Hanoi Cohesive Soil in Salt-Affected

Conditions: Soil Properties and 2D

Consolidation Analysis

Nguyen Ngoc Truc & Lena Mihova

International Journal of Civil

Engineering

ISSN 1735-0522
Volume 18
Number 2

Int J Civ Eng (2020) 18:137-150

DOI 10.1007/s40999-019-00422-5

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 Author's personal copy
International Journal of Civil Engineering (2020) 18:137–150
https://doi.org/10.1007/s40999-019-00422-5

RESEARCH PAPER

Hanoi Cohesive Soil in Salt-Affected Conditions: Soil Properties and 2D

Consolidation Analysis
Nguyen Ngoc Truc1,2   · Lena Mihova3

Received: 17 December 2018 / Revised: 3 March 2019 / Accepted: 19 March 2019 / Published online: 9 April 2019
© Iran University of Science and Technology 2019

Abstract
The paper focuses on the geotechnical experiments and numerical simulation of 2D consolidation analysis for the cohesive
soils fully saturated by solutions of four salt concentrations, i.e. 0.0, 9.9, 19.8, and 33.0 g/L. The experiments were carried out
on undisturbed soil samples taken from the boreholes in Hanoi area where the subsoil has not been affected by saline intru-
sion yet. The composition and properties of the cohesive soil in salt-affected conditions were investigated with transmission
electron microscopic method and other geotechnical experiments. Consolidation analysis with finite element method was
applied to an assumed embankment on saline subsoil. The analytical results showed that swelling mineral of montlorillonite
is present in the Hanoi cohesive soils. The water content of the studied soils decreases as the salt concentration increases.
Meanwhile, the bulk density unclearly changes in the same testing conditions. The coefficient of consolidation reduces,
respectively, with the salinities, from 22 to 50% as salinities rise up to 33.0 g/L. Compressibility index increases linearly
and proportionally with the salinities. In 2D analytical model, the settlement or vertical displacement of the subsoil in HD1
site reaches 14.8% and that of GL2 site is 18.7% at saline solution of 33.0 g/L. The horizontal displacement of the subsoil
reaches 13.90% in HD1 site and 17.55% in GL2 site from the baseline. The time at primary consolidation completion is
longer as saturated solution is saltier. The prolongation of primary consolidation time gets over 30% if the subsoil is at the
most salty. These changes illustrate the degradation of soils in the saline media.

Keywords  Cohesive soil · Salt-affected soil · Saline intrusion · Soil properties · Consolidation analysis · Finite element
method

1 Introduction Global-warming-driven sea-level rise along the coastal area

In the context of climate change, coastal low-level areas
suffer from extreme weather phenomena. One of them
is sea-level rise, which is a much concerned hazard.
* Nguyen Ngoc Truc
trucnn@vnu.edu.vn
Lena Mihova
l_mihova@yahoo.com
1
VNU School of Interdisciplinary Studies, Vietnam National
University, Building G7, No. 144 Xuan Thuy str., Cau Giay
dist, Hanoi, Vietnam
2
VNU University of Science, Vietnam National University,
No. 334 Nguyen Trai str., Thanh Xuan dist., Hanoi, Vietnam
3
Department of Geotechnics, Faculty of Transportation
Engineering, University of Architecture Civil Engineering
and Geodesy, No. 1 Hristo Smirnenski Blvd., 1164 Sofia,
Bulgaria
of the Red River delta is, among others, one major factor
causing saline intrusion of soil strata. The Red River delta
contains young upper Holocene sediments, most of which
are part of Thai Binh formation. The sediments, dating back
to 3000 years ago, are primarily originated from shallow
sea, alluvial, or lacustrine sediments [1]. Those deposits are
affected by sea-level rise at various degrees. The rise of sea
level results in the expansion and the deeper intrusion of
brackish water wedge at river mouth into land. In addition,
the freshwater lens floating above saltwater along barrier
coasts is 40 times thicker than the elevation of the water
table above the average sea level. This means each increment
of the sea-level rise will cause the fall in fresh water capac-
ity in the lens by 40 times [2] as the sea-level rise enhances
the permeability process of saline water into the strata [3].
Some previous studies prove that saline intrusion may
change soil properties. The change can be either negative
or positive, depending on various factors such as saline

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concentration, types of clay mineral and temperature. For
example, saline intrusion into soft soils will cause the elec-
trostatic interaction between cation in seawater and anion
in clay, which neutralises the charge of clay. As a result, the
soil quality is degraded. In addition, the dehydration process
in soil triggered by salt in the saturated solution may lead to
the alterations in soil properties [4]. Germanov and Kirov
carried out the one-dimensional consolidation tests apply-
ing different saturated solutions to different kinds of soil.
The results pointed out that saline water reduced the defor-
mation of the saturated loess while water containing deter-
gents increased it [5, 6]. The carbonates contained in the
soil specimens are believed to be the cause of those trends.
There are reactions between ­Ca2+ in soil and ­Cl− in saline
water, which makes the bond in the soil structure become
stronger and improve its geotechnical properties [7]. The
soils mainly containing smectite–clay minerals are often
heavily impacted by seawater, which has low capabilities
of water retention and liquid limit. By contrast, the soils
primarily containing allophane–clay minerals prove to have
high water retention and liquid limit under the intrusion of
seawater [8]. When tested in both dry and brine-saturated
conditions, pure kaolinite is more compressible than smec-
tite kaolinite while chlorite and illite mechanical compaction
coefficients are somewhere between those of kaolinite and
smectite [9].
There is a dramatic effect of saline intrusion on clay when
liquid limit, plasticity and shrinkage indices are more than
110%, 70%, and 104% respectively [10]. Permeability of an
aquifer influenced by saline intrusion varies during remedia-
tion process. As freshwater replaces seawater, the perme-
ability decreases to 70% [11]. For stiff clays of Ypresian
and Boom, the salt contained in pore water will enhance
oedometric modulus, permeability and consolidation coef-
ficient and reduce compression slope and swelling slope as
well as secondary compression coefficient. The effect of salt
in pore water can be observed clearly in low-stress range as
physico-chemical effect keeps hydro-mechanical behaviour
in the upper hand [12].
The role of saline solution is obviously exposed in sab-
kha soils, the soils which are commonly distributed both in
coastal and inland regions in southwest Asia. Sabkha soils
consist mostly of loosely cemented sandy silt to silty clay
and are highly compressible [13]. The collapse of sabkha
soils induced by permeation with saltwater is bigger than
that produced by permeation with freshwater, because the
concentration of Na + and Cl − ions in seawater is high [14].
The testing results on clayey soils taken in Al-Nahrawan,
Southern Iraq, which have much in common with Sabkha
soils showed that compressibility index (Cc) of fresh water,
half saline water and saline water decreased as salinity
increase [15]. This result is well in agreement with the study
of Shariatmadari et al. on soil–bentonite mixtures [16].
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International Journal of Civil Engineering (2020) 18:137–150
Some geotechnical perspectives of the Red River delta
soil in salt-affected conditions were investigated by Truc
et al. In their 2012 study, Kirov and Truc pointed out that
under the presence of seawater, the general module and shear
strength of cohesive soils would decline while their permea-
bility would rise [17]. Saline intrusion also causes the larger
settlement in the subsoil and the longer time of secondary
consolidation [3]. However, weathered soils show opposite
results. The interaction between the cation in seawater and
anion in the diffuse double layer of clay minerals is consid-
ered as the cause of that change [18, 19]. The changes in soil
properties are also expressed using an X-ray CT scanner,
which shows that the bulk density of soil soaked in seawater
falls by 2.5–4.6% more than in the normal condition [20].
It is very necessary to have detailed studies on the consol-
idation of Hanoi cohesive soil under conditions of simulated
saline intrusion to understand more about the consolidation
process of the subsoil in the real cases of saline intrusion.
Particularly, the studied results will play an important role in
the infrastructural development on the saline intrusion land
of coastal areas. The method of 2D modelling to analyse
the consolidation of Hanoi cohesive soil in saline condi-
tions, therefore, can contribute to dealing with the increasing
impact of the climate change in Vietnam.
2 Materials and Methods
2.1 Sample Preparation
The undisturbed soil samples were collected from the deep
boreholes at the nine sites scattered around Hanoi. Figure 1
shows these sites, including Hoai Duc 1 (HD1), Hoai Duc
2 (HD2), Hoan Kiem (HK), Bach Mai (BM), Gia Lam 1
(GL1), Gia Lam 2 (GL2), Gia Lam 3 (GL3), Highway No.5
(D5), and Yen So (YS). Generally, the samples have not been
affected by salt. In other words, they have not been salinized.
The samples were taken with the Japanese piston sampler at
the depth of between 1.5 m and 10.0 m. The medium-state
soil samples such as clay or silty clay, whose undrained shear
strength (Su) varies from 25 to 50 kPa, were chosen to study.
The samples were collected, stored and transported from the
sites to the laboratory in compliance with the procedures and
regulations of ASTM standard. In the laboratory, they were
experimented to figure out their geo-technical parameters.
To work out the changes that salt may cause to the prop-
erties of soil, especially those of cohesive soil, the artificial
seawater was used to simulate saline intrusion process. The
average water salinity of Vietnam’s East Sea (or Dong Sea)
is recorded to be 33.0 g/L, equal to the salinity Sa = 100%.
When seawater level remains stable, the salinity of inland
groundwater is 0.0 g/L, which is equivalent to Sa = 0%. In
the laboratory, the saline intrusion process was imitated by
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International Journal of Civil Engineering (2020) 18:137–150 139
Fig. 1  The studied sites in Hanoi area
the saturating soil samples with artificial saltwater at the four
different ratios of 0.0, 9.9, 19.8, 33.0 g/L, equivalent to 0, 30,
60, 100% salinity of seawater, respectively. The artificial sea-
water is the solution containing pure water and salt (sodium
chloride, NaCl). The approximate content and fundamental
chemical component of salt used in artificial seawater are
NaCl ≥ 92%, ­SO42− ≤ 2.7%, ­Mg2+ ≤ 1.3%, ­Ca2+ ≤ 0.65%.
The soil samples were saturated with a two-phase process,
capillary and pressure saturation. Each phase lasts at least 5
days to guarantee the full saline intrusion into the samples.
Firstly, the saturation process is carried out with the capil-
lary phase. The studied soil specimens are put into the con-
solidation rings. Two faces of specimen are covered by the
filter papers and then two porous stones areattached to the
outermost part. The sets of specimen are carefully put into
the water containers. Each specimen set is laid in one con-
tainer corresponding to the saturated solutions of 0.0, 9.9,
19.8, and 33.0 g/L. Those solutions are poured into the con-
tainers and the specimen is marked in correspondence with
the salinity. The saline solution is kept in half at the height
of the specimen. A 500 kPa loading is directly laid on the
upper part of the porous stone to prevent the soil specimen
from expansion. The saline solution in the half-submerged
specimen is transmitted on to the upper half to occupy the
air place in the pore space in the soil. This is to simulate
the natural saline intrusion in the field. Specimens are par-
tially expected to be naturally saturated with the capillary
mechanisms.
After the capillary duration, specimens are moved to
pressure saturation. This phase is conducted on the one-
dimensional consolidation apparatus of Oedometer. The
hydrostatic head from saline water in standpipe tube, which
is attached on the Oedometer equipment, creates the pres-
sure on the specimen. The saline water column height in the
tube is restricted at 10 cm above the upper part of the speci-
men surface. This is to ensure the head would not affect the
micro-structure of the specimen. The saltwater in the stand-
pipe tube is in contact with the soil from the lower porous
stone to release gas and pore water in the void out. Loading
is placed on the upper part but it only touches the surface
of the porous stone to prevent the soil from expanding. As
the saline water appearing on the specimen surface, the soil
is considered to be fully saturated by the testing solution.
As soon as the saturation process completed, the labora-
tory experiments including grain size distribution, organic
matter content, clay mineral composition, bulk density, and
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one-dimensional consolidation are conducted on all the salt-
affected specimens. The experimental results are the basis
for analysing the 2D consolidation model of salt-affected
soils.
2.2 Methods of Study
2.2.1 Soil Properties
Many experiments on the cohesive soil in Hanoi area were
carried out in the laboratory. The experimental results in
the laboratory are the important input data for 2D consoli-
dation analysis. The determination of soil particle size was
conducted in accordance with the Standard Test Method of
ASTM D 422. The particle size was analysed with hydrom-
eter and laser particle size analyser. The organic matter
content of the studied soils was determined in accordance
with ASTM D2974–14. Meanwhile, the determination of
bulk density and dry bulk density of soil specimens followed
Standard Test Method of ASTM D7263–09.
One-dimensional compression test is aimed to determine
the consolidation indices of salt-affected soils, such as coef-
ficient of consolidation, Cv, compressibility index, Cc, and
oedometer modulus, Eoed, which were used for assessment
of soil properties and 2D analysis model. The test was per-
formed in accordance with ASTM D2435 standard. Each
soil specimen was separately compressed in one compressive
box at the pressure stages of 25, 50, 100, 200, and 400 kPa.
Each pressure stage was maintained at the constant load for
24 h. The test ended after a 6-day period.
The mineral composition of the studied soil was analysed
by X-ray diffraction. This has been a very common method
and introduced in many popular textbooks. Transmission
Electron Microscopic (TEM) method was also used in this
study. The analysis with TEM aimed to determine the resil-
ience of clay minerals after salinization, which is related to
the swelling, deformation, and consolidation of the cohesive
soils. This is a microscopy technique that the electron beam
is moved through the soil specimen to create the image of
particles. The soil specimen is usually an extremely thin
layer. It does not exceed 100 nm in thickness. TEM images
are created by the interaction of the soil particles and elec-
trons when the beam is moved through the particles. After-
ward, the images are magnified and focused on the imaging
equipment such as a fluorescent screen, a film layer, or a
sensor.
2.2.2 Determination of Additional Parameters
for Modelling
To a certain extent, the hydraulic conductivity of the cohe-
sive soils can be indirectly defined from the coefficient
of consolidation. Equation (1) that defines consolidation
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coefficient is suitable for determining the coefficient of the
permeability of the studied soils. It is the appropriate input
parameter for modelling analysis. However, only the coef-
ficient of permeability of the soils in the sites of GL2 and
HD1 was indirectly determined.
k
Cv =
mv × 𝜌w (1)
where k is the coefficient of permeability or hydraulic con-
ductivities, ρw is the water density, and mv is the coefficient
of volume compressibility that is defined from the consoli-
dation test data.
Deformation modulus is an important parameter for
modelling. It is controlled by the level of stress in soil. In
this study, the confined modulus, Eoed, is estimated from the
pressure versus void ratio curve. The determination of Eoed
is expressed in Eq. (2).
𝜎 2 − 𝜎1
Eoed = (1 + e0 ) (2)
e1 − e2
where eo, e1, and e2 are the initial void ratio, void ratio cor-
responding to pressure stages σ1 and σ2 respectively.
The shear strength parameters of c and φ are also neces-
sary in 2D consolidation analysis. Due to the difficulty in
determining the shear strength parameters of salt-affected
soils in the laboratory, the direct shear test was just applied
to the soils in GL2 and HD1 only. It means that only c and
φ of GL2 and HD1’s soils were determined.
2.2.3 2D Consolidation Analysis
In this study, the consolidation analysis of Hanoi cohesive
soil under an assumed embankment was conducted to com-
prehend how saline intrusion affects the deformation process
of the subsoil in in situ conditions. For this purpose, the
consolidation process of the assumed embankment on the
saline subsoil was analysed using a numerical simulation
with the finite element method of Plaxis 2D program. The
simulation used the following assumptions:
1. The soil is a two-phase system. The solid phase is the
skeleton of the soil particles. The liquid phase is the
water in the pore of soil mass. The pore water is incom-
pressible in the fully saturated condition. If pore water
flow is unsaturated, the second phase is a compressible
mixture of air and water.
2. It is involved in the principle of the effective stresses of
Terzaghi;
3. The law of Hooke is suitable for the constitutive model
of the skeleton;
4. The equilibrium equations meet the conditions of the
stresses in soil mass;
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International Journal of Civil Engineering (2020) 18:137–150 141

5. Assuming the small strain theory meets the compatible 3 Results

deformation condition;
6. Darcy’s law can apply to the pore water flow;
7. The reduction of volume of a soil element is equal to
the water outflowing from that volume; this obeys the
continuity principle;
8. The cohesive soil parameters such as Young’s modulus,
coefficient of Poisson, and coefficient of permeability
are constant during the consolidation process;
9. The discretization of the soil domain is conducted
through triangular 15-node finite elements.
The functions of settlement versus time and pore water
pressure versus time are considered as the horizontal
displacement of the cohesive subsoil under the assumed
embankment and the ending time of consolidation, t = t100.
The simulation uses the basic equations of the linear
elastic coupled with the consolidation analysis of cohesive
soil at a plane strain condition. Using the virtual work
principle is to obtain the finite element equations for the
coupled consolidation analysis.
The solutions with 2D Plaxis program are horizontal
displacement, vertical displacement (settlement), time of
consolidation, and pore water pressure versus time. The
quantitative change of horizontal displacement, settlement,
and time of consolidation are determined by the following
formulas:
ux (Sa ) − ux (Sa = 0)
Δux,max =
ux (Sa = 0)
3.1 Characteristics of Cohesive Soils in Hanoi Area
3.1.1 Particle Size
The particle size analysis of Hanoi cohesive soils is to deter-
mine soil type and grain grade. Because grain size is almost
not affected by salt although the soil specimen may undergo
the flocculation process, investigating the particle size of
soils in the saline conditions is unnecessary. The analyti-
cal result showed that the studied soils belong to clay and
silty clay. These are the soils containing clay minerals and
exposing the sensitivity of geotechnical properties in the
saline conditions.
To obtain the accurate result of particle size, the hydrom-
eter and the laser diffraction methods were applied to analyse
the particle size. The modern method of laser analyser pro-
vides more explicit and reliable data. In fact, the two meth-
ods both show the qualified results of this research, although
the results of laser diffraction method seem to be lower with
the clay particle amount in comparison with that of the
hydrometer techniques [21]. Figure 2 shows finer percent
(3)

uy (Sa ) − uy (Sa = 0)
Δuy,max = (4)
uy (Sa = 0)

t100 (Sa ) − t100 (Sa = 0)

Δt100 = (5)
t100 (Sa = 0)

where Δux,max, Δuy,max, and Δt100 are the quantitative change

of maximum horizontal displacement, maximum settlement,
and ending time of consolidation, respectively. ux (Sa), uy
(Sa), and t100 (Sa) are horizontal displacement, settlement,
and ending time of consolidation at a given value of salin-
ity Sa. ux (Sa = 0), uy (Sa = 0), and t100 (Sa = 0) are horizontal
displacement, settlement, and ending time of consolidation
at Sa = 0.0 g/L.

Fig. 2  Grain size distribution of Hanoi cohesive soils with hydrom-

eter method (1), and laser particle size analyser method (2)

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ranging from 1.0 mm up to 9 × 10− 5 mm of the investigated no change in the mineral composition of the soil before and
soils. The accumulated curves express that the amount of after salinization (Fig. 3).
0.074 mm grain size is over 50%. These soils are grouped
into silts and clays and signed C, or M in the Unified Soil 3.1.4 Water Content and Bulk Density, ρ
Classification System (USCS).
• Water content, W: water content was studied for the
specimens saturated with saline solution. The obtained
3.1.2 Organic Matter Content
results describing the changing trend in value before and
after receiving salt were shown in Table 1. Generally, the
The organic matter content of the salt-affected soils was just
studied for non-saline soils (Sa = 0.0 g/l) because it does
not rely on the appearance of salt in the soils. The obtained
result of organic matter and the ash content of the investi-
gated soil specimens is drawn after 6 h igniting at the fur-
nace temperature of 455 ± 10 °C. Accordingly, the average
amount of organic matter in the soils is 9.11%. For example,
those in GL2, YS and D5 sites are 7.41%, 9.98%, and 9.95%,
respectively.
It can be concluded from the acquired results that the con-
tent of the organic matter in the soils takes up a noticeable
percentage. In the salt-affected conditions, the remarkable
existence of the content of organic matter in the soils may
impact the geotechnical properties of the soil, particularly
their secondary consolidation behaviours.
The results of a scientific research work on the quaternary
soil revealed that the organic matter content in these soils
was quite low, about 1–3% [22]. Thus, in comparison with
the other quaternary soils, the cohesive soils in Hanoi have
the high organic matter content of around 9%.

3.1.3 Clay Mineral Composition

The result of the soil mineral analysis showed that the pre-
dominated clay mineral in the cohesive soils in Hanoi area
is illite and chlorite, occupying from 15 to 20%, followed by
kaolinite (14–21%) and montmorillonite accounts for only
3–7%. Quartz minerals represent from 45 to 55%. Feldspar
accounts for 5–8%, followed by goethite. These character-
istics are typical of the soils originated from shallow sea,
alluvial, or lacustrine sediments [17].
Some typical clay samples in Hanoi area were also ana-
lysed by transmission electron microscopy (TEM) for the
two non-saline and complete saline samples with the salt
concentrations mentioned above. The analysis result with
TEM also indicates that there is a flocculation of clay parti-
cles in the saline samples. The higher the salt concentration,
the stronger the flocculation becomes.
The content of the soil specimens determined by TEM
analysis shows that the muscovite and illite particles are
thick, large sized plates while the montmorillonite particles
are thinner and smaller in size. The clay particles, especially
the montmorillonite mineral in the saline specimens, tend Fig. 3  TEM image of soil specimens saturated with four salt concen-
to clump together. The analysis also showed that there was trations in YS and D5 sites

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International Journal of Civil Engineering (2020) 18:137–150 143

Table 1  Water content and bulk density of Hanoi cohesive soils at four salt concentrations
Sign Water content (W, %) Bulk density (ρ, g/cm3)
Sa = 0.0 Sa = 9.9 Sa = 19.8 Sa = 33.0 Sa = 0.0 Sa = 9.9 Sa = 19.8 Sa = 33.0

HD1 39.15 38.25 38.37 38.46 1.820 1.812 1.795 1.808

HD2 63.62 58.48 60.12 60.13 1.45 1.47 1.46 1.46
HK 41.82 40.74 40.28 40.50 1.770 1.747 1.782 1.760
BM 47.92 46.99 46.64 46.85 1.750 1.750 1.743 1.756
GL1 39.05 36.78 37.37 37.98 1.821 1.814 1.820 1.818
GL2 38.40 36.50 37.22 37.76 1.920 1.915 1.919 1.910
GL3 35.91 35.42 35.18 35.38 1.998 1.981 1.993 1.984
D5 59.86 58.81 59.04 59.24 1.643 1.616 1.634 1.614
YS 39.45 38.32 40.72 41.98 1.731 1.730 1.726 1.734

water content of soil declined when salt concentration

increased. When the soil was in the nature state, the water
content reached the highest value. On the contrary, the
water content was at the lowest value when the soil was
saturated with the highest salt concentration solution.
• Bulk density, ρ: The experiment to determine the bulk
density of the salt-affected soils indicated that the volume
of the soil specimens remained stable. Meanwhile, the
presence of salt made the water content reduce. It means
that the bulk density of the soils was changed when the
specimens are saturated with salt water. In fact, although
the decline in the bulk density of these salt-affected soils
was verified, it did not happen in all the studied soils. In
other words, at different salt concentrations, the change
in the bulk density caused by saline intrusion in Hanoi
cohesive soil was unclear.

3.1.5 Void Ratio of Salt‑Affected Cohesive Soils

One-dimensional consolidation test was used to achieve the

settlement of the soil specimens. The void ratio of soil at
each pressure stage was calculated approximately by evalu-
ating the final value of the settlement corresponding to each
of that pressure. Calculating the void ratio for each pressure
stage of a soil specimen saturated with different salt concen-
tration solutions was carefully carried out. Figure 4 shows
the void ratio of Hanoi cohesive soils versus pressure at four
salt concentrations. It can realize that when the amount of
salt in the soil increased, the void ratio increased. This can
be compared with the soil at the same compressive pressure
stage, but at different salinity levels. The change in void
ratio will result in the changes in other geotechnical indices.

3.2 Consolidation Indices of Salt‑Affected Soils

3.2.1 Coefficient of Consolidation, Cv

Fig. 4  Void ratio of Hanoi cohesive soils versus pressure at four salt

Using the deformation data of soil specimens or the thick-
concentrations
ness changes recorded during one of the load stages in the

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144 International Journal of Civil Engineering (2020) 18:137–150

one-dimensional consolidation test, one can evaluate the value at the salinities of 0.0 and 33.0 g/L. The quantita-
coefficient of consolidation, Cv. The procedure to establish tive change of compressibility index is given in Fig. 6. The
Cv for a pressure stage involves plotting the changes of the compressibility index shows the largest change in the soils
soil specimen height against a function of time and then fit- at the four sites BM, GL1, GL2, and YS (from approx 20
ting to this the theoretical Tv versus Uav curve. Many meth- to 29%). Meanwhile, the soil at D5 gets the smallest change
ods can be taken to define Cv. In this study, the Square Root (5.8%). The change in compressibility index of YS is the
of Time method by of Taylor is suitable for estimating Cv of most noticeable while that of D5 is insignificant.
Hanoi cohesive soils saturated with different salt concentra-
tions. Table 2 describes the obtained results of coefficient of 3.3 2D Consolidation Analysis
consolidation at pressure stage 100–200 kPa of the investi-
gated soils. 3.3.1 Geotechnical Aspect of Embankment Subsoil
The calculation of Cv variation at different salinity lev-
els was also conducted to define the quantitative change. To analyse the consolidation of the cohesive soil in the salt-
The result of the quantitative change analysis of Cv in the affected conditions, the numerical model using finite ele-
saline soil samples compared with that at the original time is ment method (FEM) for an assumed embankment is taken
described in Fig. 5. It can be seen from this figure that when into account. Assuming that the 5-m-high embankment is
salt concentration increases, there is a significant decline in
Cv. The coefficient of consolidation of the soil specimens
at three places HD2, BM, D5 among nine sites shows the
most substantial decrease at the salinity level between Sa
= 0.0 and Sa = 33.0. The changes are at the level of 41 to
50%. The decrease in the coefficient of consolidation of the
remaining soil specimens fluctuates between 22 and 35%.
The other changes of Cv in comparison with three couples,
i.e. Sa = 9.9, Sa = 19.8, and Sa = 33.0 to Sa = 0.0, are also
given in this figure. In general, the coefficient of consolida-
tion has a reciprocal relation with the salt concentration in
the investigated soils.

3.2.2 Compressibility Index, Cc

The relation between C ­ c and the salinities was built by deter-

mining the compressibility index of the salt-affected soils.
Table 3 shows the obtained results of the experiment. One
can realize the increase in compressibility index over the
salinities of 0.0 to 9.9, 19.8, and 33.0 g/L. The largest change
of compressibility index is exposed in comparison with its Fig. 5  Quantitative change of Cv from the baseline

Table 2  Consolidation coefficient of Hanoi cohesive soils at four salt Table 3  Compressibility index of Hanoi cohesive soils at four salt
concentrations concentrations
Site Coef. of consolidation Cv ­(cm2/s) over salinity (g/L) Site Compressibility index Cc over salinity (g/L)
Sa = 0.0 Sa = 9.9 Sa = 19.8 Sa = 33.0 Sa = 0.0 Sa = 9.9 Sa = 19.8 Sa = 33.0

HD1 0.0025 0.0022 0.0021 0.0019 HD1 0.179 0.189 0.199 0.209
HD2 0.0063 0.0044 0.0035 0.0025 HD2 0.396 0.425 0.443 0.458
HK 0.0041 0.0037 0.0032 0.0027 HK 0.208 0.216 0.227 0.234
BM 0.0044 0.0035 0.0029 0.0026 BM 0.141 0.152 0.161 0.175
GL1 0.0063 0.0057 0.0052 0.0049 GL1 0.189 0.200 0.218 0.238
GL2 0.00057 0.00050 0.00048 0.00044 GL2 0.128 0.135 0.143 0.154
GL3 0.0034 0.0028 0.0025 0.0023 GL3 0.120 0.126 0.131 0.138
D5 0.0018 0.0016 0.0011 0.0009 D5 0.439 0.445 0.455 0.464
YS 0.000523 0.000451 0.000393 0.00037 YS 0.199 0.204 0.236 0.257

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Table 4  Parameters of cohesive soil at HD1 used in 2D consolidation

analysis
Param- Dimen- Silty clay (HD1)
eter sion
Sa = 0.0 g/L Sa = 9.9 g/L Sa = 19.8 g/L Sa = 33.0 g/L

γ kN/m3 18.20 18.12 17.95 18.08

φ deg 12.42 11.97 11.53 10.93
c kPa 14.72 13.92 13.13 12.07
Eoed kPa 3717 3515 3390 3234
ν – 0.35 0.35 0.35 0.35
k × 10− 5 m/day 5.79 5.31 5.20 4.99

Table 5  Parameters of cohesive soil at GL2 used in 2D consolidation

analysis
Param- Dimen- Clay (GL2)
eter sion
Sa = 0.0 g/L Sa = 9.9 g/L Sa = 19.8 g/L Sa = 33.0 g/L
Fig. 6  Quantitative change of Cc from the baseline
γ kN/m3 19.20 19.15 19.19 19.10
φ deg 3.50 3.31 3.12 2.87
c kPa 32.47 31.20 29.94 28.25
Eoed kPa 4742 4495 4256 3992
ν – 0.42 0.42 0.42 0.42
k × 10− 5 m/day 1.01 0.950 0.959 0.942

3.3.2 Consolidation Analysis Models

Fig. 7  Soil layers and boundary conditions of the assumed embank-
ment
situated on the subsoil. Figure 7 shows the soil layers and
boundary conditions of the numerical 2D consolidation
model, including the points of interest A and B for the anal-
ysis. The embankment is built by a crushed material with
the parameters of γ = 20 kN/m3, E = 85 MPa, φ = 45°, and
c = 5 kPa. The subsoil includes three layers. The top layer is
sand. The middle layer of 9.0 m thick is cohesive soil. The
base is rigid and permeable. The embankment is given as a
distributed load applied at time t = t0 (the beginning of the
consolidation). The pore pressure–time and settlement–time
functions are considered as the horizontal displacement of
the subsoil, the time finishing consolidation (or 100% degree
of consolidation) is assigned to t = t100.
The two cases of the cohesive soil, i.e. silty clay in HD1
and clay in GL2, are involved in the analysis. Tables 4 and
5 show the soil parameters of the compressible layer in each
case. Both cases are assumed that the subsoil is saturated by
four salt concentrations, i.e. Sa = 0.0; 9.9; 19.8; and 33.0 g/L.
In the above figure, the scheme of embankment model
including the boundary conditions of bottom layer is given.
During the consolidation process, the pore water pressure
of this layer is uw = 0, the horizontal displacement is ux
= 0, and the vertical displacement is uy = 0. The vertical
boundaries of the subsoil model are horizontally fixed and
impermeable. It means uw ≠ 0, ux = 0 and uy ≠ 0. Figure 8 is
the triangular 15-node finite element used for discretization
of the soil domain.
Figures 9, 10, and 11 show the graphic results of max
settlement, max horizontal displacement, and initial pore
water pressure corresponding to the four salt concentra-
tions, i.e. Sa = 0.0, 9.9, 19.8, and 33.0 g/L, of HD1 subsoil.
Those are the same for clay of the subsoil in GL2 site and
not necessary to show all herein.
The consolidation analysis results obtained with FEM for
the assumed embankment on the subsoil to be intruded by
the four salt concentration, i.e. Sa = 0.0, 9.9, 19.8, 33.0 g/L,
are given in Figs. 12, 13 and Tables 6 and 7. It can be seen
that these tables show the results of the maximum vertical
displacement (or maximum settlement, uy,max); the quantita-
tive change of the maximum settlement, Δuy,max; the maxi-
mum horizontal displacement of the subsoil, ux,max; the quan-
titative change of the maximum horizontal displacement of

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Fig. 8  Finite element mesh model of embankment subsoil
the subsoil, Δux,max; the ending time of consolidation, t100;
and the quantitative change of the ending time of consolida-
tion, Δt100. The beginning time of consolidation, time t = t0,
is corresponding to maximum horizontal displacement. The
ending time of consolidation, time t = t100, is corresponding
Fig. 9  Maximum settlement of HD1 subsoil at t = t100; a Sa = 0.0 g/L, b Sa = 9.9 g/L, c Sa = 19.8 g/L, and d Sa = 33.0 g/L
Fig. 10  Maximum horizontal displacement of HD1 subsoil at t = t0; a Sa = 0.0 g/L, b Sa = 9.9 g/L, c Sa = 9.8 g/L, and d Sa = 33.0 g/L
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to the maximum settlement. Δux,max, Δuy,max, and Δt100 are
determined from the baseline in accordance with those val-
ues at Sa = 0.0 g/L as given in Eqs. (3), (4), and (5).
The obtained results of consolidation analysis with FEM
lead to the following comments.
The vertical and horizontal displacements of the subsoil
are proportional to the salinity in the soil. The higher the
salinity of soil, the larger the displacements of subsoil get.
The subsoil has the largest settlement when the consoli-
dation process is completed, i.e. the time of consolidation
t = t100. The largest horizontal displacement occurs at the
beginning of the consolidation, i.e. the time of consolida-
tion t = t0.
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Fig. 11  Initial pore water pressure of HD1 subsoil at t = t0; a Sa = 0.0 g/L, b Sa = 9.9 g/L, c Sa = 19.8 g/L, and d Sa = 33.0 g/L

Fig. 13  Pore pressure versus time curves of silty clay—HD1 site (a),

Fig. 12  Settlement versus time curves of silty clay—HD1 site (a),
and clay—GL2 site (b) at point B of the assumed embankment; 1 Sa
and clay—GL2 site (b) at point A of the assumed embankment; 1 Sa
= 0.0, 2 Sa = 9.9, 3 Sa = 19.8, and 4 Sa = 33.0 g/L
= 0.0, 2 Sa = 9.9, 3 Sa = 19.8, and 4 Sa = 33.0 g/L

The salinity of the soil influences remarkably the settle- of GL2 site increases up to 18.7%. The maximum value of
ment of the silty clay subsoil in HD1 and the clay subsoil in settlement is determined at the point A on the finite element
GL2 site. As the salinity increases from 0.0 to 33.0 g/L, the mesh of the assumed embankment. The maximum settle-
settlement value in HD1 rises by 14.8%. Meanwhile, that ment point of the embankment subsoil in HD1 site tends to

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Table 6  The results from 2D consolidation analysis of saline cohesive soil in HD1 site
Sa (g/L) t = t0 t = t100
ux,max (cm) uy,max (cm) t100 (day) Δt100 (%) ux,max (cm) Δux,max (%) uy,max (cm) Δuy,max (%)

0.0 9.06 − 8.32 2251 – 6.16 – − 26.79 –

9.9 9.55 − 8.76 2733 21.41 6.51 5.68 − 28.30 5.64
19.8 9.88 − 9.05 2876 27.77 6.75 9.58 − 29.33 9.48
33.0 10.32 − 9.45 3076 36.65 7.07 14.77 − 30.75 14.78

Table 7  The results from 2D consolidation analysis of saline cohesive soil in GL2 site
Sa (g/L) t = t0 t = t100
ux,max (cm) uy,max (cm) t100 (day) Δt100 (%) ux,max (cm) Δux,max (%) uy,max (cm) Δuy,max (%)

0.0 11.68 − 10.66 10,142 – 9.57 – − 24.63 –

9.9 12.28 − 11.20 12,073 19.04 10.08 5.33 − 25.97 5.44
19.8 12.93 − 11.78 12,384 22.11 10.62 10.97 − 27.41 11.29
33.0 13.73 − 12.50 13,319 31.32 11.28 17.87 − 29.23 18.68

move towards the edges. This trend is clearer when the salt
concentration in the subsoil is higher.
The horizontal displacement gets maximum at the high-
est salinity, reaching 13.90% in HD1 and 17.55% in GL2
from the baseline. The maximum horizontal displacement
zones are located under the edges of the embankment. Those
zones are no deeper than half of the thickness of the cohe-
sive soil layer. Especially, at the salinity of Sa = 33.0 g/L,
the horizontal displacements at GL2 increase by 13.73 cm.
This result is a significant indicator of the soil state in the
trend toward failure.
The initial excess pore pressure is uniformly distributed in
the space of the cohesive soil layer. The influence of salinity
on the initial excess pore water pressure is negligible. Its
difference before and after the presence of saline solutions
is not over 3%, which shows up in the subsoil of HD1 site.
The ending time of the primary consolidation, t100, is also
longer with an increase in salinity. In other words, the saline
intrusion into the subsoil retards the process of consolida-
tion. This regards to soil properties are changed in saline
medium. The salinity of the subsoil, which increases from
0.0 to 33.0 g/L, results in the ending time of consolidation,
t100, increasing over 30% longer in all the analyses.
4 Discussion
The properties of the studied soils were changed as salt
appeared. The change is attributed to the physico-chemical
interactions occurring in the diffuse double layer of clay
particle and the chemical reactions among clay minerals in
the soil with dissolved salt in the saturated solution. The
change of geotechnical parameters of soil in the salt-affected
conditions is the cause of the changes in settlement, hori-
zontal displacement, and pore water pressure over time in
2D consolidation analysis model. The discussion will clarify
the above relations to explain the change of soil properties.
The chemical reactions happen when soil contains dis-
solved salt. The dehydrated reactions of newly generated
salt occur, which leads to the increase in the pH degree of
soil solution. The gelatinized substances in the viscous state
are also the product of those reactions. As saltwater is kept
supplying, there will be an increase in the content of dis-
solved salt in the soil solution. This makes the interactive
processes between the gelatinized substance and the clay
particles continue. The colloidal substance is considered as
a lubrication factor. Once the chemical reactions continue,
the new gelatinized substance continues to be born. The tex-
ture of the old gelatinized substance is destroyed due to the
redundancy of positively charged ions in the saline solution.
The positively charged ions in the soil solution are supplied
progressively. The remarkable neutralization of negatively
charged ions degrades the electrical static force of adherence
among clay particles. Therefore, the cohesive property of
soil is attenuated. These processes occur at a certain level
that the negatively charged ions are almost neutralized and
positively charged ions become excessive. Then, the crys-
tallization occurs and the crystals adhesive to clay particles
are newly generated. The pH degree of soil solution reaches
over 9.0, which leads to the dispersion of soil solution. Soil
texture is broken and it is so-called unstructured. In other
words, the soil becomes degraded. This is one of the causes
of the changes in the soil properties given above [23].
The cohesive soil in Hanoi has a significant amount of
organic matter. The role of organic matter content with
respect to salt-affected soil is a question. There have not been

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any in-depth studies till now, especially with the cohesive
soil in Hanoi, on the relationship of soil, salt, and organic
matter. Almost the previous studies agree that the organic
matter has a definite influence on the consolidation process,
particularly the secondary consolidation. This makes the
soil have a larger deformation, a longer time of consolida-
tion, and a greater settlement [18]. In the studied soils, the
organic matter content occupies from 7.4 to 9.9%. In the
saline intrusion media, the significant presence of organic
matter content may affect the geotechnical properties of the
studied soils, which include the secondary consolidation.
This paper focuses on the primary consolidation rather than
the secondary one. However, the obtained result is not suf-
ficient to evaluate the organic matter’s role with the salt-
affected soil. This question needs to be investigated in other
subsequent studies.
In the mineralogical aspects, the previous studies of the
authors show that illite is the predominated clay mineral
in Hanoi cohesive soil. The subsequent ones are kaolinite
and chlorite. Montmorillonite is an expandable clay min-
eral, which may enlarge the surface area and cation exchange
capacity (CEC) intensively, but it appears in a small rate,
but insignificant in some studied sites. The inert minerals
in the soil with an important amount are quartz and goe-
thite. They are not involved in chemical reactions in the soil
[17]. The role of kaolinite with respect to the change of soil
properties is unclear. It is not swollen in normal media [24].
The obtained results of TEM analysis did not recognize the
change in clay mineral composition. However, the mixed-
layer clay mineral was also found in the soils. This is in
good agreement with previous studies of Career et al. [25].
The predominance of illite in the studied soil facilitates the
physico-chemical interaction in the diffuse double layer of
the colloid. It contributes to the change in soil properties in
the saline intrusion media [22].
The previous studies showed that type of clay minerals
affects the soil properties in the salt-affected conditions [8,
26, 27]. The soils predominated by clay minerals of allo-
phane group, weathering-originated clay minerals like kao-
linite, or carbonate-related minerals (e.g. C ­ a2+ and M
­ g2+)
always express better properties in the saline media. Con-
versely, the soils that are predominated by clay minerals of
montmorillonite, illite, and chlorite are usually degraded in
the similar saline media [5, 7, 28]. The studied soils in Hanoi
area has expanded the clay mineral of montmorillonite.
The chemical interaction between the clay minerals in
the studied soils and the salts in the saturated solution along
with the presence of expandable clay minerals and mixed-
layer clay minerals is considered as the cause of the changes
in soil properties. In other words, the process of saline intru-
sion results in the coefficient of consolidation decrease with
salinity. Meanwhile, the compressibility index increases
proportionally with salinity. Similarly, the other properties
of the soils in HD1 and GL2 sites, which were used in 2D
consolidation analysis as the input data of the model, are
also changed in the corresponding saline conditions. Once
the input data for modelling vary with the salt concentra-
tions in the saline solution, the analysis results with FEM are
also changed. The analysis with FEM, which is based on 2D
Plaxis program, gave the results of the graphic, plot, and the
quantitative results of settlement, horizontal displacement
and pore water pressure over time accurately and visually.
5 Conclusions
This study investigated the properties of Hanoi cohesive soil
in the saline intrusion conditions in the laboratory and 2D
consolidation analysis with an assumed embankment. The
study results bring about the following conclusions:
1. The studied soils with the grain size passing 0.074 mm
sieve are over 50% and classified into group C or M in
the Unified Soil Classification System (USCS). They are
treated by saline solution with 4 salt concentrations, i.e.
0.0, 9.9, 19.8 and 33.0 g/L, prior to laboratory experi-
ments. In Hanoi cohesive soil, the organic matter con-
tent is quite high, ranging from 7.4 to 9.9%. Illite and
chlorite are the clay minerals dominated in the soils. The
expandable clay mineral of montmorillonite occupies
around 3 to 7% or less. The soluble salts in the saturated
solution do not cause the change in clay mineral com-
position of the studied soils. However, the presence of
illite, mixed-layer clay mineral and swelling mineral of
montmorillonite significantly diversified the soil proper-
ties in the saline media.
2. The obtained results of the basic geotechnical experi-
ments showed that water content of Hanoi cohesive soils
decreases as the salt concentration increases. Mean-
while, the bulk density is unclearly changed in the same
testing conditions. In the one-dimensional consolida-
tion test, the coefficient of consolidation, Cv, decreases,
respectively, with the salinities. Its reduction remains at
the level of 22 to 50% in the soil of the whole studied
sites when salinities grow up to 33.0 g/L. The compress-
ibility index, Cc, increases linearly and proportionally to
the salinities. That growth of Cc keeps at 29.2% when
the soil is saturated with the highest salt concentration
solution.
3. The modelling of 2D consolidation analysis for an
assumed embankment on the saline subsoil is conducted
with finite element method on the basis of the Plaxis
program. The analytical results showed that vertical dis-
placement or settlement of the embankment in HD1 site
remains at 14.8% and that of GL2 site is 18.7% when the
salinity rises from 0.0 to 33.0 g/L. The horizontal dis-
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placement of the embankment reaches 13.90% in HD1
site and 17.55% in GL2 site from the baseline. Particu-
larly, the horizontal displacement in GL2 increases by
13.73 cm and in the trend toward failure as the salinity
gets maximum. Meanwhile, salinity has an insignificant
impact on the initial excess pore water pressure. The
time at the primary consolidation completion, t100, in 2D
models is longer as the saturated solution is saltier. The
prolongation of primary consolidation time gets over
30% if the subsoil is at the saltiest, i.e. 33.0 g/L. The
above changes illustrate the degradation of soils in the
salt-affected conditions.
Acknowledgements  This research was funded by the Vietnam National
Foundation for Science and Technology Development (NAFOSTED)
under Grant Number 105.08-2014.45.
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