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TT·839 TT·839
/
TECHNICAL TRANSLATION 839
BY
ERNST ACKERMANN
FROM
Z. OEUT. GEOL. GES. 100: 427 - 466. 1948
TRANSLATED BY
D. A. SINCLAIR
OTTAWA
1959
NATIONAL RESEARCH COUNCIL OF CANADA
..
QUICK SOILS AND FLOW MOVEMENTS IN LANDSLIDES
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ._ _J
-3-
Thlxotropy
The term thixotropy refers to reverslble changes of vlscosity
occurrlng ln concentrated suspensions of very small partlcles
solely as a result of mechanlcal forces·. The phenomenon of
thixotropy appears very strlkingly in many gels and muds made from
clay or other dlspersed systems.
For example, an apparently solld clay mud can be made so liquid
by belng shaken ln a glass tube, that lt can be poured out of the
• tube. Thls same mud, whlch is so thlckly liquid durlng the shaklng,
......................... J
-4-
________________________ ~ A . "'I
-6-
IT
-9-
* NRC TT-515
-13-
Sliding Motions
In many land slides the sliding masses are in the solid to
plastic consistency state and a particularly softly plastic or
softened clay acts as the "lubricant" along the slide horizon.
Here we shall use the example of a ground fracture in the Lerkedal
railroad section near Trondheim (Fig. 6, top profile) to illustrate
sliding motions in which the sliding takes place in a comparatively
thin quick-soil horizon which becomes quite thickly liquid.
Before and after the motion this quick soil is quasi-solid. During
the motion it is liquefied. As a result of this its shearing
strength is reduced to a fraction of the deposition state
(Ackermann 1948), and the frictional resistance approaches zero,
depending on the viscosity of the liquefied soil. Cohesive soils
in the quick consistency state, constitute an ideal sliding horizon
at the instant their structure is destroyed and they are liquefied.
EVidence of the presence of such a flow-prone horizon can already
be obtained - in view of the close relationship between thixotropy
and plasticity - by the simple methods used to determine the
Atterberg consistency limits. A soil is in the qUick consistency
state when the water content is above the liquid limit, or if the
-14-
of this type have Jasted only a few minutes. Only very large
quantities of sailor viscous quick soil can remain in motion for
several hours. The huge masses of mud in the Vaerdal rolled forward
"like a wave of water, so rapidly that no horseman could have kept
up with it" (Tischenclorf 1894).
Above the flowing ~u1ck clay the dry crust loses its support.
In small strips. one block after another drops down (Norwegian:
lelrfall) producing further impulses to liquefaction and the pro-
cess is propagated uphill. On some occasions it is also a slow
process. Thus in Ilsviken (Trondheim) 1944 a sort of slow motion
• sinking of the blocks was observed. This type of backwards motion
might be predominant.
Impulses must also be expected in the upper part of the future
area of motion which cause liquefaction (e.g. Lerkedal). These
would be propagated within the qUick clay stratum in the direction
of the flow or hvr1 r o s t a t i c pressure gradient. This makes possible
a valleyward f'Lov: of the quick clay masses thus liquefied which
now, depending on their mass and energy. can either leap over or
break through the foot of the slope, again accomp~mied by the sink-
ing of the rigid dry crust in the form of blocks. The blocks of
dry crust are borne along downwards by the thickly liquid cl&y mud.
They float like blocks of ice in water and even carry along trees
which then sink slowly in the mud (Mourn, Varild, Grungstadvatn).
After-slides, by which the oversteepened slope at the upper edge of
the soil movement adapts itself to the new slope conditions, may
occur within a few hours or several months, or adjacent soil masses
may start to move. A good example of this is afforded by the land-
slide of Lade where the principal movement of the 11th April 1944
was followed on July 26 and 27 and July 30 and 31 by after-movements
(Table III).
Not infrequently, nearby older depressions show that a rather
large part of the area in question 1s liable to such movements,
which may then reoccur in the course of decades, e.g. Braalia 1831,
1848, 1858, 1860, 1928 (G. Holmsen 1929), Vaerdal (Tischendorf
1894) and Lade.
-22-
the day after the first flow movement. This was only possible be-
cause the clay had already become reso11dified to an extent to where
each excavation made with the spade would not close up agaln
lmmediate1y due to an inflow of liquid mud. The qUick-clay mud
which flowed through a window of house No. 20 hardened underneath
the window sill in the form of a debris cone with flow bulges, 1.e.,
as soon as it attained the comparatively calm interior of the house.
From a sufficient number of examples, it has now been shown
• that in the movements of quick-clay soils which can be described as
"earth flow" the soil is
• solid or quasi-solid before the movement;
liquid, i.e., thlcklyliquid to viscous during the flow;
increaslngly quasi-solid after the flow.
Finally, by laboratory investigations, as I have shown on a
former occasion (1948), the quick condition itself has been demon-
strated (Table II).
The movement of qUick clays is initiated, depending on the
character of the thixotropy,. by disturbances to the structure,
generally due to a small application of energy. The latter is pri-
marily of a dynamic kind, e.g~ vibrations, such as may be produced
by earthquakes, volcanic explosions, rail-transmitted shocks,
ramming, explosive discharges and bombs. Data. from many soil move-
ments also show that static forces (directional pressur~), due,
for example, to the construction of barriers, the piling of debris,
the removal of loads or the oversteepening of slopes by fluvial
erosion, etc., as well as changes in the ground water and surface
water level and the accompanying changes of hydrostatic pressure ln
the interstitial water can bring about the liquefaction of quick
so11s and hence their movement.
After floods and spr1ne tides the soils along banks and coasts
are not infrequently subject to interstitial water superpressures
which lead to spontaneous soil movements.
The following soil moveMents took place at low tide or during
ebb tide:
-29-
application of a load.
It ls frequently noted that the solI is not a material whose
properties always remain the same, but that these vary under dif-
ferent natural and artificial influences (weatherlng, ground water,
etc.). Thus a plastic clay may turn into a qUlck clay as a result
-30-
'T
-37-
Sapropels and bog limes are also thixotropic and tend to under-
go such plastic changes of form without sliding planes.
Of course, such displacements, in Terzaghi's sense, take place
not only in the presence of excess local stresses due to imposition
of extra loads, but also as a result of the relief of stresses over
a limited area, e.g. in the Rapperswyl railroad cutting on Lake
Zurich (Moser 1894). After removal of a series of covering deposits
5.5 m, thick, the underlying "soft mud" 15 m, thick was pushed up
...
into the cutting and the mobility of the mud was increased by the
vibrations from lumps of the covering deposits being further broken
. up, a process observed also in other thixotropic materials elsewhere•
.
Demonstrably thixotropic displacements took place at the
upper boundary of a terrace of blue clay with a dry crust about 2 m.
thick at BrOther (east of Oslo). Here in April 1944 an unusual
kind of ground movement was started by exploding bombs (Fig. 11).
The slope of the terrace was pushed outwards about half a metre and
the consequent extension of the surface produced a ditch-like de-
pression in the dry crust. At the same time a wave 1 - 2 m. high
rose up at the bottom of the slope. At the end of this wave, as an
extension of the lateral upcast, quick clay emerged which after a
few days (on sampling) had lost water by evaporation (hence its low
positive consistency number in no. 64 of Table II) and was covered
by a few centimetres of dry crust. Here we observe, on a smaller
scale, phenomena which are known from general geotectonics and which
are associated with the subcrustal. displacement of an incompetent
stratum by plastic flo~1 (cf. the data given by G. Holmsen 1946).
Along the northern coast of the Island of Java, where the
premiocene surface of the geanticline veers towards the geosyncline,
are the vo1crrnoes of the Ardjoeno-Welirang group. Their cones, ac-
cording to Van Demmelen (1937) are bedded on the marine geosynclinal
sediments of the Neogene. These sediments were squeezed out be-
neath the load of the volcanic masses at the base of the cones and
folded up towards the Bangi anticline. At the same time the old
volcanic cone of G. Ringgit sank from a height of about 3000 m. at
the 7 km. long Alas Ridge disturbance down to about 2474 m., while
-.'38-
1
-39-
Summary
. Most ordinary landslides are not associated with thixotropic
phenomena. Only under q~ite exceptional circumstances does thixo-
.. tropic liquefaction of qUick soils dominate the motion so that the
"ideal case of earth flow" develops. Sliding and flowing movements
frequently participate together in the landslide type movements of
mOist, fine-grained lOOse sediments. Both forms of motion can be
affected by thixotropy. In either case it is necessary to decide
whether the temporary change of viscosity termed thixotropy goes as
far as liquefaction, as in the case of soils haVing qUick consist-
-45-
Li terature
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Rdsch. 36, H118. - Die quicke Konsistenz. Manuskr ipt 1930. - Das Hcwccuncsl.il.l ei nes
akt iven Erclrutschcs nebst cincr Ft-inst r at igraph ie des unteren Wellenk alks. Manu-
skript 1950 (Akad, d. Wiss, Go tt i ntrcn). -- ANDERSSON, J. G.: Soliflucl ion, a com-
ponent of subaerial denudat ion. Jour n. of Geol. 14, 1906. - ANDREE, K.: Ilnu urul Ent-
stchunz der Kurischen Nehrung. Kiinigsberg l!n~. -- ATTERBlma. A.: Di« I'Iastizi tat
del' Tone. Internat. Mitt. f. Bodenkunde 1, 1911. - BENDEL, L. &:: Hl:CKLI: Die Erd-
rutsche Emruencgg unr] Da llenwi l, StraBe lind Verkchr Nr. 1.), 1!J;17. - VAN HIDDfELEN,
R. W.: The Volcano-Tcctonic Structure of the Residence or Malana (Eastern Java).
De Iricenieur in Neder lurnlsch-Indic IV. Batavia In:J7. - J:.JilnLYKKE, K. 0.: Om Under-
grunnsbanen ojr flrsaken til sprekke.lannelscu in h uscne i Kristi ani n by. If. Kr isti a nia
1£)21. - HaswELL, P. G. H.: The Thixotropy of certain sedimentary rocks. Science Pro-
gress 31i, London t818, ]/.112-J22. _ A preliminary ex a m i nat ion of the thixotropy of
some sedimentary rocks. Quart. Journ. Gcol. Soc. 104, S.I!l\J-:i:W, London 1 H~8. -
OASAGRANDE, A.: The structure' of clav and its importance in foundation engineering.
J. Boston Soc. Civ. Irurr», 19, Nr. ·1, 1\);12. - CLOOS, H.: Flid3Pll lind Hrcchcn in del'
Errlkruste und im gcologischen Experiment. Pl a-a isch« Masson in Wiss, u. Teehn. Tros-
dorf bei Kiiln 1831. - ECKSTROM, G., och FLODKVlST. II.: Hv.lrulonisku undersdkniugar
av aakerjord inom Orebro Iiin, Svcr. gcol. U nclcrs. Arsbok HI) 1\323. - EHHENllEIW, J.:
Das Ausfl ieflcn ci ner Sandk ippe in einer Brauukoh leng rubc. Dautechnik 11, 1933, S.254
bis ~57. - EUCKIiN, A.: Lelirbuch del' chcrnischcn Phys ik. Leipzig l[J·14. - ESCHER, B. G.:
lJeschouwingen over het Opul lings Mechanisme van Diepzeeslenken. Verh. Geol.
Mijnbouwkundig Gcn. wor Nederland U3W. Geol. Sev., .Iuni lnu.i. --0 FENNER, R: Unter-
suchungen zur Erkcuntuis des Gebirgsdrucks. Ghick auf 74, 1\);\8, S.681/95 u. 705/15. -
FREUNDLICH, II.: Thixotropy. Paris 1935. - FREUNDLICH, H., and JULIUSIltJRGER, F.:
Quicksand as a th ixot ropic System. Transact. of the Faraday Soc. 31, 769. Edinburgh
1935. - GRIPP, K.: Glaziologische ' und geologische Ergebnisse del' Hamburgischen
Spitzbergen-Expedition 19~7. Abh, aus d. Geb. d. N aturwiss., N at.urwiss. Vel'. Ham-
burg 32, II. ;)-1, S.145-24\J. Hamburg 19~9. - GRIPP, K., & 'l'ODTMANN, K: Die End-
morane des Green-Hay-Glctschers auf Spitzbergen usw, Mi tt. d. Geogr. Ges. in Ham-
burg 37, 1926. - HADDING, A.: On subaqueous Slides. Geol. Forcn Forh. 53, 1931,
S.377-39;). - HAEFELI, R.: Mechanische Eigenschaften yon Lockcrgcsleinen. Schweiz.
Bauzeitg.111, S. 2H9-;101. Ziirich 1938. - HAEFELI, R., & v. Moos: Drei Lockergesteine und
ihre tcchnischcn Problemo. Schweiz.lJauzeitg.112, HI3H. - Hxuo, Se.: Svevendc trepeles
baereevne i Leirc. Medd. Ira Norges Staatsbaner Nr.2. Oslo 1840. - HElM, ALB.: Berg-
sturz und Menschcnleben. Vier teljahressch r, N atf. Ges. Zurich 77,1 \);)2. - HElM, ARN.: Uber
rezente u. fossile subaquatische Rutschungen u. dercn lithologisehe Bedeutung. N. J b. f iir
Min., 1908, Bd. II, 8. 136--1:'l7.-HELLAt<D, A.: Opdrykning ov lerfaldet i Vaerdalet. N. G. U.
Nr.14, Aarbok 1892/1893. Oslo 189 1. - HOLMSEN, G.: Lerfaldene ved Kokstadt, Gretnes
c
og Braa. Norges Gcol. Unders. Nr.132. Oslo 192\l. - Lerfail i arene 11J30--Hl:l2. Norges
Geol. Unders. Nr.140. Oslo 1934. - Vaare lernvsetninger som byggegrun, Norges Geo!.
Unders. 151. Oslo 1938. - HOLMSEN, G. & PER.: Leirfall i aarene 1910/1945. Norges
Geo!. Unders. Nr.167. Oslo 1946 (1946 a). - HOLMSEN, G.: Leirfalltyper. Stat. Vegvesen,
Veglahoratoriet. Oslo HJ46 (1946 b). - HULL, E.: On the suboceanic terraces and river
.. valleys of the coast of western Europe. Victoria Inst., London 1899. -- HVORSLEV,
M. J.: Uber die Festigkeitseigenschaften gestorter bindiger Boden. Ingcniorvidenskaboljs
Skrifter A Nr.45. Kopenhagen 1937. - JIRGENSIS-STRAUMANES: Kurzes Lehrhuch del'
Kolloidchemie. Heidelberg 1949. - LEGGET, R. P., & PECKOVER, F. L.: Notes on some
Canadian "Silts". Proceed. 2 nd Intern. Confer. of Soil Mechanics and Found. Engin.3,
• 1948. - Laos, W.: Kritische Bcobachtungen von Flach- und Pfahlgrundungon, beson-
ders in den Hafenplatzen Niederlilndisch-Indiens. Veriiff. del' Dtsch. Ges. f. Boden-
mach. 3. Berlin 1932. _ Praktische Anwendung del' Buugrunduntersuehungen. 3. Auf!.
Berlin 1937. - MILNE, J.: Sub-Oceanic Changes, The Geographical Journal 10, 8.129,
259. London 1897. - v. Moos, A.: Geotechnische Eigenschaften und Hestirnmungs-
methoden del' Lockergesteine. Schweiz. Bauzeitg, III, It):]R, _ Setzungsmessungen 1887
bis 1944 und Baugrund im Rutschgebiet von Zug. Eclogue Helvet. 41, 1948. -
v, Moos, A., & RUTSCH, R.F.: Uber einen durch Gefugestorung verursachten Seeu Ier-
einbruch (Gerzensee, Kanton Bern). Eclogae Geol. Hely. 37, 1944, 385. ,- MOSER, R.:
Die sogenannten Rutschungen in Rapperswy!. Schweiz. Bauzeitg. 1894, II, S. 40. -
PENCK, A.: Die Entstehung del' Alpell (Vortrag). Z. d. Ges. f. Erdkunde. S. 16, Berlin
1008. - REDLICH, K. A., V. TERZAGHI, K., & KAMPE, R.: Ingenieurgeologie. Wien 1929.
-48-
- REUSCH, H.: Nogle optegnelser fra Vaerdalen. Norges Geol. Unders. Nr.32, Aarbok
for 1900. Kristiania 1901. - POTONIE, H.: Eine im Ogelsee (Prov. Brandenburg) pldtz-
lieh neu entstandene Insel: Jb. d. Pr. Geol. L.-A. Bd.32, Berlin 1913 fiir 1911, 8.187. -
8IUFERT-EHRENBERG-TIEDEMANN, ENDELL, HOI"FMANN- WILM: Bestehen Zusarnrnen-
Hinge zwischen Rutschneigung u. Chemie von TonbOden? Mitt. PreuB. Vers.-Anst. Wasser-
bau u. Schiffbau, Heft 20. Berlin 1935. - SHAW, E. W.: The mud lumps at the mouth of
the Mississippi. Prof. Paper, 85-B, 1913, 8.11-27. - 8CHEIDIO, A.: Del' Loss und seine
geotechnischen Eigenschaften. Leipzig 1934. - SCHEIDIO, A., in: KOGLER, F.: Bau-
grund und Bauwerk, Berlin, 1. Aufl. 1938, 3. Aufl.1941. - SINGER, Y.: Del' Baugrund.
Wien 1932. - Statens Jarnvagars Geotekniska Kommission 1914-1922. Slutbetankande,
Stockholm 1922. - v. TERZAGHI, K.: Erdbaumechanik auf bodenphysikalischer Grund-
lage. Leipzig 1925.- TISCHENDORF, C.: Die Rutsehung in Vardalen, Norwegen, 8chweiz.
Bauzeitg. 23, 1894, I, 8.17 u.25. - TROLL, C.: Die Formen del' Solifluktion und die
• periglaziale Bodenabtragung, Erdkunde 1. Bonn 1947. - WINKLER, H.: Thixotropie von
Mineralpulvern mikroskopischer GroBe. Kolloid-Beihefte 48. Leipzig 1938.
•
.. • • It ..
TablU
-,
Sere I Test
no ... no.
I
I
Soil-physical indices of plastic and quick-clay deposits from Norwegian
Place of origin
Location of
sample and
depth in m.
Grain size distribution
>0.1
in mm.
0.1 to 0.02 to <0.002
0.2 0.002 I
P F
co~sta1 r~g1ons
w k Consistency
form
48
49 981} I
982 Bay on the inner
Drilling
"
46 2.81
" 3.4
2
-
35
--20
53
--
10
--
39.8
21.3
68.0
40.2
62.5
36.8 +0.14
+0.07 ~ Liquid
50
51
983
I 984
Oslo Fjord near
Bekkelaget
"
"
" 3.9
" 6.3
-- -- 63
--
17
--
26.4
21.8
46.5
42.4
44.5
41.0
+0.08
+0.06
plastic
52 I 985 II
" 8.3 - -- -- -- 14.0 ,39.3 39.5 -0.02 c;.uick
I
~
I Upper terrace on I
I 857] -- ---- --
------
53 the Trondheim Drilling 02 2 19.8 35.6 31.2 +0.22 Liquid plastic
54
55
I 862
858 Fjord: Lerkedal
in the middle of
II
II
" 3
II
7 -- ---- --
--
12.0
7.7
27.3
25.2
27.9
38.7
-0.05 'I
-1.75 j ~uick
56 863
867
the sliding flow
Alongside flow
" " 8
1 11
--
58
--
30
9.0
9.7
25.8
29.0
25.2
27.5
+0.06
+0.15 } Liquid
plastic
57 " " 4
58 5 Fornebu, low Trench 2.5 1 19 45 35 19.5 44.0 40.6 +0.17 Liquid plastic
land on the Oslo
Fjord
Table II
Soil-physical indices of quick-clay samples from Norwegian earth flows
7 I 957/2 I Lerkedal 1944 I Lower- end of flow -- 12 52 36 37.3 8.0 24 34.5 -0.79 -1.32 I 0.47
9
1
935/5
i
935/9
I
I
j
Lerkedal 1944
Lerkedal 1944
79/5
79/9
---- --
--
---- --
--
45.4
29.0
9.3
9.1
24,2
23.1
25.0
29.1
-0.04
-1.01
-0. 08 1
-0.65
----
59 151 I Hommelvik 1942 Sliding surface 10 23 29 28 ---- 10.2 23.7 25.6 ---- -0.19 ----
60
36 I
292
870
I
I
Hommelvik 1942
Ilsviken 1944
II Slid in,!! sur-race
Mound in front I
--
--
--
10
--
57
--
33 99.8
8.0
10.7
23.4
31
Z'? .9
35 -0.05
-0.55
-0.37 --
I of sliQe baGe
61 805 a
i
Lade 1944 I Front - house 20 -- 12 53 35 ---.,. 5.2 24:.8 33.9 -- -1.39 -- I
CJ1
62 805 b Lade 1944** Front- house 20 "48 11 "8" "34" "7" 24.3 I 48.3 , 68.0 -- -0.81 -- o
53 691 Lade 1944
II ':{estern part -- -- -- -- -- 12.5! 24.8 32.3
I
-- -0.60 -- I
--29-- -- --
67 739 D Fj-=llvik 1945 " 02 10 -- -- 6.8 21.0 22.1 -0.15 0.5
68 I 739
2 740
~
D
i'11dd1e of
earth flow
"
"
02 1,3
04 4
I
I
--
60
--
10
--1 --
42.3
3.9
--
19.6
-- 31.0
22.4
I ----
1
-2.94
--
0.3
--
-- -- --
----
5 740 E " 04 5 35.0 7.9 19.6 29.5 -0.67 -1.28 0.4
69 740 F " 01 13 -- -- -- -- 5.8 18.6 35.4 -- -2.90 0.3
70
i
762 Rygge Drilling 1969C7 -- 28 50 22 70.0 1304 31.6 37.8 -- -0.46 0.3
7lj "
Aserumvan*** -- 9 32 59 -- 7.4 29.4 62.8 -- -4.51 ~O.33
* Num,:,ers 1 - 47 agreeing with Table 1 in Ackermann 1948. ** Fraction >0.1 mm. consisted chiefly of cellulose fibres.
Sample contained org~nic impurities. *** According to aosen~uiGt 1946.
Abbreviations: Er - stiffening limit; P - plasticity index; F - liquid limit; w - natural water content; f = ~ : = F
index of flow dan~er; k F - w =
= ---p-- relattv~ consistency; H1 - relative strength of the disturbed
(stirred) sample according to the Swedish cone test
-51-
~
Quasi-solid
st~te
~
Solidification
thixotropic structural Structural disturbance
.
.rrang~ Temporar:tructura:'COllapse
reduction of /
viscosity liquefaction
Fig. 1
Cycle of changes of strength in a quick clay after
a structural disturbance
sand
~60r--------:-=--:-"";-'-t,-':-"~'Hf<~~~~':::t"';n~"7-7""7-:7'--t:-r--]
~
....
~ 40t---------''--':--t-:--::-.~:'_:':_'_~~~~~~~r-.~~~Lr'''-:-l
>.
,Q
~2Vf-----.....:.....--:-:+--;--:-~~~~~¥~~~~?7'SL¥~
•
soils
Fig. 2
Flow ability and zones of ~ain-size distribution of non-thixotropic
and possibly thixotropic sand-clay soils, based on available test
material. Denser shading indicates increased flowabll1ty
j
-52-
First Second
structural structural
disturbance disturbance
! Jl,
-~ deposition strength of a plastic clay
Fig. 3
Change of strength with the time of a quick clay (dotted curve) and
a thixotropic plastic clay due to two structural disturbances. De-
crease of strength during the first structural disturbance 1s indi-
cated in common for both clays by a single line (dot - dash line).
H3 - Ht = non- -lixotropic component of strength decrease
•
• • ! ~ •
I I
Continuous possibility of flowing due to intrinsic weight
Under mechanical stress:
liquid Temporary No
Stiffening
limi t _ LLI L&.I
reduction of viscosity reduction of viscosity
der own wt. only if structurally disturbed
~orary viscosity reduction = liquefaction
I I quick CJ.Ily number- of times "II" only once
:'iquid thixotropic solidification solidification after loss I
limit without loss of water of water (Jl
01
I
Plastic flowing only under pressure
plastic temporary reduction permanent reduction
of viscosity of va sco sf ty
Plastic
limit thixotropic solidification no resolidification
- - - - - - - """"'"il o"I" .... I
OOOO I " I
i solid
Flowing deformation under high pressure
Fig. 4
no thixotropic changes
frJt..r~' eAtkr
"'9 I!
.t'"
.~
16 '"
118 1""0'
[.....--""
> ~~ - ,"
f--
+' ;:;" V q.~ .~ ~ I:--
'" 14
-fJ
o .
0
V ...-- ~
t>I!" 12
'0
'"
0
-
'd II / ,/' ---
L 1~'Y "'Ina S eAri'a dpp6r~
/ 1/ , l'i r
I I
1// Lo.d jt~g+- A~' osl<
-Ii.,te,·yd, I
// tl1\e At ,. 2. ,krj.
jV
. i9'
I
o
o
V 1000 I' 11. 1'30 \" ISOO
Fig. 5
Slow plastic flow before fracture. Test with Viennese marl
(from Hvorslev 1937)
Consdt'!ftt.y
......Mbt...r CO"i\th<~
-IS-'-/UO -as., lid •• r"p~.
",6h<J
~
10 JO
r
,'=~
=.
= \
=........----\
~
R F
• w
Fig. 6
Lerkedal cutting at Trondheim. Transverse profiles and consistency
diagrams thrOUgh a slide {upper profile) and a ground shift with pre-
dominantly flowing movement (lower prOfile) on 22nd Aug. 1944. Ver-
tical hatching - dry crust; dashed - soft plastic clay; wavy dash-
es - qut ck clay; k - relative consistency; R - pla.stic limit; F -
liqUid limit; w - water content (grain size distribution cf. Fig. 2
and ~able I, no. 6,7,38 in Ackermann, 1948)
1
-55-
..
==-===------,= =---
Pig. 7
HOMf'1£LVIK Road
NO I SIN
R4ilr~6~
·111
-- -_._--- ....,,=="""..
_gffA'ff~' .. · ngu. t-"
.
-
~ -,;,..
........;.·..,·;------ - I·'0
-
-_4","4:L~:~::8w,~:t:::~,·-~-,w,~
.1IJt) 100 JP o
-
Jsa
I
en
(J)
ZUG I
Lake Zug ~
~-'&ub-r:M---u--;d;--s-an-~d
~ " " '.. 4.o. ..
... .. • • • Boulder 0180:1
o Mud flow () m:lm 1M Slide material' (n«IIAHlIM)
Fig. 8
Profiles through the flow movements of Hommelvik, Central Norway (above)
and Zug, Switzerland (below). Hatched areas - slide ~asses; shaded
areas - shifted mud
._-------~---_. ~-_._---------
-57-
•. """""""",,~1
~111I11I1I11I111"11111i1"111111111111"111 28
lfiliiiiiiiiiijiiiiiiiiiiiiiliillillilliiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiJiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiliiiihi
/,/=---;,-~-. 2b
"liiiil"i::i~liii~iililliiiiiiil~iiiliiiliii~iiliiiili~II'"
3a
Fig. 9
Diagrammatic representation of sliding (1), flowing (2a and 2b)
and combined sliding and flowing movements. Hatched parts _ dry
crust or non-plastic covering deposits; white part - softly plastic
• clay; black parts - quick clay
-58-
ff.+.
--__ -....J-----
D..illin~_
o
i
~ u ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ " ~ ~
Fig. 10
Profiles of the Lade landslide. Height not exaggerated
Upper profile: Section through the eastern slide region and the
house at Ladeallee no. 20. Broken line: surface before slide.
Solid line: surface after slide. Falling in the upper portion, ele-
vation in the lower part. Increased lateral movement below
the zone of fecal mud
Lower profile: Section through the western slide region. Broken
and solid lines as above. Remnants of qu Lck clay horizons shown by
drillings above the slide. Bulging upheaval at the lower boundary
o
,... Fa.urt norma.l
o Ea.rth wa.ll
~ Quick clay outoropping
:0 Bomb cra.ter
o Drilling
o A
Fig. 11
Ditch-like depression and wall formation by subcrustal plastic flow-
ine due to the structure being disturbed by bombing
-59-
Fig. 12
View ~nd profile of the Ardjoeno-Ringit Volcanoe Group, Java (from
Van ~len 1937). Sliding down of volcano cone and contortion
folding of neocene clay sediments at the foot of the slide mass
..
•
• • ~-
Ii
[:
TRONDH[l115FJORD
AA5ENFJORD
S,.,.,
1'~
<:>~
171'0
/':"-:~.'
__
I~--:..i:) ~~~;:~ ~.
'-' ~ :'--~-,
......- - - .
~~i-~-' -~ . . - .. =-.. "" ,,~~~::. j~-;~-;--:--·~'i~>·
,~~,:-/ J
i~~-::')}~'"
c, (J)
~~ t~) o
''-~
I
, __ ",_I
CJRock I _ . _~
,_-:"
'....::.2~::. .:. . . - -< /:..
o Post-glacial I ,~--_-.,. ~.~, '-=-:?~2-=:.~2j'
.'
"7 -i868UO'~CG
and sand deposits '.,'~ :.::' :.._:" :'-/""
<~~;~~/~O$,~,~~:~}-;
~ ~:~t;l~;ide
------------~, ,,~.'
l .:~\~~~:~~~_:: ,,-,:;(;~_~~
::' -':':;-,-,-,-:' -=~"'~=-:'~-------- -=.
::;;
-,-.....:..~,...
1,-....:. ••
Q 1p~m
~';j~-=--:,~;-./' '-'<~7~c~~,;'
Fig. 13
Map of earth slide (including the flow motions) in the post-glacial clays
near Trondhelm in historical times up to 1944
..
-61-
1I_~_--------
!s- - __
.,.- --
"- ""
- ----- -- - ..... ...... -, " ",
".....
.....
.......... -,
,
" '-
\
\
-,
, <,
\
,
•
(\
10
LADE LANDSLIDE
Decades old landslide
~ Ground collapse of 11.4.1944
P 26-27.7.1944
PI> 30-31. 7.1944
t..~. Upthrust region of 11·4.1944
~ Quick clay and mud mixed with fa~ces
r Water ponding .
.-
u~ Contour lines in the area of motion of the 11.4•
~-
Contour lines outside the area of motion of the 11.4.
~ ~ Boundary between areas of subsidence and elevation
A'I Is' Profile 1 ines
~ Motion vectors
.;:::: Ladabach streambe.fore and after the movement
(from a map by H. Meixner, redrawn by E. Ackermann)
o~~_~~_=~_=~_=~::.'0,Om
,----~~~~. ',--.-~