Aerodynamic Forces

Enrique Ortega
e.ortega@upc.edu
 Origin of the aerodynamic forces
The aerodynamic forces and moments acting on a body are originated by

• pressure distribution: p(s) resultant aerodynamic

• shear stress distribution: (s)
 ( pn   )dS
S force (R) and moment (M)

Sir G. Cayley (1773-1857) proposed that the resultant aerodynamic force can be
resolved into two components, lift (L) and drag (D). With a proper definition of
the axes system, these could be analyzed as separate problems.
Lift (L) is defined  to V
R

This definition of L
R and D gives origin
to the wind axes.

Extracted from [1]. W

Drag (D) is defined in the direction of V∞ V is the relative velocity
between the body and
2 – Aerodynamic forces the air
 Two typical reference frames
In basic aerodynamics, the forces and moments are usually given in wind axes (xw,yw,zw)
or body axes (xb,yb,zb). The relation between them and their respective components of
forces and moments are shown below for a general 3D case.
(*)
α : angle of attack V=(u,v,w)
xb xb  xw cos  cos   yw cos  sin   zw sin 
 : angle of sideslip
x yb  xw sin   yw cos  (1)
w
zb  xw sin  cos   yw sin  sin   zw cos 
L
xw  xb cos  cos   yb sin   zc sin  cos 
L (2)
yw   xb cos  sin   yb cos   zb sin  sin 
zw   xb sin   zc cos 
D Y
yb Longitudinal motion (x-z plane): =0 (3 DoF). Forces and moment
involved: L, D and M.
M yw Lateral motion (x-y plane): V∞ has components outside the x-z symmetry
plane. M is generally independent of L and N, but L and N are coupled.
N zb
zw
(*)
For convenience, the direction of the x and z axes is usually inverted in u  V cos  cos 
body-fixed analyses (right-handed orientation is preserved). v  V sin 
w  V sin  cos 
3 – Aerodynamic forces
 The force and moments in body and wind (aerodynamic) axes are:

Body forces: FX, FY, FZ (x and z forces are usually denoted by A (axial) and N (normal))
Body moments: MX, MY, MZ
Aerodynamic forces: L (lift) , D (drag), Y (side force)
Aerodynamic moments: L (roll), M (pitch) and N (yaw)

In the longitudinal plane (x-z) we have a pitching moment

(M) and two forces (L and D). In 2D, the latter can be
expressed in the wind and body axes as

L  N cos   A sin 
D  N sin   A cos  M
(3)
A  D cos   L sin 
N  D sin   L cos 
Extracted from [2].
4 – Aerodynamic forces
 Non-dimensional forces and moments
• Aerodynamic forces (F) and moments (M) depend on the fluid properties (, 
and the speed of the sound), the relative wind velocity V and the size and
attitude of the body (e.g. α and β).
• Dimensionless quantities are easier to handle. These are extrapolable and
bounded. Their ranges are well known for typical cases.
• Dimensionless forms reduce the number of variables and allow collect them into
representative numbers. These forms can be derived from dimensional analysis
and set the guidelines for analyzing similarity (e.g. see [2], p. 30).
The dimensionless coefficients of aerodynamic force and moment are*
F M
CF  , CM   f  ,  , Re, M  (4)
qS qS L
where 𝑞 ⁄ 𝜌 𝑉 is the reference (freestream) dynamic pressure and S and L
are representatives surface and length of the body, respectively. Note that Eq. (4)
also depends on the body attitude. *These coefficients were first used by O.
Lilienthal (1848-1896) and S. Langley (1834-
5 – Aerodynamic forces 1906) to reduce whirling-arm test data.
 Using definitions (4), the dimensionless forces and moments result
L M
CL  Lift coefficient CM  Pitching moment coefficient
qS qSc
D N
CD  Drag coefficient CN  Yawing moment coefficient (5)
qS qSb
Y L
CY  Side force coefficient CL  Rolling moment coefficient
qS qSb
where S is the wing planform area, b is the span, 𝑐̿ is the wing aerodynamic chord and
q∞ is the freestream dynamic pressure. Important: in 2D the forces and moments are
given per unit of span, so 𝑏 1 is assumed in the coefficients and 𝑆 𝑐 𝑏 𝑐 1 𝑐.
Lowercase subscripts are used by convention to identify 2D coefficients (e.g. Cd).
Furthermore, dimensionless pressure (Cp) and friction (Cf) coefficients are defined
p  p w  u 
Cp  ; Cf  with  w    T  (6)
q q  n  w
being p∞ the reference freestream static pressure and w the wall viscous friction.
6 – Aerodynamic forces
 Alternative expressions for the pressure coefficient
In an incompressible flow, the pressure coefficient can be expressed in terms of
the velocity using the Bernoulli equation. This leads to
2
C p  1   V  (7)
 V 
Note: from (7), the unperturbed flow (e.g. freestream) gives Cp=0. If V<V, Cp is positive
and a maximum of Cp=1 is obtained at stagnation points. Overvelocity, i.e. V>V, causes Cp
to become negative. The minimum value achievable depends on the available flow energy
(from static pressure) and the body perturbation. Typically, 𝐶𝑝 ~ 4, 8 in real flows.

In compressible flows, the Cp is a function of the freestream Mach number.

Rewriting Eq. (6) and using the isentropic relation c2=p/ it is possible to obtain

p  p  2 p  p  2  p 
Cp    1  2 
 1  2 
 1 (8)
q  p  V  p   M   p 
where the term is also rewritten in terms of the Mach number.

7 – Aerodynamic forces
 As the flow is isentropic, we can write p/p= (p/p0)/(p/p0). Then, expressing the
pressure ratios in terms of Mach, Eq. (8) results
 2  (  1)

2  1  0.5(  1) M  
Cp  2 
   1 (9)
 M   1  0.5(  1) M 2  
Eq. (9) gives important information. For example
this allows determining if the flow is supersonic
(setting M=1), and also indicates the minimum Cp
attainable (e.g. assuming ideal vacuum). Find out
these values by yourself! Also, the stagnation Cp
can be obtained setting M=0
2     1 2  (  1)

C p0   1  M   1 (10)
 M 2  2  
Note that in this case Cp0>1 and its maximum
value depends on the fluid and M. Additional
energy due to compressibility comes into play!

8 – Aerodynamic forces
 Computation of aerodynamic forces and moments
As seen, the aerodynamic forces and moments result from the integration of the
pressure and skin friction distributions over the body surface. For a given airfoil
section, the integration of forces in body-axes can be carried out as follows
z
Forces on the upper side (per unit span):
dN u    p u cos    u sin   ds
(11)
dA    p sin    cos   ds
u u u

Forces on the lower side (per unit span):

Extracted from [2].
dN l   p l cos    l sin   ds
(12)
dAl   p l sin    l cos   ds
dz
ds cos   dx and ds sin    dz   dx (13)
dx

9 – Aerodynamic forces
 Integrating the contributions (11) and (12) from the LE to the TE, the total forces
(per unit span) acting on the airfoil can be obtained
TE TE
N   (dN  dN )   ( p l  p u ) cos   ( l   u ) sin   ds
u l
LE LE
(14)
TE TE
A   (dAu  dAl )   ( p l  p u ) sin   ( l   u ) cos   ds
LE LE

Then, using the relationships (13), Eqs. (14) can be rewritten as (!) along the airfoil’s chord

TE  l
TE
l dz
l
u dz 
u
N   ( p  p )dx  (   )dz    ( p  p )  (
l u l u u
 ) dx
LE LE
 dx dx 
(15)
TE 
u 
u l
u dz l dz
TE
A   ( p  p )dz  (   )dx   ( p
 u l l u
 p )  (   ) dx
l
LE LE
 dx dx 
which in non-dimensional form result
1  TE l TE dz l
dz u

Cn    (C p  C p )dx   (C f
u l
 Cf
u
)dx 
c LE LE dx dx 
(16)
1  TE u dz l dz
u
TE
l

Ca    (C p  Cp )dx   (C lf  C uf )dx 
c  LE dx dx LE

10 – Aerodynamic forces
 The pitching moment (M) is obtained by summation of the normal and axial force
contributions. Taking the leading edge as a reference*, and since the coordinate z
is negative below the LE in body-axes, we can write
TE
M LE    (dN u  dN l ) x  (dAu  dAl ) z  (17)
LE

In dimensionless form Eq. (17) results

1  TE u TE dz u
dz l
Cm LE  2   (C p  C lp ) xdx   (C uf  C lf ) xdx
c  LE LE dx dx
(18)
TE
u dz
u
TE
l dz
l

  (C p  C f ) z dx   (C p
u u
 C f ) z dx 
l l
LE dx LE dx 

To evaluate Eqs. (16) and (18) for a given airfoil and flow conditions, the Cp and Cf
distributions are required. Their calculation is the focus of study in this subject.
For the time being… let’s see how these distributions look.
*The moment about another
reference point (x0,z0) can be
obtained by replacing x and z by
(x-x0) and (z-z0), respectively.
11 – Aerodynamic forces
 Pressure and skin friction distributions in a typical aerodynamic section

suction peak

upper side pressure recovery

lower side change of Cf at the transition point

upper side

lower side

stagnation point

Why the convention is to plot negative Note that the magnitude of Cf is generally 2
Cp upwards? orders of magnitude less than Cp.

12 – Aerodynamic forces
 Do Eqs. (16) and (18) allow simplifications?
According to the magnitudes of the terms in the force and moment coefficients, and the
geometrical features of aerodynamic bodies, it is possible to assume that:
• The viscous contributions to the normal force and moment are negligible (Cp>>Cf).
• The body surface slopes dz/dx are small (streamlined shape, t/c small  dx>dz).

Under these assumptions, Eqs. (16) and (18) result

1 TE l 1 TE
Cn   (C p  C up )dx
c LE
Cm LE  2
c  LE
(C lp  C up ) xdx (19)

C p ( x)
The viscous contributions cannot be neglected in the axial
1 TE force. In streamline bodies at low , the term of axial pressure
Ca   (C lf  C uf )dx (20) contribution is small and usually tends to cancel; thus, the viscous
c LE force is always significant in relative terms.

Furthermore, if the angle of attack is small it can be assumed that 𝐶 𝐶 . The assumption
𝐶 𝐶 is in general not possible, unless 𝛼 → 0 (proofs are given in the problems guide).

For practical convenience, lift and drag coefficients are usually expressed in lift counts
(1lc=1E-3) and drag counts (1dc=1E-4).

13 – Aerodynamic forces
 The center of pressure
The center of pressure (cp) is defined as the point on which the aerodynamic resultant
force is located. Accordingly, the moment is zero at x = xcp. Taking as a reference the leading
edge (LE) to resolve the pitching moment, as Mcp = 0, we can state

M LE   N  xcp  xLE  (21)

R
Thus, xcp can be obtained as follows
=0
M LE M LE
xcp  xLE   (22)
N N
Extracted from [2].
Note that xcp can vary with lift
xcp Cm LE
In dimensionless form Eq. (22) is  (23) or , going to infinite when the
c Cn lift approaches zero. Since its
position is not constant (as we
Alternatively, if any other reference point 𝑥 is
will see, except for symmetrical
used to calculate de pitching moment, Eq. (23)
airfoils), xcp is rarely used as a
results ⁄ ⁄ (24) reference point in practice.
14 – Aerodynamic forces
 The aerodynamic center
As seen, the center of pressure changes with  and this fact difficulties the analyses. A point
useful in practice is the aerodynamic center. This is defined as the point about which the
moment (Mac) is independent of the angle of attack (this is the same as assume that the
lift is located at that point). Again, taking moment about the leading edge,

M LE  M ac  L  xac  xLE  (25)

Differentiating with respect to 
=0 by definition of xac
M LE M ac L
   xac  xLE  (26)
  
=0 M LE L
Extracted from [2].
and xac  xLE  (27)
 
where L/ is the lift slope. The dimensionless form of Eq. (26) is given by

xac CmLE Cl This value is approximately 1/4 for airfoils in

 (28) incompressible flow. Mac is usually referred as
c   the free moment (M0).

From Eq. (28), could you determine the

15 – Aerodynamic forces conditions/range for xac not move?
 Example: non-symmetrical airfoil

Xcp tends to xac… why?

0.25 Taking the aerodynamic center as the
reference point in Eq. (24), the position of
the center of pressure results

xcp xac Cm ac
 
c c Cn
As Cmacconst., the circled term tends to
zero as Cn increases and xcp approaches
xac. An equivalence between xcp and xac is
also found in symmetrical airfoils because
the free moment Cm0 is zero.
16 – Aerodynamic forces
 References

1. Milne-Thomson, L. M. Theoretical aerodynamics. 4th edition. New York:

Dover Publications (1966).
2. Anderson, J. D. Fundamentals of aerodynamics. 3th edition. New York:
McGraw-Hill (2001).

17 – References and complementary material Enrique Ortega

e.ortega@upc.edu