Introduction To Rapid Prototyping: Unit 4

Unit 4
INTRODUCTION TO RAPID PROTOTYPING
COURSE CONTENT
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Rapid Prototyping Defined
4.3 Steps in Rapid Prototyping
4.4 Classification of RP systems
4.5 Liquid-based Processes
4.6 Powder-based Processes
4.7 Solid-based Processes
4.8 Design modeling for RP
4.9 Applications of RP
4.10 Rapid Tooling
- Indirect Methods
- Direct Methods
Prof. Shiva Krishna J

Dept. of Mechanical Engg., Agnel Institute of Technology and Design, Assagao
Unit 4: Introduction to Rapid Prototyping
4.1 INTRODUCTION
4.1.1 PROTOTYPE
A prototype is a first (or) preliminary version of a device or vehicle from which other
forms are copied (or) developed.
This very general definition departs from the usual accepted concept of the prototype
being physical. It covers all kinds of prototypes used in the product development process,
including objects like mathematical models, pencil sketches, foam models, and of course the
functional physical approximation of the product. Prototyping is the process of realizing these
prototypes. Here, the process can range from just an execution of a computer program to the
actual building of a functional prototype.
The roles that prototypes play in the product development process are several. They
include the following:
1. Experimentation and learning
2. Testing and proofing
3. Communication and interaction
4. Synthesis and integration
5. Scheduling and markers
Prototype vs Final product

In general, the creation of prototypes will differ from creation of the final product in
some fundamental ways:
o Material: The materials that will be used in a final product may be expensive (or)
difficult to fabricate, so prototypes may be made from different materials than the
final product. In some cases, the final production materials may still be undergoing
development themselves and not yet available for use in a prototype.
o Process: Mass-production processes are often unsuitable for making a small number
of parts, so prototypes may be made using different fabrication processes than the
final product. For example, a final product that will be made by plastic injection
molding will require expensive custom tooling, so a prototype for this product may be
fabricated by machining (or) stereolithography instead. Differences in fabrication
process may lead to differences in the appearance of the prototype as compared to the
final product.
o Verification: The final product may be subject to a number of quality assurance tests
to verify conformance with drawings (or) specifications. These tests may involve
custom inspection fixtures, statistical sampling methods, and other techniques
appropriate for ongoing production of a large quantity of the final product. Prototypes
are generally made with much closer individual inspection and the assumption that
some adjustment (or) rework will be part of the fabrication process. Prototypes may
also be exempted from some requirements that will apply to the final product.
Engineers and prototype specialists attempt to minimize the impact of these

differences on the intended role for the prototype. For example, if a visual prototype is not
able to use the same materials as the final product, they will attempt to substitute materials
with properties that closely simulate the intended final materials.
Prof. Shiva Krishna J, Dept. of Mech Engg, AITD Assagao, Goa 1

4.1.2 FUNDAMENTAL FABRICATION PROCESSES
Three types of fundamental fabrication processes
o There are three fundamental fabrication processes. They are: Subtractive, Additive
and Forming processes.
o In a subtractive process, one starts with a single block of solid material larger than the
final site of the desired object and portions of the material are removed until the
desired shape is reached.
- Subtractive fabrication processes include most forms of machining processes -
computer numerical control (CNC) or otherwise. These include milling,
turning, drilling, planning, sawing, grinding, EDM, laser cutting, water-jet
cutting and the likes.
o In contrast, an additive process is the exact reverse in that the end product is much
larger than the material when it started. Materials are manipulated so that they are
successively combined to form the desired object.
- Rapid proto-typing (RP) processes such as stereolithography apparatus (SLA)
and selective laser sintering (SLS) fall into the additive fabrication processes
category.
o Lastly, the forming process is one where mechanical forces or restricting forms are
applied on a material so as to form it into the desired shape.
- Examples for forming processes are: bending, forging, electromagnetic
forming and plastic injection molding. These include both bending of sheet
materials and molding of molten or curable liquids.
o Hybrid machines combining two or more fabrication processes are also possible. For
example, in progressive press-working, it is common to see a hybrid of subtractive (as
in blanking or punching) and formative (as in bending and forming) processes.
4.1.3 PHASES OF PROTOTYPING

Prototyping or model making in the traditional sense is an age-old practice. The
intention of having a physical prototype is to realize the conceptualization of a design. Thus,
a prototype is usually required before the start of the full production of the product. The
fabrication of prototypes is experimented in many forms - material removal, castings,
moulds, joining with adhesives etc. and with many material types - aluminium, zinc,
urethanes, wood, etc.
Prototyping processes have gone through three phases of development, the last two of
which have emerged only in the last 20 years. Like the modeling process in computer
graphics, the prototyping of physical models is growing through its third phase.

1. First Phase: Manual Prototyping

Prototyping had began as early as humans began to develop tools to help them live.
However, prototyping as applied to products in what is considered to be the first phase of
prototype development began several centuries ago. In this early phase, prototypes typically
are not very sophisticated and fabrication of prototypes takes on average about four weeks,
depending on the level of complexity and representativeness. The techniques used in making
these prototypes tend to be craft-based and are usually extremely labor intensive.
2. Second Phase: Soft (or) Virtual Prototyping

As application of CAD/CAE/CAM become more widespread, the early 1980s saw the
evolution of the second phase of prototyping - Soft (or) Virtual Prototyping. Virtual
prototyping takes on a new meaning as more computer tools become available computer
models can now be stressed, tested, analyzed and modified as if they were physical
prototypes. For example, analysis of stress and strain can be accurately predicted on the
product because of the ability to specify exact material attributes and properties. With such
tools on the computer, several iterations of designs can be easily carried out by changing the
parameters of the computer models.
Also, products and as such prototypes tend to become relatively more complex about
twice the complexity as before. Correspondingly, the time required to make the physical
model tends to increase tremendously to about that of 16 weeks as building of physical
prototypes is still dependent on craft-based methods though introduction of better precision
machines like CNC machines helps.
Despite such strengths of virtual prototyping, there is one inherent weakness that such
soft prototypes cannot be tested for phenomena that is not anticipated or accounted for in the
computer program. As such there is no guarantee that the virtual prototype is really problem
free.
3. Third Phase: Rapid Prototyping

Rapid Prototyping of physical parts, or otherwise known as solid freeform fabrication
or desktop manufacturing or layer manufacturing technology, represents the third phase in the
evolution of prototyping. The invention of this series of rapid prototyping methodologies is
described as a “watershed event” because of the tremendous time savings, especially for
complicated models. Though the parts (individual components) are relatively three times as
complex as parts made in 1970s, the time required to make such a part now averages only
three weeks. Since 1988, more than twenty different rapid prototyping techniques have
emerged.
4.2 RAPID PROTOTYPING DEFINED

Rapid Prototyping (RP), is defined as the layer-by-layer fabrication of three-
dimensional physical models directly from a computer-aided design (CAD).
Rapid prototyping can also be defined as a group of techniques used to quickly
fabricate a scale model of a part (or) assembly using three-dimensional computer-aided
design (CAD) data layer by layer.

Why Rapid Prototyping?
o This additive manufacturing process provides designers and engineers the capability
to literally print out their ideas in three dimensions. The RP processes provide a fast
and inexpensive alternative for producing prototypes and functional models as
compared to the conventional routes for part production.
o The advantage of building a part in layers is that it allows to build complex shapes
that would be virtually impossible to machine, in addition to the more simple designs.
RP can build intricate internal structures, parts inside of parts, and very thin-wall
features just as easily as building a simple cube.
o All of the RP processes construct objects by producing very thin cross sections of the
part, one on top of the other, until the solid physical part is completed. This simplifies
the intricate three-dimensional construction process in that essentially two-
dimensional slices are being created and stacked together. For example, instead of
trying to cut out a sphere with a detailed machining process, stacks of various-sized
"circles" are built consecutively in the RP machine to create the sphere with ease.
o RP also decreases the amount of operation time required by humans to build parts.
The RP machines, once started, usually run unattended until the part is complete. This
comes after the operator spends a small amount of time setting up the control
program. Afterwards, some form of cleanup operation is usually necessary, generally
referred to as post processing. Nonetheless, the user intervention times still remain far
less than that for traditional machining processes.
o One can imagine the cost and time savings involved with such a process. Models can
usually be built within hours, and the build materials for most processes are generally
inexpensive. Some RP machines are small and environmentally friendly so that they
can be placed directly into a designer's office, just like a common photocopy
machine! Finally, having access to accurate, functional prototypes to verify concepts
in the beginning phases of a project is an invaluable resource to any institution in the
business of producing physical components.
4.3 STEPS IN RAPID PROTOTYPING

RP in its basic form can be described as the production of three dimensional (3D)
parts from computer aided design (CAD) data in a decreased time scale. The basic
methodology of all RP process can be summarized as shown in following figure.
Rapid Prototyping Process Chain

1. Development of a CAD model:
The process begins with the generation CAD model of the desired object which can be
done by one of the following ways:
o Conversion of an existing two dimensional (2D) drawing
o Importing scanned point data into a CAD package
o Creating a new part in CAD in various solid modeling packages
o Altering an existing CAD model
2. Generation of Standard triangulation language (STL) file:

The developed 3D CAD model is tessellated and converted into STL files that are
required for RP processes. Tessellation is piecewise approximation of surfaces of 3D CAD
model using series of triangles. The STL file connects the surface of the model in an array of
triangles and consists of the X, Y and Z coordinates of the three vertices of each surface
triangle, as well as an index that describes the orientation of the surface normal.
3. Slicing the STL file:

Slicing is defined as the creating contours of sections of the geometry at various
heights in the multiples of layer thickness. Once the STL file has been generated from the
original CAD data the next step is to slice the object to create a slice file (SLI). The thickness
of slices is governed by layer thickness that the machine will be building in, the thicker the
layer the larger the steps on the surface of the model when it has been built. After the STL
file has been sliced to create the SLI files they are merged into a final build file. This
information is saved in standard formats like SLC or CLI (Common Layer Interface) etc.
4. Support Structures:
As the parts are going to be built in layers, and there may be areas that could float
away (or) of overhang which could distort. Therefore, some processes require a base and
support structures to be added to the file which are built as part of the model and later
removed.
5. Manufacturing:
The RP process is additive i.e. it builds the parts up in layers of material from the
bottom. Each layer is automatically bonded to the layer below and the process is repeated
until the part is built. This process of bonding is undertaken in different ways for the various
materials that are being used but includes the use of Ultraviolet (UV) lasers, Carbon Dioxide
lasers, heat sensitive glues and melting the material itself etc.
6. Post processing:
The parts are removed from the machine and post processing operations are
performed sometimes to add extra strength to the part by filling process voids (or) finish the
curing of a part (or) to remove the support structures. The level of post processing will
depend greatly on the final requirements of the parts produced.

4.4 CLASSIFICATION OF RP SYSTEMS
RP Processes
I. BASED UPON THE BUILD MATERIALS:

1. Liquid based processes:
Liquid-based RP systems have the initial form of its material in liquid state. Through
a process commonly known as curing, the liquid is converted into the solid state. The
following RP systems fall into this category:
1. 3D Systems’ Stereolithography Apparatus (SLA)
2. Cubital’s Solid Ground Curing (SGC)
3. Stratasys’ Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM)
4. Sony’s Solid Creation System (SCS)
2. Powder based:
Powder is by-and-large in the solid state. However, it is intentionally created as a
category outside the solid-based RP systems to mean powder in grain-like form. All the
above RP systems employ the Joining/Binding method. The method of joining/binding differs
for the above systems in that some employ a laser while others use a binder/glue to achieve
the joining effect. The following RP systems fall into this group:
1. 3D Systems’s Selective Laser Sintering (SLS)
2. Z Corporation’s Three-Dimensional Printing (3DP)
3. Optomec’s Laser Engineered Net Shaping (LENS)
4. Precision Optical Manufacturing’s Direct Metal Deposition (DMDTM)
3. Solid based processes:

Solid form can include the shape in the form of a wire, a roll, laminates and pellets.
RP systems makes use of Cutting and Glueing/Joining method, while the other use Melting
and Solidifying/Fusing method. The following RP systems fall into this definition:
1. Cubic Technologies’ Laminated Object Manufacturing (LOM)
2. Kira Corporation’s Paper Lamination Technology (PLT)
3. 3D Systems’ Multi-Jet Modeling System (MJM)

II. BASED ON PROCESS
1. Photo polymerization process: SLA, SGC
2. Extrusion Process: FDM
3. Sheet lamination process: LOM
4. Printing process: 3DP
5. Powder bed sintering: SLS, DMLS, SLM and EBM
6. Metal deposition process: LENS, DMD
4.5 LIQUID BASED RP PROCESSES

1. STEREOLITHOGRAPHY APPARATUS (SLA):
3D Systems was founded in 1986 by inventor Charles W. Hull and entrepreneur
Raymond S. Freed. Amongst all the commercial RP systems, the Stereolithography
Apparatus (SLA®) as it is commonly called, is the pioneer with its first commercial system
marketed in 1988.
The SLA process is based fundamentally on the following principles:

1. Parts are built from a photo-curable liquid resin that cures when exposed to a laser
beam (basically, undergoing the photo polymerization process) which scans across
the surface of the resin.
2. The building is done layer by layer, each layer being scanned by the optical
scanning system and controlled by an elevation mechanism which lowers at the
completion of each layer.
Working Principle of Stereolithography Apparatus
o 3D Systems Stereolithography process creates three-dimensional plastic objects

directly from CAD data.
o The process begins with the vat filled with the photo-curable liquid resin and the
elevator table set just below the surface of the liquid resin.
o The operator loads a three-dimensional CAD solid model file into the system.
Supports are designed to stabilize the part during building.

o The translator converts the CAD data into a STL file. The control unit slices the
model and support into a series of cross sections from 0.025 to 0.5 mm thick.
o The computer-controlled optical scanning system then directs and focuses the laser
beam so that it solidifies a two-dimensional cross-section corresponding to the slice
on the surface of the photo-curable liquid resin to a depth greater than one-layer
thickness.
o The elevator table then drops enough to cover the solid polymer with another layer of
the liquid resin.
o A levelling wiper moves across the surfaces to recoat the next layer of resin on the
surface.
o The laser then draws the next layer.
o This process continues building the part from bottom up, until the system completes
the part.
o The part is then raised out of the vat and cleaned of excess polymer.
ADVANTAGES
1. Unattended building process: The SLA can be used continuously and unattended
round the clock.
2. Good user support: The computerized process serves as a good user support.
3. Wide range of Build volumes: The different SLA machines have build volumes
ranging from small to large to suit the needs of different users.
4. Good accuracy: The SLA has good accuracy, the built parts are within ±0.1mm
accuracy and can thus be used for many application areas.
5. Surface finish: The SLA can obtain one of the best surface finishes amongst RP
technologies.
6. Wide range of materials: There is a wide range of materials, from general-purpose
materials to specialty materials for specific applications.
7. The process is of high resolution and capable to build parts with complex details.
DISADVANTAGES
1. Requires support structures: Structures that have overhangs and undercuts must have
supports that are designed and fabricated together with the main structure.
2. Requires post-processing: Post-processing includes removal of supports and other
unwanted materials, which is tedious, time consuming and can damage the model.
3. Requires post-curing: Post-curing may be needed to cure the object completely and
ensure the integrity of the structure.
2. FUSED DEPOSITION MODELING (FDM):

Fused deposition modeling is an extrusion-based rapid prototyping process, although
it works on the same layer-by-layer principle as other RP systems. Stratasys Inc. was founded
in 1989 and has developed most of the company’s products based on the FDM technology.
The technology was first developed by Scott Cramp in 1988 and the patent was awarded in
the U.S. in 1992. FDM uses the extrusion process to build 3D models. Stratasys introduced
its first rapid prototyping machine, the 3D modeler® in early 1992 and started shipping the
units later that year. Stratasys has grown progressively, seeing her rapid prototyping

machines’ sales increase from six units in the beginning to a total of 1582 units in the year
2000.
The principle of the FDM is based on surface chemistry, thermal energy, and layer
manufacturing technology. The material in filament (spool) form is melted in a specially
designed head, which extrudes on the model. As it is extruded, it is cooled and thus solidifies
to form the model.
Working Principle of Fused deposition modeling
o CAD file is sliced into horizontal layers after the part is oriented for the optimum
build position, and any necessary support structures are automatically detected and
generated by Quickslice software.
o The slice thickness can be set manually to anywhere between 0.127 to 0.381 mm
depending on the needs of the models. Tool paths of the build process are then
generated which are downloaded to the FDM machine.
o The filament on the spools is fed into an extrusion head and heated to a semi-liquid
state.
o The semi-liquid material is extruded through the head and then deposited in ultrathin
layers from the FDM head, one layer at a time. Since the air surrounding the head is
maintained at a temperature below the materials’ melting point, the exiting material
quickly solidifies.
o The liquefier head moves on the X–Y plane, generating the desired layer. When the
layer is completed, the head moves on to create the next layer.
o Two modeler materials are dispensed through a dual tip mechanism in the FDM
machine. A primary modeler material is used to produce the model geometry and a
secondary material, or release material, is used to produce the support structures.
o The release material forms a bond with the primary modeler material and can be
washed away upon completion of the 3D models.

ADVANTAGES
1. Fabrication of functional parts: With ABS, it is able to fabricate fully functional parts
that have 85% of the strength of the actual molded part. This is especially useful in
developing products that require quick prototypes for functional testing.
2. Minimal wastage: The FDM process build parts directly by extruding semi-liquid
melt onto the model. Thus only those material needed to build the part and its support
are needed, and material wastages are kept to a minimum.
3. Ease of support removal: Support structures generated during the FDM building
process can be easily broken off or simply washed away. This makes it very
convenient for users to get to their prototypes very quickly and there is very little or
no post-processing necessary.
4. Ease of material change: Build materials, supplied in spool form or cartridge form, are
easy to handle and can be changed readily when the materials in the system are
running low.
DISADVANTAGES
1. Restricted accuracy: Typically, the filament used has a diameter of 1.27 mm and this
tends to set a limit on how accurately the part can be built.
2. Slow process: The building process is slow, as the whole cross-sectional area needs to
be filled with building materials.
3. Unpredictable shrinkage: The build material extruded from extrusion head cools
rapidly on deposition, stresses are introduced into the model. As such, shrinkages and
distortions caused to the model built are a common occurrence and are usually
difficult to predict.
4.6 POWDER BASED PROCESSES

1. SELECTIVE LASER SINTERING (SLS):
Selective Laser Sintering process was developed by The University of Texas in
Austin, and was commercialized by DTM, Corporation out of Austin, TX in 1987 with
support from B.F. Goodrich. Since DTM is now essentially a subsidiary of B.F. Goodrich, the
company has a strong parent to help absorb any financial burdens that may be incurred. The
first SLS system was shipped in 1992, and there are currently several systems in use
worldwide. DTM had worldwide exclusive license to commercialize the SLS® technology
until they were bought over by 3D Systems in August 2001.
The SLS® process is based on the following two principles:

1. Parts are built by sintering when a CO2 laser beam hits a thin layer of powdered
material. The interaction of the laser beam with the powder raises the temperature to
the point of melting, resulting in particle bonding, fusing the particles to themselves
and the previous layer to form a solid.
2. The building of the part is done layer by layer. Each layer of the building process
contains the cross-sections of one or many parts. The next layer is then built directly
on top of the sintered layer after an additional layer of powder is deposited via a roller
mechanism on top of the previously formed layer.

SLS® process creates three-dimensional objects, layer by layer, from CAD-data
generated in a CAD software using powdered materials with heat generated by a CO2 laser
within the VanguardTM system. CAD data files in the STL file format are first transferred to
the VanguardTM system where they are sliced. From this point, the SLS® process starts and
operates as follows:
Temperature controlled chamber filled with Nitrogen gas
Working Principle of Selective Laser Sintering
1. A thin layer of heat-fusible powder is deposited onto the part building chamber.
2. The bottom-most cross-sectional slice of the CAD part under fabrication is selectively
“drawn” (or scanned) on the layer of powder by a heat-generating CO2 laser. The
interaction of the laser beam with the powder elevates the temperature to the point of
melting, fusing the powder particles to form a solid mass. The intensity of the laser
beam is modulated to melt the powder only in areas defined by the part’s geometry.
Surrounding powder remain a loose compact and serve as supports.
3. When the cross-section is completely drawn, an additional layer of powder is
deposited via a roller mechanism on top of the previously scanned layer. This
prepares the next layer for scanning.
4. Steps 2 and 3 are repeated, with each layer fusing to the layer below it. Successive
layers of powder are deposited and the process is repeated until the part is completed.
As SLS® materials are in powdered form, the powder not melted or fused during
processing serves as a customized, built-in support structure. There is no need to create
support structures within the CAD design prior to or during processing and thus no support
structure to remove when the part is completed.
After the SLS® process, the part is removed from the build chamber and the loose
powder simply falls away. SLS® parts may then require some post-processing (or) secondary
finishing, such as sanding, lacquering and painting, depending upon the application of the
prototype built.

ADVANTAGES
1. Good part stability: Parts are created within a precise controlled environment. The
process and materials provide for directly produced functional parts to be built.
2. Wide range of processing materials: A wide range of materials including nylon,
polycarbonates, metals and ceramics are available, thus providing flexibility and a
wide scope of functional applications.
3. No part supports required: The system does not require CAD developed support
structures. This saves the time required for support structure building and removal.
4. Little post-processing required: The finishing of the part is reasonably fine and
requires only minimal post-processing such as particle blasting and sanding.
5. No post-curing required: The completed laser sintered part is generally solid enough
and does not require further curing.
6. Multiple parts can be produced simultaneously.
DISADVANTAGES
1. Large physical size of the unit: The system requires a relatively large space to house
it. Additional storage space is required to house the inert gas tanks used for each
build.
2. High power consumption: The system requires high power consumption due to the
high wattage of the laser required to sinter the powder particles together.
3. Poor surface finish: The as-produced parts tend to have poorer surface finish due to
the relatively large particle sizes of the powders used.
2. DIRECT METAL LASER SINTERING (DMLS):

Direct Metal Laser Sintering technology was developed jointly by Rapid Prototyping
Innnovations (RPI) and EOS Gmbh in 1994. It was the first commercial RP-method to
produce metal parts in a single process. Metal powder (20 μm diameter) without binder is
completely melted by scanning of a high-power laser beam.
Working Principle of Direct Metal Laser Sintering
The principle of the DMLS® systems is based on the laser-sintering principle and
layer manufacture principle similar to that of the SLS®. The density of a produced part is

about 98% whereas SLS has about 70%. One advantage of DMLS compared to SLS is the
small size of particles which enables very detailed parts.
o First, the part is created in a CAD system on a workstation. Then the CAD data are
processed by EOS’s software EOSOFT and converted to the cross-section format that
is used to control the sintering process.
o At the build stage, a new powder layer covers the platform. The laser scans the new
powder layer and sinters the powder together according to the cross-sectional data.
Simultaneously, the new layer is joined to the previous layer.
o When the sintering of the cross-section is completed, the elevator lowers and another
new layer is prepared for the next step. The processes are repeated till finally, the part
is finished.
o After this, the powder around the part is removed.
ADVANTAGES
1. Good part stability: The process and materials provide for directly produced
functional parts to be built.
2. Support structures not required: Do not require support structures or uses only
simplified support structures as in the case of the SLS. This increases the efficiency of
the system by reducing the processing time of the build.
3. Little post-processing required: The finishing of the part is very good thus requiring
only minimal post-processing.
4. No post-curing required: The completed part is by itself solid enough and does not
require post-curing.
5. Large parts can be built: The large build volume allows for relatively larger and taller
parts to be built.
DISADVANTAGES
1. Dedicated systems: Only dedicated systems for metal are available.
2. High power consumption: Require relatively high laser power in order to directly
sinter the metal powders.
3. Large physical size of the unit: The system requires a relatively large space to house.
4.7 SOLID BASED PROCESSES

LAMINATED OBJECT MANUFACTURING (LOM)
Laminated Object Manufacturing®, is a rapid prototyping (RP) technique that
produces three-dimensional models with paper, plastic (or) composites. Cubic Technologies
was established in December 2000 by Michael Feygin, the inventor who LOMTM. In 1985,
Feygin set up the original company, Helisys Inc., to market the LOMTM rapid prototyping
machines. However, sales figures did not meet up to expectations and the company ran into
financial difficulties. Helisys Inc. subsequently ceased operation in November 2000.
Currently, Cubic Technologies, the successor to Helisys Inc., is the exclusive manufacturer of
the LOMTM rapid prototyping machine.

The LOM process is based on the following principles:
1. Parts are built, layer-by-layer, by laminating each layer of paper or other sheet-form
materials and the contour of the part on that layer is cut by a CO2 laser.
2. Each layer of the building process contains the cross-sections of one or many parts.
The next layer is then laminated and built directly on top of the laser-cut layer.
3. No additional support structures are necessary as the “excess” material, which are
cross-hatched for later removal, act as the support.
Working Principle of Laminated Object Manufacturing
o The build material is applied to the part from a roll, then bonded to the previous layers
using a hot roller which activates a heat-sensitive adhesive.
o The contour of each layer is cut with a 25 or 50 Watt CO2 laser that is carefully
modulated to penetrate to the exact depth of one layer.
o Unwanted material is trimmed into rectangles to facilitate its later removal but
remains in place during the build to act as supports.
o After the layer has been completed and the build platform lowered, the roll of material
can be advanced by winding this excess onto a second roller until a fresh area of the
sheet lies over the part.
o The whole process can then be repeated.
o Crosshatched pieces may then be separated from the part using wood carving tools
and finishing is carried out by sanding, polishing, painting, etc.
o After the part has been separated it is recommended that it be sealed immediately with
urethane, epoxy, or silicon spray to prevent moisture absorption and expansion of the
part.
ADVANTAGES
1. Wide variety of materials: These include a wide variety of organic and inorganic
materials such as paper, plastics, metals, composites and ceramics.
2. Fast build time: The laser in the LOMTM process does not scan the entire surface area
of each cross-section, rather it only outlines its periphery. Therefore, parts with thick
sections are produced just as quickly as those with thin sections.

3. High precision: The feature to feature accuracy that can be achieved with LOMTM
machines is usually better than 0.127 mm.
4. Support structure: There is no need for additional support structure as the part is
supported by its own material that is outside the periphery of the part built.
5. Post-curing: Because sheet materials are not subjected to either physical (or) chemical
phase changes, the finished LOMTM parts do not experience warpage, internal residual
stress, or other deformations.
DISADVANTAGES
1. Precise power adjustment: The power of the laser used for cutting the perimeter (and
the crosshatches) of the prototype needs to be precisely controlled. Poor control of the
cutting laser beam may cause distortion to the entire prototype.
2. Fabrication of thin walls: The LOM process is not well suited for building parts with
delicate thin walls, especially in the Z-direction. This is because such walls usually
are not sufficiently rigid to withstand the post-processing process when the cross-
hatched outer perimeter portion of the block is being removed.
3. Integrity of prototypes: The part built by the LOM process is essentially held together
by the heat-sealed adhesives. The integrity of the part is therefore entirely dependent
on the adhesive strength of the glue used, and as such is limited to this strength.
4. Removal of supports: The most labor-intensive part of the LOM process is its last
phase of post-processing when the part has to be separated from its support material
within the rectangular block of laminated material. This is usually done with wood
carving tools and can be tedious and time consuming.
4.8 DESIGN MODELING FOR RP

1. PART SIZE:
o First it must be affirmed that the part will fit into the work volume of the machine; if
not, it will either have to be scaled down to fit, or be sectioned so that the pieces can
be built separately and then bonded together later.
o It is good practice for the designer to add alignment bosses and slots so that proper
alignment of the subsections is achieved with ease.
2. ORIENTATION/POSITIONING:
o Once the part (or parts) has been deemed an appropriate build size, the part should be
oriented in an optimum position for building.
o The shape of the part plays the major role in this, in that some orientations may
require less supporting of overhangs than others.
For e.g.: The upright table requires excessive supports for the top

Orienting the table sideways reduces the necessary supports, however the definition of
the circular area is lost due to the stair-stepping effect.
Upside down, the table requires minimal support material, gets finer definition on
curvature, and also reduces the build time.
3. SUPPORT DESIGN:
o While slicing the CAD model into layers isolated islands may be produced as shown
in figure. The sectional view in plane 1-1 shows an isolated island which belongs to a
projection from the main object.
Isolated islands in a part

o The connection of the projection to the parent body is from the top and while
generating the shape by a Good manufacturing practice it will be built later.
o Thus, it becomes essential to design a support for the isolated islands to prevent their
fall under gravity, as they are created if the process is liquid-based like
Stereolithography.

o When the whole object is formed the extra supports are removed. Due to similar
reasons, supports are essential for long cantilevered projections also.
o Though isolated islands are not formed, the thickness of the projection may be too
thin to support the weight of the cantilever. Thus, supports in a Good manufacturing
practice system are analogous to job holding devices for conventional machining.
o In addition to preventing the fall of isolated islands, supports are generally provided to
hold the main part body also.
o In future suitable materials for Good manufacturing practice may be developed to
eliminate the need of supporting the main object.
o At present supports are essential to hold the material during operation even if the
component is devoid of cantilevers and projections.
(a) (b) (c)

Various types of supports (a) Island (b) Gusset (c) Ceiling
4.9 APPLICATIONS OF RAPID PROTOTYPING
1. APPLICATIONS IN DESIGN:
a. CAD Model Verification: This is the initial objective and strength of RP systems, in
that designers often need the physical part to confirm the design that they have created

in the CAD system. This is especially important for parts or products designed to
fulfill aesthetic functions or that are intricately designed to fulfill functional
requirements.
b. Visualizing Objects: Designs created on CAD systems need to be communicated not
only amongst designers within the same team, but also to other departments, like
manufacturing, and marketing. Thus, there is a need to create objects from the CAD
designs for visualization so that all these people will be referring to the same object in
any communications.
c. Proof of Concept: Proof of concept relates to the adaptation, of specific details to an
object environment or aesthetic aspects (such as car telephone in a specific car), or of
specific details of the design on the functional performance of a desired task or
purpose.
d. Marketing and Commercial Applications: Frequently, the marketing or commercial
departments require a physical model for presentation and evaluation purposes,
especially for assessment of the project as a whole also to produce promotional
brochures and related materials for marketing and advertising
2. APPLICATIONS IN ENGINEERING, ANALYSIS AND PLANNING:

a. Form and Fit: The model will be used to evaluate how it satisfies both aesthetic and
functional requirements. For example, the wing mirror housing for a new car design
has to have the form that augments well with the general appearance of the exterior
design. This will also include how it fits to the car door.
Form and fit models are used not just in the automotive industries. They can also be
used for industries involved in aerospace and others like consumer electronic products
and appliances.
b. Flow Analysis: Designs of components that affect or are affected by air or fluid flow
cannot be easily modified if produced by the traditional manufacturing routes. Flow
analyses are useful for studying such as the inner sections of inlet manifolds, exhaust
pipes, replacement heart valves, or similar products that have complex internal
geometries. Typically, flow analyses are necessary for products manufactured in the
aerospace, automotive, biomedical and shipbuilding industries.
c. Stress Analysis: Mechanical or photo-optical methods or otherwise, physical replicas
of the part being analyzed are necessary. If the material properties or features of the
RP technologies generated objects are similar to those of the actual functional parts,
they can be used in these analytical methods to determine the stress distribution of the
product.
d. Mock-Up Parts: Generally, mockup parts are assembled into the complete product and
functionally tested at pre-determined conditions, e.g., for fatigue. Some RP techniques
are able to generate “mock-ups” very quickly to fulfill these functional tests before
the design is finalized.
e. Pre-Production Parts: In cases where mass-production will be introduced once the
prototype design has been tested and confirmed, pilot-production runs of ten or more
parts is usual. The pilot-production parts are used to confirm tooling design and
specifications. The necessary accessory equipment, such as fixtures, chucks, special
tools and measurement devices required for the mass-production process are prepared

and checked. Many of the RP methods are able to quickly produce pilot-production
parts, thus helping to shorten the process development time, thereby accelerating the
overall time-to-market process.
f. Diagnostic and Surgical Operation Planning: RP models can complement various
imaging systems, such as magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and computed
tomography (CT) scanning, to produce anatomical models for diagnostic purposes.
These RP models can also be used for surgical and reconstruction operation planning.
This is especially useful in surgical procedures that have to be carried out by different
teams of medical specialists and where interdepartmental communication is of
essence.
g. Design and Fabrication of Custom Prosthesis and Implant: RP can be applied to the
design and fabrication of customized prostheses and implants. In cases, such as
having to produce ear prostheses, a scan profile can be taken of the good ear to create
a computer-mirrored exact replica replacement using RP technology. These models
can be further refined and processed to create the actual prostheses or implants to be
used directly on a patient. The ability to efficiently customize and produce such
prostheses and implants is important, as standard sizes are not always an ideal fit for
the patient. Also, a less than ideal fit, especially for artificial joints and weight bearing
implants, can often result in accumulative problems and damage to the surrounding
tissue structures.
3. APPLICATIONS IN MANUFACTURING AND TOOLING:

o Rapid tooling can be classified into soft or hard, and direct or indirect tooling.
- Soft tooling, typically made of silicon rubber, epoxy resins, low melting point
alloys and foundry sands, generally allows for only single casts or for small
batch production runs.
- Hard tooling, on the other hand, usually made from tool steels, generally
allows for longer production runs.
o Direct tooling is referred to when the tool or die is created directly by the RP process.
As an example in the case of injection molding, the main cavity and cores, runner,
gating and ejection systems, can be produced directly using the RP process.
o In indirect tooling, on the other hand, only the master pattern is created using the RP
process. A mold, made of silicon rubber, epoxy resin, low melting point metal, or
ceramic, is then created from the master pattern.

4.10 RAPID TOOLING
The term Rapid Tooling (RT) is typically used to describe a process which either uses
a Rapid Prototyping (RP) model as a pattern to create a mould quickly or uses the Rapid
Prototyping process directly to fabricate a tool for a limited volume of prototypes.
(or)
Rapid Tooling is defined as making tools using RP process to
o Minimize the cost
o Increase the productivity
o Increase dimensional accuracy
o Decrease total time
How is it different from conventional tooling?

o Tooling time is much shorter than for a conventional tool. (almost below one-fifth that
of conventional tooling).
o Tooling cost is much less than for a conventional tool. (Cost can be below five
percent of conventional tooling cost).
o Tool life is considerably less than for a conventional tool.
o Tolerances are wider than for a conventional tool.
TYPES OF RAPID TOOLING

Rapid Tooling can be broadly classified as:
1. Indirect Tooling: Only the master pattern is created using the RP process. A mould,
made of silicon rubber, epoxy resin, low melting point metal, or ceramic, is then
created from the master pattern.
2. Direct Tooling: It is referred to when the tool or die is created directly by the RP
process.
4.10.1 INDIRECT TOOLING

1. SILICONE RUBBER TOOLING
Steps in Silicone Rubber tooling

Also called as Room Temperature Vulcanizing (RTV) tools are an easy, relatively
inexpensive and fast way to fabricate prototype or pre-production tools. RTV tools are also
known as silicone rubber moulds.
The fabrication of RTV moulds usually includes the following main steps:
o Producing a pattern. Any RP method can be employed.
o Adding venting and gating to the pattern.
o Setting-up the pattern in a mould box with a parting line provided in a plasticine.
o Pouring silicone rubber to form one half of the mould.
o Inverting the first half of the mould and removing the plasticine.
o Pouring silicone rubber to produce the second half of the mould.
There are two types of silicone used in this process: tin- and platinum-based silicones.
Tin-based silicone is generally less expensive and more durable. RTV tools can be utilised
for moulding parts in wax, polyurethane and a few epoxy materials. The process is best suited
for projects where form, fit, or functional testing can be done with a material which mimics
the characteristics of the production material.
2. ALUMINUM FILLED EPOXY TOOLING:

Epoxy tools are used to manufacture prototype parts or limited runs of production
parts. Epoxy tools are used for:
- Moulds for prototype injection plastics;
- Moulds for castings;
- Compression moulds;
- Reaction injection moulds.
Steps in Epoxy tooling

o The fabrication of the mould begins with the construction of a simple frame around
the parting line of the RP model.
o Sprue gates and runners can be added or cut later on, once the mould is finished.
o The exposed surface of the model is coated with a release agent and epoxy is poured
over the model.
o Aluminum powder is usually added to the epoxy resin and copper hose cooling lines
can also be placed at this stage to increase the thermal conductivity of the mould.
o Once the epoxy has cured, the assembly is inverted and the parting line block is
removed, leaving the pattern embedded in the side of the tool just cast.
o Another frame is constructed and epoxy poured to from the other side of the tool.
o When the second side of the tool is cured, the two halves of the tool are separated and
the pattern is removed.
3. SPRAY METAL TOOLING:

This technique is the most common metal deposition technique and can be divided in
two main types: Gas Metal Spraying and Arc Metal Spraying. The former involves a low
melting point alloy that passes through a nozzle similar to a paint sprayer. A metal wire,
usually lead/tin, is melted by a conical jet of burning gas, atomised and propelled onto the
substrate. The second method, involves a gun in which an electric arc between two wires
causes them to melt. The molten material (aluminium or zinc) is then atomised by a
compressed gas that sprays it.
Steps in Spray metal tooling
o This process involves using an RP model with a good surface finish that incorporates
a draft angle and has an allowance for the shrinkage of the moulding material.
o The pattern is embedded along its parting line into plasticine within a chase.
o The sprue, gates and ejector pins are added and after the exposed half of the mould is
coated with a release agent, a thin shell of 2-3 millimeters thick of a low temperature
molten metal is deposited over it.
o Once a metallic shell has been created using one of the above methods, water cooling
lines can be added and the shell is backfilled with epoxy resin or ceramic to improve
the strength of the mould.
o Aluminium powder is usually mixed with the epoxy resin or the ceramic to increase
their thermal conductivity.
o After the backfilling material is cured, it is machined flat.
o The second half of the tool is built following the same procedure.
4.10.2 DIRECT TOOLING

1. DIRECT AIM TOOLING:
In the Direct ACESTM Injection Moulds tooling, the mould is prepared using the SLA
process. The mould is similar to a regular part SLA, but is the negative image and cut into
two halves. The cavity can be filled with a variety of materials, including: Thermoplastics,
Aluminum-filled epoxy, Ceramics and Low-melt temperature metals.
Direct AIM Process
o Using a 3D CAD package, the injection mould is drawn. Runners, fan gates and
ejector pin clearance holes are added and the mould is shelled to a recommended
thickness of 1.27mm.
o The mould is then built using the Accurate Clear Epoxy Solid (ACES) style on a
stereolithography machine.
o The supports are subsequently removed and the mould is polished in the direction of
the draw to facilitate part release.

o To remove the maximum amount of heat from the tool and reduce the injection
moulding cycle time, copper water cooling lines are added and the back of the mould
is filled with a mixture made up 30% by volume of aluminium granulate and 70% of
epoxy resin.
o The cooling of the mould is completed by blowing air on the mould faces as they
separate after the injection moulding operation.
2. RAPIDTOOL PROCESS:
SLS is one of the rapid prototyping techniques widely used for direct tool production.
Using SLS, DTM was one of the first companies to commercialise a rapid tooling
technology, marketing it as the RapidTool™ process. The DTM RapidTool family of tooling
products consists of three materials, RapidSteel l.0 & RapidSteel 2.0
(a) RAPIDSTEEL1.0:
The first product, RapidSteel 1.0 powder, is made up of low-carbon steel particles
with a mean diameter of 55 µm. The particles are coated with a thermoplastic binder. The
processing of RapidSteel can be broken down into three main stages:
1. Green part manufacture (SLS processing): The low melting point binder allows the
material to be processed in the SLS machine without heating the feed and part bed.
Tooling inserts in the "green" stage are built layer by layer through fusion of the
binder.
2. Cross-linking: During the subsequent furnace cycle, the thermoset binder coating
would melt and would behave as a lubricant between the steel particles. To prevent
distortion being caused in this way during the low temperature portion of the furnace
cycle, the green part is infiltrated with an aqueous acrylic emulsion and dried in an
oven at about 60°C. The acrylic emulsion acts as a binding agent that provides
strength to the green part when the polymer is burnt away in the furnace. The drying
time is dependent upon the part size; for large parts, it can take up to 48h.
3. Furnace processing: In this stage, the green part is converted into a fully dense metal
part by infiltration with molten copper. To remove oxides from the steel surface, a
mixture of hydrogen and nitrogen is used during the furnace cycle. Between 350 and
450°C, the polymer evaporates. Then, the temperature is increased to 1000°C to allow
the sintering of the steel powder. Finally, the part is heated up to 1120°C where
copper infiltration occurs driven by capillary action.
The final RapidSteel 1.0 parts (Figure 7.4) are 60% steel 40% copper fully dense parts
which can be finished by any technique including surface grinding, milling, drilling, wire
erosion, EDM, polishing and surface plating.
(b) RAPIDSTEEL 2.0:

RapidSteel 2.0 offers a number of modifications over RapidSteel 1.0:
o The base metal has been changed from carbon steel to 316 stainless steel.
o Bronze has replaced copper as the infiltrant.
o The thermoplastic binder material has been substituted by a thermoset binder.

As a result of these changes, the processing of RapidSteel 2.0 differs from that of
RapidSteell.0, and comprises the following stages:
1. Green part manufacture (SLS processing): The part bed is heated to a temperature of
about 100°C for the SLS processing.
2. Brown part manufacture (Furnace debinding and sintering cycle): The temperature is
raised to 1120°C, held for 3 hours and decreased to room temperature in a controlled
atmosphere.
3. Part infiltration (Furnace bronze infiltration cycle): The temperature is raised to
1050°C, held for 2 hours and decreased to room temperature in a controlled
atmosphere.
3. QUICKCAST PROCESS:
o QuickCast is a process that allows for the creation of direct shell investment castings
using "QuickCast" Stereolithography (SLA) patterns.
o The QuickCast method allows you to rapidly build highly accurate resin patterns in
Stereolithography, bypassing the expensive and time-consuming step of tooling.
o QuickCast facilitates rapid production of small quantities of metal parts in much less
time than traditional methods.
o Instead of the SLA part being completely solid, QuickCast eliminates 95% of the
internal mass of the part.

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Unit 4

INTRODUCTION TO RAPID PROTOTYPING

Prof. Shiva Krishna J

Prototype vs Final product

Engineers and prototype specialists attempt to minimize the impact of these

Prof. Shiva Krishna J, Dept. of Mech Engg, AITD Assagao, Goa 1

Three types of fundamental fabrication processes

4.1.3 PHASES OF PROTOTYPING

Prof. Shiva Krishna J, Dept. of Mech Engg, AITD Assagao, Goa 2

1. First Phase: Manual Prototyping

2. Second Phase: Soft (or) Virtual Prototyping

3. Third Phase: Rapid Prototyping

4.2 RAPID PROTOTYPING DEFINED

Prof. Shiva Krishna J, Dept. of Mech Engg, AITD Assagao, Goa 3

4.3 STEPS IN RAPID PROTOTYPING

Rapid Prototyping Process Chain

Prof. Shiva Krishna J, Dept. of Mech Engg, AITD Assagao, Goa 4

2. Generation of Standard triangulation language (STL) file:

3. Slicing the STL file:

Prof. Shiva Krishna J, Dept. of Mech Engg, AITD Assagao, Goa 5

I. BASED UPON THE BUILD MATERIALS:

3. Solid based processes:

Prof. Shiva Krishna J, Dept. of Mech Engg, AITD Assagao, Goa 6

4.5 LIQUID BASED RP PROCESSES

The SLA process is based fundamentally on the following principles:

Working Principle of Stereolithography Apparatus

o 3D Systems Stereolithography process creates three-dimensional plastic objects

Prof. Shiva Krishna J, Dept. of Mech Engg, AITD Assagao, Goa 7

2. FUSED DEPOSITION MODELING (FDM):

Prof. Shiva Krishna J, Dept. of Mech Engg, AITD Assagao, Goa 8

Working Principle of Fused deposition modeling

Prof. Shiva Krishna J, Dept. of Mech Engg, AITD Assagao, Goa 9

4.6 POWDER BASED PROCESSES

The SLS® process is based on the following two principles:

Prof. Shiva Krishna J, Dept. of Mech Engg, AITD Assagao, Goa 10

Temperature controlled chamber filled with Nitrogen gas

Working Principle of Selective Laser Sintering

Prof. Shiva Krishna J, Dept. of Mech Engg, AITD Assagao, Goa 11

2. DIRECT METAL LASER SINTERING (DMLS):

Working Principle of Direct Metal Laser Sintering

Prof. Shiva Krishna J, Dept. of Mech Engg, AITD Assagao, Goa 12

4.7 SOLID BASED PROCESSES

Prof. Shiva Krishna J, Dept. of Mech Engg, AITD Assagao, Goa 13

Working Principle of Laminated Object Manufacturing

Prof. Shiva Krishna J, Dept. of Mech Engg, AITD Assagao, Goa 14

4.8 DESIGN MODELING FOR RP

Prof. Shiva Krishna J, Dept. of Mech Engg, AITD Assagao, Goa 15

Isolated islands in a part

Prof. Shiva Krishna J, Dept. of Mech Engg, AITD Assagao, Goa 16

(a) (b) (c)

4.9 APPLICATIONS OF RAPID PROTOTYPING

Prof. Shiva Krishna J, Dept. of Mech Engg, AITD Assagao, Goa 17

2. APPLICATIONS IN ENGINEERING, ANALYSIS AND PLANNING:

Prof. Shiva Krishna J, Dept. of Mech Engg, AITD Assagao, Goa 18

3. APPLICATIONS IN MANUFACTURING AND TOOLING:

Prof. Shiva Krishna J, Dept. of Mech Engg, AITD Assagao, Goa 19

How is it different from conventional tooling?

TYPES OF RAPID TOOLING

4.10.1 INDIRECT TOOLING

Steps in Silicone Rubber tooling

Prof. Shiva Krishna J, Dept. of Mech Engg, AITD Assagao, Goa 20

2. ALUMINUM FILLED EPOXY TOOLING:

Steps in Epoxy tooling