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Power quality standardisation in the context of developing countries

Conference Paper · October 2015

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21, rue d’Artois, F-75008 PARIS 41 SOUTH AFRICA 2015
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Power quality standardisation in the context of developing countries

U Minnaar1, B Peterson2, P Johnson3

1
Eskom - Trasmission & Sustainability Division, South Africa –
Ulrich.Minnaar@eskom.co.za
2
Eskom - Transmission and Sustainability Division, South Africa -
Brandon.Peterson@eskom.co.za
3
South African Bureau of Standards, South Africa - Paul.johnson@sabs.co.za

SUMMARY

Electricity customers in developing countries have different needs to those in developed countries. In
particular, in Sub-Saharan Africa only 24% of people have access to electricity. Electricity networks in
developing countries are often characterised by thin radial networks, geographically dispersed
customers and a lack of generation capacity. These conditions are markedly different from developed
nations with high levels of urbanisation, large industrial capacity and high electrical consumption per
capita. These varying demands and investment in infrastructure means that different expectations and
requirements exist for customers, network operators and regulators. The primary focus of the
electricity sector in developing countries such as Sub-Saharan Africa is on the expansion of access to
electricity and increased generation. In the context of limited resources to achieve expansion of supply
and provide energy for economic expansion the regulation of power quality requires an approach that
is adjusted to the varying requirements within these countries. Customers may range from industrial
customers to off-grid supplied households who are receiving electricity for the first time. A uniform
standard of requirements for such diverse needs is neither desirable nor feasible. This paper reviews
approaches in place to regulate power quality in Sub-Saharan Africa and discusses approaches to
standardisation, monitoring and regulation of power quality that meets these specific needs.

KEYWORDS

Power quality, Standardization, Harmonization of African Standards, developing countries

1
INTRODUCTION

The state of electricity infrastructure in developing countries lags significantly behind those of
developed nations. Electricity networks in developing countries are often characterised by
thin radial networks, geographically dispersed customers and a lack of generation capacity.
These conditions are markedly different from developed nations with high levels of
urbanisation, large industrial capacity and high electrical consumption per capita and
significant generation capacity. These varying demands and levels of investment in
infrastructure mean that different expectations, priorities and requirements exist for
customers, network operators and regulators in developing countries as opposed to developed
countries.

WHAT IS A DEVELOPING COUNTRY?

Separating countries into “developed” and “developing” countries is useful in the context of a broad
general discussion but can be problematic as there are several broad definitions to describe a
“developing” country. Several international organizations can be referenced to determine a list of
definitions. Table 1 provides a list of commonly available definitions

Table 1: Definitions of developing countries

Source Definition
United Nations Statistics Division [1] There is no established convention for the designation of "developed" and
"developing" countries or areas in the United Nations system
World Bank [2] Developed and developing countries are differentiated according to GNI or
GDP.
Wikipedia [3] A developing country, also called a lower developed country, is a nation
with a lower standard of living, underdeveloped industrial base, and low
Human Development Index (HDI) relative to other countries.
International Statistics Institute (ISI) [4] Developing countries are defined according to their Gross National Income
(GNI) per capita per year. Countries with a GNI of US$ 11,905 and less are
defined as developing (specified by the World Bank, 2013)

The International Statistics Institutes publishes a list of developing countries on an annual basis, which
can be considered a definitive list.

In general, developing countries can be characterised by the need to yet achieve some or all of the
Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) in part due to the lack of widespread access to electricity
(energy). However, within this grouping of developing countries there is a wide range of income
levels and progress towards the MDGs which needs to be considered i.e. developing countries are not
identical and cannot be treated as such. Typically, these countries have the following structural
features (Table 2), in comparison to developed countries:

Table 2: Developing vs. Developed countries [5]

Developing Countries Developed Countries
Lower per-capita income High per-capita income
Low levels of human capital High levels of human capital
High levels of poverty and under-nutrition Low levels of poverty and under-nutrition
Higher population growth rates Low population growth rates
Predominance of agriculture and low levels of industrialization Highly industrialized
Low level of urbanization but rapid rural-to-urban migration High levels of urbanization
Dominance of informal sector Dominant formal sector
Underdeveloped labour, financial, and other markets Highly developed markets

2
These characteristics provide insight into the development priorities of developing countries and
points out the significant difference in priorities between these sets of countries. These differences also
extend to of the challenges that face the electricity industry in developing countries. Low levels of
human capital, rapid rural-to-urban migration as well as underdeveloped labour and financial markets
directly or indirectly impact the electricity sector in developing countries.

Electricity in Developing countries

A dominant issue in developing countries is a lack of access to electricity. Table 3 illustrates quite
clearly the stark contrast between the electrification rates in countries developed world, with an
electrification rate of 100% vs. developing countries, where the electrification rate is 76%.
Considering that the vast majority of the world’s population resides in developing countries, this
translates to nearly 1.3 billion people in developing countries living without access to electricity.

Table 3: Electricity Access [6]

Electricity access in 2012 - Regional aggregates

Population Electrification Urban Rural
Region without electricity rate electrification rate electrification rate
millions % % %
Developing countries 1 283 76% 91% 64%
Africa 622 43% 68% 26%
North Africa 1 99% 100% 99%
Sub-Saharan Africa 621 32% 59% 16%
Developing Asia 620 83% 95% 74%
China 3 100% 100% 100%
India 304 75% 94% 67%
Latin America 23 95% 99% 82%
Middle East 18 92% 98% 78%
Transition economies & OECD 1 100% 100% 100%
WORLD 1 285 82% 94% 68%

Sub-Saharan Africa, in particularly, has low levels of electrification, with many countries having more
than 75% of the population without access to electricity. Figure 2 illustrates access to electricity in
developing countries around the world.

Figure 2: Share of people without electricity in developing countries, 2008 [7]

The power industry in Sub-Saharan is characterised by “insufficient generation capacity, unreliable

supplies, high prices and low rates of access to the grid” [8]. In particular, in Sub-Saharan Africa only

3
32% of people have access to electricity [7], with this number decreasing to only 16% of people in
rural Sub-Saharan Africa.

In relation to electricity supply and networks, the challenges faced by developing countries
(particularly lower and lower-middle income countries) differ significantly from those in the major
developed countries. The challenges include [7, 8, 9]:

• Significant percentage of population not connected to a grid or without any form of electrical
energy
• ‘Thin’, radial networks
• Geographically dispersed customers
• Generation deficit
• Existing infrastructure aging and under- maintained
• Asset theft and electricity theft an on-going, significant cause of unreliability
• Low demand and poor utilisation

DEVELOPING COUNTRIES IN POWER QUALITY TERMS (from the African perspective)

The impact of power quality in developed countries is usually quantified in terms of the economic
impact to business and society [10]. These impacts are particularly severe for industries that utilise
complex equipment e.g. variable speed drives, IT infrastructure. There are clear costs of poor power
quality, therefore the costs of improving the network and its power quality are often set against
economic consequences of poor power quality [11]. The high levels of industrialisation in these
countries drives the focus on power quality as well as the manner in which it regulated and managed.
Access to electricity is virtually a given and the emphasis is on meeting the needs of business and
industry for productivity and minimising economic losses.

In the case of developing countries, especially those with much lower levels of industrialisation there
is a higher emphasis on the role that electricity plays in the livelihood of the poor. The valuation of
economic consequences can be an even more complex exercise than is the case for the industrialized
settings of developed countries. Recently electrified citizens’ pattern of use for electricity focuses on
substituting cooking and heating fuels and lighting (reference- gaunt), reasons for this include [12]:
Energy requirements in rural households tend to be lower than in urban households because:
• People in rural areas tend to be poorer than those in urban areas, so they have fewer appliances
and cannot afford to purchase as much electricity
• Lack of piped water to dwellings reduces the scope for electric water heating
• Fuelwood and other biomass is available at relatively low cost or for the effort of collection,
allowing households to reduce their expenditure on electrical energy
• Cultural practices, such as in traditional approaches to cooking, limit the acceptance of
electricity for some energy applications In addition, the generally limited use of high power
electrical appliances in rural households results in relatively low demand (power), compared
with urban customers.

In most African countries, resuscitation of the aging infrastructure is at the forefront of efforts and this
means that power quality issues frequently take a back seat. In many cases even infrastructure
resuscitation has funding challenges of its own. This also poses problems for the regulators in those
countries in trying to enforce compliance to power quality standards and implement frameworks such
as incentives and penalty schemes.

Combined with the other features of these countries, i.e. limited financial market access and limited
skills as well the budget or capacity to develop human capital, it means that the regulation of power
quality becomes a challenge that requires an approach that is adjusted to the circumstances of these
countries.

4
Challenges and Approaches taken to Power Quality Issues

Table 3 illustrates the contrast in electrification rates between the urban and rural populations in Sub-
Saharan Africa (59% vs. 16%). This immediately creates two categories of customers with distinct
needs. The connection of unelectrified citizens via isolated systems such solar PV creates a third
category. Residential customers in developing countries can be categorised into three general groups,
each with its own unique challenges. These are:
• Grid connected customers
• Customers supplied by isolated systems e.g. solar PV, wind or hybrid systems
• Non-connected citizens

Grid-connected customers:

Typically, developing countries have a larger percentage of their population residing in rural areas,
with the associated characteristics of long radial feeders and low fault levels. Some of the main PQ
concerns for these customers and the utilities supplying them are:
• Power quality events such as electricity outages and voltage dips as well as voltage regulation
limits being exceeded. These are common due to:
o Growing customer base without commensurate increase in generation capacity
o Illegal connections, increasing the unmetered demand to unknown levels beyond
network design
o Lack of maintenance and network refurbishment of ageing infrastructure
• Harmonics on LV networks: First time customers may have a leading power factor (CFLs
and TV)
o Using electricity for heating and cooking is not a priority/or affordable
• Growing numbers of rooftop PV customers feeding-in or waiting to feed into the grid
o Potential for exceeding limits for unbalance and voltage regulation as well as
harmonic generation
• Long radial networks with low fault levels exacerbate any PQ emissions on the network.

Isolated systems

Isolated power systems are often found in remote and rural areas and represent an alternative to grid
connection, particularly where interconnection to a large grid is not viable due to high costs or
geographic obstacles [13]. Isolated systems that use wind turbines and solar PV systems as the source
face a number of problems related to power quality. The primary problem is related to reliability of
supply i.e. 24 hour available power output. In addition, these systems often have low short-circuit
ratios, resulting in power voltage control as well as exacerbating other PQ parameters e.g. harmonics.

Power quality of the isolated systems is decided independently and a factor that needs to be considered
is in situations where systems are to be integrated into the grid as embedded generation. The
connection rules and PQ standards need to be agreed as the potential exists for PQ limits to be
exceeded (e.g. voltage regulation).

Non–connected citizen

Power quality is a moot question for citizens with no access to electricity as a first point of departure
would be to provide these citizens with some access to provide their basic lighting and heating needs.
Access to improved lighting, i.e. moving from paraffin to solar lighting represents a significant
improvement for these citizens.

5
PQ PRACTICES IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES - EXISTING APPROACHES

Grid connections in deep rural areas - Single Wire Earth Return

A key technology in connecting customers in rural areas to the grid is Single Wire Earth Return
(SWER). In SWER systems, only one conductor is present and the earth is used as an active circuit
element for the return current [14].

Single wire earth return systems have been introduced in Southern Africa since the 1990’s. These
systems are used in areas that are far from the nearest transmission line and the lines are expected to
carry light loads.

The advantages of SWER include [15]:

• Cost reduction - one conductor and less pole-top equipment as well as less protection
equipment
• Design simplicity and improved speed of construction
• Reduced maintenance costs

SWER also has several disadvantages including possible telephone interference and more importantly
power quality issues such possible load balancing problems on three phase systems and difficulties
with managing voltage regulation and controls [15].

SWER systems are an example of a technology that is widely used in developing countries,
particularly Southern Africa that has well-recognised power quality problems. The cost benefits to
connect rural communities, with low demand growth, outweigh the associated power quality problems
that occur on both the SWER system and the three-phase system that supplies it.

Defining Standards in East and Southern Africa

Electricity utilities in Southern and Eastern Africa co-operated to compile a quality of supply
specification “PIESA 1048” in 2007, based on a South African industry specification NRS 048-2 [16].
This specification is recognised by the Regional Electricity Regulators Association and the Southern
African Power Pool. It references the requirements to measure according to IEC 61000-4-30 [17] and
requires compatibility levels/limits for all PQ parameters for which there are IEC standards
(Harmonics, flicker, voltage regulation, frequency, etc), with specific exceptions, namely [16]:
• Voltage regulation, for MV networks connected direct to customers optional
classifications
• Class A : +/- 5%
• Class B +/- 10%
• Recognising voltage regulation by the power utility (A), or by the customer
(B).
• Temporary relaxation where networks are undergoing rehabilitation
• Frequency
• Relaxed limits for permanent ‘Island’ networks (as opposed to temporarily islanded
networks) which are common in developing countries (similar to the limits indicated
in IEC 62257-2 for isolated systems)

There are a number of initiatives being undertaken by African Power pools, these include:
• The East African Power pool is currently developing a comprehensive grid code for its
members, similarly in other African power pools
• Individual countries also have, or are developing grid codes which make reference to
standards, either IEC standards or national standards based on the IEC standards, including
PQ parameters

6
 • Harmonization among the power pools and with international standards is essential for
appropriate levels of power quality to international standards – the African Electrotechnical
Standardization Commission (AFSEC) will play a leading role in this initiative

Several connections between African power pools are now planned, with the aim of an interconnected
pan- African grid firmly connected to the European grid in future, including the EU’s Mediterranean
Solar Plan (2020)

Power quality measurement and compliance

Experiences of PQ measurement from a power utility perspective

From a utility perspective, PQ measurement and compliance programs in developing are often
initiated by a regulator in developing countries. This is often initially perceived as being imposed on
the power utility rather than a tool to help manage the networks and customer satisfaction. A further
factor which reduces enthusiasm for PQ programs with utilities is that quite often more improved
measurements leads to deteriorating performance. This applies pressure on utility management as
there is a perception that they need to make an effort to improve the situation, quite often under
challenging circumstances where they have a shortage of finance and skilled manpower. In reality, this
is often a function of improved measurement rather than deteriorating performance.

Interruption performance vs. other PQ parameters

Another aspect of PQ management that deserves consideration is prioritisation of PQ problems. In an

ideal world, utility management can address all the PQ parameters with the same level of application
and effort. In reality, with limited resources and aged infrastructure this is rarely possible. It is
important to conduct measurement and monitoring at the lowest feasible cost, financially and for
manpower. Considering that the replacement and refurbishment of aged infrastructure is a primary
focus and the primary needs of many customers is access to a reliable electricity supply, the power
quality parameters that warrant the most attention are network reliability (e.g. SAIDI, SAIFI) and
voltage regulation. The monitoring of these parameters can be done by relatively simple systems that
use minimal resources.

The standards for acceptable measurement of PQ parameters have evolved internationally with the
IEC specifying IEC61000-4-30 for PQ monitoring devices. This standard specifies three classes of
measurement, Class A for contractual requirements, Class S for monitoring programs and Class B for
devices that meet neither class A or S or predates the standard [17]. Alongside the improved
measurement capabilities of instruments that meet these measuring requirements comes an increased
cost. Specifying measurement devices for class S or A performance [17] may not be a priority where
utilities are in the early stages of establishing a PQ monitoring program.

Enforcing compliance with PQ standards

Regulators should first focus on enforcing the implementation of measurement and monitoring
systems and building a history of measurements (reliability and PQ) and the capacity to do this before
looking at the actual standards achieved. A penalty / incentive scheme is not relevant if the ability of
the utility to measure consistently has not been established.

CONCLUSIONS

The requirements and priorities of developing countries differ significantly from developed countries.
These differences extend to the electricity sector and influence the manner in which power quality
standards should be set and regulated.

7
In developing countries there are three main categories of residential customers that have different
power quality needs
• The non-electrified rural : migration from paraffin lamps to reliable solar power lighting is a
major power quality improvement
• The off-grid/mini grid customers: 24/7 availability is the main challenge
• The grid-connected customers: reliability is more the focus than other PQ parameters:
– Asset and electricity theft are significant causes of increasing the unreliability and
quality of supply
– Increasing embedded generation creates the potential for PQ deterioration (e.g.
unbalance , voltage regulation )
– Measurement of reliability and voltage regulation the main focus

Integration of previously separate and independent networks to create power pools requires an
agreement on the rules, including power quality standards for power interchange – international
standards are a prerequisite

Utilities should prioritise measurements that align with their overall business needs, namely i.e
reliability and voltage regulation. These should be monitored with low-cost simple systems.
Regulators should focus on building measurement data history before introducing PQ based penalties.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

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[10] CIGRE/CIRED Joint Working Group C4.107, “Economic Framework for Power Quality”,
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[11] Eassa N, “A Guide for the Management of the Economics of Power Quality”, Paper
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8
 6-9 June 2011

[12] Mutale J, Gaunt CT, Konjic T, “Electricity service requirements in rural areas for
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[13] Kumaraswamy I, Jahnavi W, Ramesh P “Amelioration of Power Quality in Isolated

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[15] Armstrong A Single Wire Earth Return (SWER) - Course Presentation,

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[17] IEC, “IEC 61000-4-30 Ed. 2: Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) — Part 4:Testing and
measurement techniques —Section 30: Power quality measurement methods

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