⎭
18
 Equations of motion
Eq. of motion:

!m 0 $'  x * !c 0 $' x * !k 0 $' x * '. FL cos ψ − FD sin ψ *. (2)

# &( + + # &( + + #

&( + = ( +
"0 J %)θ , "0 cθ %)θ , "0 kθ %)θ , .) M P .,
! M $  ⎧ x ⎫
" s % z + "Cs % z + " K s % z = F
! $ ! $ z = ⎨ ⎬
⎩θ ⎭
If the aerodynamic forces are equal to zero, the equations of motion of the
system are decoupled, being the mass, damping and stiffness matrices
diagonal. In this case (F=0), the frequencies of vertical and pitch motions are:

k c
ω x = ω x0 1− ζ x2 ; ω x0 = ; ζx =
m 2mω x0
kθ cθ
ωθ = ωθ 0 1− ζθ2 ; ωθ 0 = ; ζθ =
J 2J ωθ 0

19
 Equations of motion
Assuming quasi-static conditions, the aerodynamic forces can be expressed as:

⎧ 1 2
F = ⋅ ρ ⋅ C (α ) ⋅ S ⋅ V
⎪ D
2
D r
Mean aerodynamic coefficients are
⎪ a function of the angle of attack α:
⎪ 1 2
⎨ FL = ⋅ ρ ⋅ CL (α ) ⋅ S ⋅ Vr
⎪ 2 α =ψ +θ
⎪ 1 2
⎪ M P = ⋅ ρ ⋅ C M (α ) ⋅ S ⋅ C ⋅ Vr
⎩ 2
The assumption of a small reduced frequency fr, leads
to consider small angles/displacements:

x − b1θ speed of point A

α
tan ψ = ≈ψ
U θ
Vr ψ
The relative velocity x − b1θ ψ
between the flow and -U A
the body is:
b1
2
Vr2 = U 2 + x − b1θ
( )
Point A: attachment point between the body
and the streamline 20
 Stability analysis
The forces generalized according to the dofs of the system are thus a nonlinear
function of the dofs themselves and of their time derivatives.
In order to analyze the stability of the system, the equations of motion of the
system must be linearized
Let’s consider a symmetric winglike profile and let’s assume to analyze the
stability of the system in the neighborhood of the static equilibrium position:

⎧ x0 = 0
⎨
⎩θ0 = α 0 = 0

The equations of motion of the system must thus be linearized in the

neighborhood of this condition

21
 Linearization of the equations of motion
Linearization of the kinematic relations:

2
2
( 
V = U + x − b1θ ≈ U 2
2
)
r

#cos ψ ≈ 1
%
$ x − b1θ
%sin ψ ≈ ψ =
& U

x − b1θ
α =θ +ψ =θ +
U

The mean aerodynamic coefficients must be developed through a Taylor series

arrested at the 1st order in the neighborhood of α=0°

22
 Linearization of the equations of motion
The mean aerodynamic coefficients must be developed through a Taylor series
arrested at the 1st order in the neighborhood of α=0°
# ∂C &
( )
C L ≈ C L α = α0 + % L ( α − α0 =
$ ∂α '0
( ) Vr
MP FL
C α
# 
x − b1θ &
= K L0 %θ + ( CM
FD
$ U ' KL0
CD

⎛ ∂C ⎞ α
where: K L0 = ⎜ L ⎟
⎝ ∂α ⎠0
CL

23
 Linearization of the equations of motion
The mean aerodynamic coefficients must be developed through a Taylor series
arrested at the 1st order in the neighborhood of α=0°
# ∂C &
( ) (
C L ≈ C L α = α0 + % L ( α − α0 =
$ ∂α '0
) Vr
MP FL
C α
 C
# x − b1θ & D0
= K L0 %θ + ( CM
FD
$ U '
CD

⎛ ∂C ⎞ α
CD ≈ CD (α = α 0 ) + ⎜ D ⎟ (α − α 0 ) = CD 0
⎝ ∂α ⎠0
CL
where: CD 0 = CD 0 (α = 0 )

24
 Linearization of the equations of motion
The mean aerodynamic coefficients must be developed through a Taylor series
arrested at the 1st order in the neighborhood of α=0°
# ∂C &
( )
C L ≈ C L α = α0 + % L ( α − α0 =
$ ∂α '0
( ) Vr
MP FL
C α
# 
x − b1θ &
= K L0 %θ + ( CM
FD
$ U ' KM0 CD

⎛ ∂C ⎞ α
CD ≈ CD (α = α 0 ) + ⎜ D ⎟ (α − α 0 ) = CD 0
⎝ ∂α ⎠0
CL
# ∂C & # x − b1θ &
CM ≈ CM (
α = α0 + %
$ ∂α
M
)'0
(
( α − α 0 = K M 0 %θ +
$
) U
(
'

⎛ ∂C ⎞ ⎛ ∂C ⎞
where: K L0 = ⎜ L ⎟ K M 0 = ⎜ M ⎟ CD 0 = CD 0 (α = 0 )
⎝ ∂α ⎠0 ⎝ ∂α ⎠0
25
 Linearization of the equations of motion
2 2
# x − b1θ &
( )
FL α cos ψ = aV C L cos ψ ≈ aU K L0 %θ +
r
$ U '
(

2 2
# x − b θ &
( )
FD α sin ψ = aV C D sin ψ ≈ aU C D0 %
r
$ U
1
(
'

2 2
# x − b1θ &
( )
M P α = aCV C M ≈ aCU K M 0 %θ +
r
$ U '
(

1
where: a= ρS
2

26
 Linearization of the equations of motion
The linearized equations of motion thus are:

!m x * !c 0 $' x * !k 0 $' x * '. FL cos ψ − FD sin ψ *.

0 $' 
# &( + + # &( + + #

&( + = ( +=
"0 J %)θ , "0 cθ %)θ , "0 kθ %)θ , .) M P .,
'.aU 2 K θ + aU K − C x + aU C − K b θ*.
=(
L0 (L0 D0 ) (
D0 L0 )
1
+=
.)aCU K M 0θ + aCUK M 0 x − aCUK M 0b1θ
2
.,
!aU K − C $' x * !0 K L0 $' x *
=#
( L0 D0) aU (C D0
− K L0
b1)&( + + #
aU 2
&( +
#"aCUK M 0 − aCUK M 0b1  2
&%)θ , #"0 aCU K M 0 &%)θ ,

The damping and stiffness matrices associated with the aerodynamic force field are:

⎡(CD 0 − K L 0 ) ( K L0 − CD0 ) b1 ⎤ 2 ⎡0 − K L 0 ⎤

[CF ] = aU ⎢ ⎥ ; [ K F ] = aU ⎢
⎣ −CK M 0 CK M 0b1 ⎦ ⎣0 − CK M 0 ⎥⎦

27
 Linearization of the equations of motion
Equations of motion can finally be rewritten as:
! M #  ( ) ( )
" s $ z + "Cs $ + "C F $ z + " K s + K F $ z = 0
! # ! # ! #

! M # 
" $ z + "C $ z + " K $ z = 0
! # ! #

⎧ x ⎫
where: z = ⎨ ⎬
⎩θ ⎭

⎡( cx + aU ( CD 0 − K L 0 ) ) aUb1 ( K L 0 − CD 0 )⎤ ⎡ k x − aU 2 K L 0 ⎤

[C ] = ⎢ ⎥ ; [ K ] = ⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ −aUCK M 0 ( cθ + aUCK M 0b1 ) ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣0 ( kθ − aU CK M 0 )⎥⎦
2

⎡ m 0 ⎤
M
[ ] ⎢
=
⎣0 J ⎥⎦

28
Linearization of the equations of motion

⎡ m 0 ⎤
M
[ ] ⎢
=
⎣0 J ⎥⎦
⎡ k x − aU 2 K L 0
⎤ ⎡ k xx k xθ ⎤
[ K ] = ⎢ ⎥ = ⎢
⎢⎣0 ( kθ − aU CK M 0 )⎥⎦ ⎣kθ x
2
kθθ ⎥⎦

⎡( cx + aU ( CD 0 − K L 0 ) ) aUb1 ( K L 0 − CD 0 )⎤ ⎡cxx cxθ ⎤

[C ] = ⎢ ⎥ = ⎢
⎢⎣ − aUCK M 0 ( cθ + aUCK M 0b1 ) ⎥⎦ ⎣cθ x cθθ ⎥⎦

29
 Stability analysis
It can be noticed that:
§  [KF] and [CF] couple the 2 equations of motion, initially decoupled ([Ms], [Ks]
and [Cs] diagonal)
§  [KF] is not symmetric: the aerodynamic force field is not conservative
§  [CF] is not symmetric: the aerodynamic force field is not dissipative (the
equivalent damping matrix can introduce energy into the system)
§  the elements of [KF] and [CF] increase as U increases

The following instability cases may arise:

§  static instability associated with the pitch motion

§  dynamic instability associate to the pitch motion
§  dynamic instability associate to the heave motion
§  flutter instability

30
 Stability analysis
Case 1: Static instability

⎡ k x − aU 2 K L 0 ⎤ ⎡ k xx k xθ ⎤
[ K ] = ⎢ ⎥ = ⎢
⎢⎣0 ( kθ − aU CK M 0 )⎥⎦ ⎣kθ x
2
kθθ ⎥⎦ Vr
MP FL
C α

Static instability associated with the CM FD

pitch motion (dof θ) arises when KM0 CD
α
2
⎧⎪−aU CK M 0 < 0
⎨ 2
⎪⎩ aU CK M 0 > kθ
CL

This condition happens if KM0 is positive, e.g. in the case of winglike profiles. Static
instability may be avoided by increasing kθ or by decreasing KM0

31
 Stability analysis Vr
MP FL
C
Case 2: Single dof dynamic instability CD0
α

CM FD
⎡( cx + aU ( CD 0 − K L 0 ) ) KL0 KM0
aUb1 ( K L 0 − CD 0 )⎤ CD
[C ] = ⎢ ⎥ α
⎢⎣ −aUCK M 0 ( cθ + aUCK M 0b1 ) ⎥⎦
Winglike
Dynamic instability arises when: CL
profile

C CD
⎧⎪aU ( CD 0 − K L 0 ) < 0 CD0
⎨ Heave motion (dof x)
⎪⎩cx < aU ( CD 0 − K L 0 ) CL
or when: KM0 KL0
⎧⎪aUCK M 0b1 < 0 α
⎨ Pitch motion (dof θ) CM
⎪⎩cθ < aUCK M 0b1 Rectangular
profile

When this condition occurs, the resultant motion is an

expansive oscillating motion. This never happens for winglike
profiles, but it could happen for profiles with a large frontal area
(e.g. rectangular profiles having KM0 < 0)
32
 Stability analysis
Case 3: Flutter instability
⎡( cx + aU ( CD 0 − K L 0 ) ) aUb1 ( K L 0 − CD 0 )⎤ ⎡ k x − aU 2 K L 0 ⎤
[C ] = ⎢ ⎥ ; [ K ] = ⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ −aUCK M 0 ( cθ + aUCK M 0b1 ) ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣0 ( kθ − aU CK M 0 )⎥⎦
2

One of the extradiagonal terms of [K] is equal to zero, thus the positional part of the
force field cannot be the only responsible for flutter instability. In fact, the condition
⎧−aU 2 K L 0 ⋅ 0 < 0
⎧k xθ kθ x < 0 ⎪⎪ 2
⎪ 2 ⇒ ⎨ ⎛ k x − ( kθ − aU 2CK M 0 ) ⎞
⎨ ⎛ k xx − kθθ ⎞ 2
⎪ −aU K L 0 ⋅ 0 > ⎜⎜ ⎟
⎪ k xθ kθ x > ⎜ ⎟ 2 ⎟
⎩ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎪⎩ ⎝ ⎠

can never be verified. However the aerodynamic force field influences the term kθθ.
In particular, if KM0>0, the frequency of the pitch motion (ωθ) decreases.

Usually, for winglike profiles, the frequency of the heave motion ωx is smaller than
ωθ. Thus, the aerodynamic forces, as U increases, synchronize the two
frequencies of the system (ωx and ωθ get closer). In this condition, the part of the
field force proportional to the system velocity may cause flutter instability if the flow
speed becomes higher than a particular value, called critical velocity.
33
 Stability analysis
Case 3: Flutter instability
Summarizing, the aerodynamic forces can synchronize the pitch an the heave
motions (i.e. the two motions have the frequency ω), but the two motions are out of
phase (in the worst case 90°). As a result, the lift force and the airfoil speed have
always the same direction. This causes an introduction of energy into the system,
being the energy associated to each cycle
T
Ecycle = ∫ F x dt > 0
L
0
x = xmax x = − xmax
x=0 θ = − θ max x=0 θ = θ max
θ = 0 θ = 0

The synchronism of the two motions makes the introduction of energy into the
system last, thus causing instability.
Flutter instability may be avoided:
§  by changing the shape of the winglike profile
§  by separating the frequencies of the mechanical system (ωx and ωθ) 34
 Stability analysis
Case 3: Flutter instability
When flutter instability occurs, the eigenvalues of the system become:
λ1,2 = α ± jω λ3,4 = −α ± jω
Thus, the rotation and the heave motion of the winglike profile are harmonic and
characterized by the same frequency (ω), but by different phases (the relative
phase tends to 90° when the system approaches to flutter instability)

x x

θ θ
The resultant motion, in the x-θ plane, is an elliptic expansive trajectory for
eigenvalues λ1,2, while it is an elliptic implosive trajectory for eigenvalues λ3,4
35
 Stability analysis
In order to analyze the stability of the system, the eigenvalues must be calculated
Eigenvalues can be calculated by imposing the solution
z = Zeλt
into the equations of motion of the system:
! M #  (
! # ! # ) ( ! # )
" s $ z + "Cs $ + "C F $ z + " K s + K F $ z = " M $ 
! # z + !C # z + ! K # z = 0
" $ " $
The eigenvalues λi of the system can thus be obtained by solving the matricial
equation (i.e. by imposing the matrix of the coefficients to be singular):

([ M ] λ + [C ] λ + [ K ]) Z = ( ⎡⎣ M (U )⎤⎦ λ
2 2
)
+ ⎡⎣C (U )⎤⎦ λ + ⎡⎣ K (U )⎤⎦ Z = 0

If the real part αi (function of the wind speed U) of one of the eigenvalues λi of
the system λi (U ) = αi (U ) + jωi (U ) is positive, the system is unstable

36
 Stability analysis
Suspended bridge deck
F
xz
θ

b
B
0.09 0.01
αx
0
ωx
0.08
-0.01

ωθ -0.02
[Hz]

0.07

[-]
ωx -0.03

-0.04
αθ
0.06
ωθ
-0.05

0.05 -0.06
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
U [m/s] U [m/s]

37