Function from Whole Vessel Shape: A Method and an Application to Anasazi Black Mesa,

Arizona
Author(s): Marion F. Smith, Jr.
Source: American Anthropologist, New Series, Vol. 90, No. 4 (Dec., 1988), pp. 912-923
Published by: Wiley on behalf of the American Anthropological Association
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912 AMERICAN
ANTHROPOLOGIST
Function from Whole Vessel
Shape: A Method and an
Application to Anasazi Black
Mesa, Arizona
MARION F. SMITH, JR.
Florida Bureau ofArchaeologicalResearch
This report proposes that the shape of
ceramic vessels carries significant infor-
mation on their utilitarian functions
(uses), and that ethnographically cali-
brated predictions of use based on vessel
shape measurements can illuminate real
archeological problems, as exemplified
with prehistoric Anasazi materials.
Archeologists have begun to act on the
old idea (Holmes 1903) that ceramic ves-
sels reflect economies as well as temporal
and cultural relationships. Reviews of in-
ference of use have been offered by Eric-
son, Read, and Burke (1972), by Smith
(1983:24-68), and by Rice (1987:207-
243). Recent studies fall into three cate-
gories. One category of study emphasizes
the uniformitarian nature of relationships
between use and shape (Linton 1944; Er-
icson, Read, and Burke 1972; Braun
1983; Smith 1983, 1985). These studies
lend theoretical support to the feasibility
of use inference. Another sort of study
highlights empirical research on archeo-
logical vessels, identifying discrete shape
categories and determining probable uses
of each category through use alterations,
contextual relationships, and theoretical
arguments (Shapiro 1984; Hally 1984,
1986; Pauketat 1987). A third type of
study has identified shape correlates of
use from documented ethnographic arti-
facts (Braun 1980; Henrickson and
McDonald 1983; Smith 1983, 1985,
1988b). This approach may allow the de-
velopment of uniformitarian predictors of
use from shape, because historically doc-
umented contexts afford the best infor-
mation on use, cultural setting, and vessel
morphology.
Methods
Data Basefor Calibration
Shape-based prediction of use has been
calibrated on a large data base including
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[90, 1988]
ethnographic pots from two far-flung re-
gions, the American Southwest and West
Africa. There are theoretical and practi-
cal reasons for a cross-cultural approach.
Theoretically, predictive studies based on
a single culture would be most vulnerable
to distortions posed by unique conditions,
including aspects of cultural context, nat-
ural environment, and historical factors
such as "diffusion." Since these factors
may apply, at least with diminished force,
to a culture area as well, it is desirable
that multiple areas be represented. In this
way the strength of areal effects may be
compared to uniformitarian ones, and
with sufficient data areal effects may be
controlled statistically. The practical rea-
son to take a cross-cultural approach is
the rarity of adequate published docu-
mentation on single cultures.
In the current research, I have used
data from three culture areas-the
Southwest of North America and in West
Africa, the Guinea Coast and the Western
Sudan. Detailed definitions, descriptions,
and maps of these areas are available
elsewhere (Smith 1983:129-137). Since
the contiguous African areas are often re-
garded as closely related (Herskovits
1967:104), and the documentation was
inadequate for them to be treated as in-
dependent subsamples, I have collapsed
them into a single area, "West Africa."
The relevance of ethnographic data in
archeological contexts must be argued,
not assumed (Binford 1968; Freeman
1968; Wobst 1978). Widely applicable
correlations between shape and use
should pass three tests: (1) deducibility
from plausible uniformitarian processes
(see Smith 1985:Table 11.2); (2) empiri-
cal confirmability in controlled-espe-
cially ethnographic-contexts (see Smith
1983:236-277); and (3) similarity in cul-
tural contexts that contrast in heritage,
natural and social environment, and gen-
eral sociopolitical level (Smith 1983:278-
305; Table I here). The shape-function
relationships identified by this paper and
applied to the prehistoric Anasazi depend
neither on specific features of the ethno-
graphic areas, nor on idiosyncrasies of the
Anasazi, nor upon possible Anasazi rela-
tionships to historic southwestern groups.
 REPORTS
RESEARCH 913

Table 1
Predictive success by culture area.a

Predicted group (N/%)

Culture Actual
area group Liquid T/S Long storage Utility Consumption N
SW Liquid T/S 27/75 2/6 7/19 0/0 36
WA Liquid T/S 53/76 9/13 8/11 0/0 70
Total Liquid T/S 80/76 11/10 15/14 0/0 106
SW Long storage 2/18 8/73 1/9 0/0 11
WA Long storage 0/0 2/67 1/33 0/0 3
Total Long storage 2/14 10/71 2/14 0/0 14
SW Utility 23/25 5/5 53/57 12/13 93
WA Utility 4/7 1/2 47/87 2/4 54
Total Utility 27/18 6/4 100/68 14/10 147
SW Consumption 0/0 0/0 2/11 16/89 18
WA Consumption 0/0 0/0 1/33 2/67 3
Total Consumption 0/0 0/0 3/14 18/86 21
Overall Success
SW: 104/158 = 66%
WA: 104/130 = 80%
Total: 208/288 = 72%

classified.
"altalicizedentries are successes-number and percentage of pots correctly

Such relationships may indeed
widely across time and space.
DiscriminantAnalysis
The classic setting for discriminant
analysis involves entities (pots) described
by one nominal or categorical variable
(use category) and several metric varia-
bles (measurements of size and shape).
The technique may be used on entities
whose category is known (ethnographic
pots) (1) to illuminate measurable con-
trasts among categories, and (2) to derive
equations for predicting categories of un-
known but measurable entities (archeo-
logical pots). The second purpose is em-
phasized in this research report. Specific
assumptions are that the metric discrim-
inating variables follow a multivariate
normal distribution and that covariance
matrices of the groups are identical. Both
assumptions are violated by the current
data set, and the analysis is thus not jus-
tifiable on strictly statistical grounds.
However, the findings are plausible when
interpreted theoretically (Smith 1988b),
apply and they are supported by independent
archeological evidence, as will be seen.
For good predictions, both the cate-
gories to be predicted and the shape mea-
surements to base predictions on must be
carefully considered. Use classifications
should bejudged by theoretical meaning-
fulness, predictability from shape, and
the range of uses covered. I employ a clas-
sification of 14 use categories as a base-
line. Somewhat similar to several past
systems (Ericson, Read, and Burke 1972;
Braun 1980; Smith 1983), it dissects use
variation finely enough that most work-
ing classifications can be achieved by
lumping (not cutting across) the given
categories. Below I define baseline cate-
gories and list the common phrases by
which they were described in the ethno-
graphic literature.
1. Dry storage,duration not stated or du-
ration implied to be a short period (gen-
erally a few days). Common labels in the
literature were: storage, storing, keeping.
2. Long-termstorage of dry materials, du-
ration stated or implied to exceed a few

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914 AMERICAN
ANTHROPOLOGIST
days. Ethnographic phrases include:
granary, buried in a cave.
3. Storage of beveragesor water, duration
either unstated or apparently no more
than a few days: water olla, storing, hold-
ing, daily water supply.
4. Long-termstorage ofpotables, duration
stated or implied to exceed a few days:
permanent water storage, brewing, wine-
making.
5. Storage of liquid nonpotables,duration
unspecified or stated or implied to be lim-
ited: oil, honey.
6. Cooking, mode (frying, boiling, etc.)
unspecified: cooking, cookpot, cooking
meat.
7. Boiling, specified or strongly implied:
cooking of beans, mush, sauces, soup,
stew.
8. Mechanical processing: mixing, wash-
ing within pot, grating food.
9. Eating, with direct consumption by
an individual specified or implied: indi-
vidual eating bowl, bowl, eating bowl,
serving a portion.
10. Drinking, with direct consumption
by an individual specified or implied:
cup, drinking glass.
11. Servingfood, exact meaning unspec-
ified: serving food, serving bowl.
12. Serving or pouring liquids: pitcher,
water jar for feasts.
13. Transportof potables, with distance
unspecified or stated or implied to be
fairly short: carrying water, fetching
water.
14. Transportofpotables a longer distance:
canteen, carrying water on a journey.
Several classifications formed by lump-
ing the foregoing categories were com-
pared on the grounds of predictability,
theoretical relevance, and comprehen-
siveness. A four-category classification
showed a good balance of these qualities
(Smith 1988b). In terms of baseline cate-
gories it is defined as follows: (1) long-
term storage: 2, 4; (2) utility: 1, 6, 7, 8, 11,
12; (3) liquid transport and storage: 3, 5,
13, 14; and (4) consumption: 9, 10. This
classification may not be optimal, but it
has survived archeological testing and
seems a reasonable choice from a large set
of possibilities.
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[90, 1988]
Of course, predictions of use depend
upon the choice of predicting variables as
much as on the classification of use. Over
30 variables of size and shape have been
identified as potentially informative of
various dimensions of use (Smith
1983:Appendix B). Factor analysis has
indicated that the three most important
components of shape variation are overall
vessel size, openness of the profile, and
size of the orifice (Smith 1983:192-205).
These may be represented by objective
physical measurements, namely:
1. Relative opennessof the vesselprofile, in
centimeters (cm) per square cm. Chosen
in part because relevant to both sherd col-
lections and vessels, this is the ratio of the
circumference at the lip, in cm, to the to-
tal external surface area, in square cm.
Theoretically, this variable should re-
spond to several aspects of use, including
the rate of input and output of contents,
the frequency of use, the importance of
pouring for use, the duration of storage if
that is relevant, and the typical distance
of transport if relevant (Smith 1985:Table
11.2). In stepwise discriminant analyses
on ethnographic pots, this is the most im-
portant single variable of the three for
predicting use, as determined from de-
creased significance of discrimination
when openness is removed from the final
set of predictor variables (final SPSS F-
to-remove; Smith 1988b).
2. Absolutediameterofthe pot at rim, in cm.
This measurement relates to many of the
same dimensions of use as openness, al-
though in different direction and degree.
It may also correlate with use of auxiliary
tools within the pot (ladles, stirring im-
plements, etc.), mechanical processing,
and increasing grain size of contents. It
shows, however, inverse relationships
with distance of transport and the liquid-
ity of contents (Smith 1985:Table 11.2).
In stepwise analyses, this variable is a
more effective predictor than volume, but
not as effective as openness.
3. Total volumeof the pot, in liters. This
was expected to be an important variable,
relating, obviously, to the amount stored/
processed/transported per use event. It
has been suggested to reflect directly the
size of the user group (e.g., household),
 REPORTS
RESEARCH
and the duration of storage if relevant;
but to reflect inversely the distance of
transport (Smith 1985:Table 11.2). Dis-
criminant analyses show volume to be
much the weakest predictor. However,
openness correlates with volume to a con-
siderable degree. The weakness of vol-
ume-use relationships (after openness-
use correlations are accounted for) is
largely due to the success of openness.
The computer software employed for
discriminant calculations was the Statis-
tical Package for the Social Sciences
(SPSS), particularly the DISCRIMI-
NANT subprogram (Klecka 1975). The
Statistical Analysis System (SAS Insti-
tute 1983) was also employed for certain
one-way analyses of variance referred to
below.
Validationof the DiscriminantAnalysis
What about the validity of the mathe-
matical results: do the predictions indeed
reflect primary uses of the vessels on An-
asazi Black Mesa? There is considerable
evidence that they do.
Evidence for validity falls under three
headings. One finding is the statistical
significance of the discriminant equations
or functions. The SPSS DISCRIMI-
NANT procedure calculates Wilks'
lambda, a multivariate measure of group
differences over the discriminating shape
variables (Table 2). Lambdas near 0 in-
dicate well-separated groups, while the
maximum value of 1 implies no group dif-
ferences. Functions are derived succes-
sively, and the discrimination attributed
to each in the table is that left over from
all preceding (lower-numbered) func-
Table 2
Statistical significance of discriminant functions.
Percent Sq. canon.
Function Eigenvalue variance correlation
Oa - - - 0.406
1 1.145 88.87 0.534
2 0.109 8.48 0.098
3 0.034 2.65 0.033
aLambda for this row reflects separability of groups before any discriminant functions are de-
rived.
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915
tions. The test, based on conversion of
lambda into an approximate chi-square
statistic, shows that even after the first
two functions there would be only a 0.2%
probability of such low lambdas for iden-
tically shaped use groups in the ethno-
graphic sample.
Success in predicting use for ethno-
graphic vessels is further evidence of va-
lidity (Table 1). Classically, one validates
by testing predictive equations derived
from part of the known-group sample on
"fresh" cases from known groups. When
the same cases are used to derive discrim-
inations and to validate them, success
rates are spuriously raised (Morrison
1974). The current data base is too small
for the sample-splitting procedure, so I
employed an alternative suggested by
Frank, Massy, and Morrison (1965). One
compares (1) the success of criteria de-
rived from and applied to the entire sam-
ple to (2) the average success of the same
criteria when use categories have been
randomly reassigned (proportions of var-
ious categories having been maintained).
Success using the original data (1) should
reflect real shape differences as well as
sampling error, while the success of reas-
signed runs (2) should reflect only sam-
pling error. Fluctuations from run to run
in the magnitude of sampling error imply
that a mean of several reassigned runs
must be used to estimate its magnitude.
Table 1 summarizes both the nature of
real-run misclassifications and the overall
success rate of 72% with the original
data. I made 10 runs with randomly as-
signed use categories for which category
proportions were approximately pre-
Wilks' Chi-square/
lambda deg. free. Significance
255.2/9 0.0000
0.872 38.9/4 0.0000
0.967 9.5/1 0.0020
- -
916 AMERICAN
served, and obtained only 22% success.
Analyses using real data were 3.25 times
as effective as those relying on sampling
accidents. Hair et al. (1979:103) have
suggested that a ratio of 1.25 indicates
useful discrimination for analogous situ-
ations. Shape is a very significant predic-
tor of vessel use in the ethnographic sam-
ple, for both the Southwest and West Af-
rica.
There is also independent archeologi-
cal evidence from northern Arizona, in-
cluding the context of ceramics as well as
attributes other than shape. As part of a
study of prehistoric economy on Anasazi
Black Mesa, hundreds of restored vessels
were examined for evidence of the context
of use or disposal, technology (grain size
of temper [Hill 1988]), and alterations
consequent to use (potential combustion/
oxidation marks from heat, and abra-
sion). Of six analyses relevant to use
(Smith 1988b), all but one (abrasion) ap-
peared to validate shape-based predic-
tions. For each analysis, the relevance of
archeological observations depends on a
chain of theoretical deductions: parallel
predictions from different evidence are
quite unlikely by chance. Concurrence of
shape discriminations with five of six in-
dependent lines of evidence is very good
evidence for the validity of shape predic-
tions for Black Mesa pots.
Equationsfor Predicting Use
The results ofdiscriminant analysis are
easily employed for predicting use, re-
quiring arithmetic on measurements of
volume, lip, diameter, and surface area.
To identify the most likely use of a given
archeological pot, one calculates the pot's
classification score on each use category;
the most probable use corresponds to the
Equations for predicting use.
Openness
Function Score term
Consumption score = 2.5048P
Liquids score = 0.7383P
Utility score = 1.2325P
Long storage score = 0.7481P
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ANTHROPOLOGIST [90, 1988]
highest score. The classification equa-
tions defining the scores (called by the
SPSS DISCRIMINANT program "Fish-
er's linear discriminant functions") are
shown in Table 3 in case others may wish
to apply them. Each equation is labeled
by the associated use; P represents the
openness ratio as previously defined; D,
diameter at the lip in cm; and V, volume
in liters.
Black Mesa pot 56, for instance, had an
openness of 7.2029 cm per sq cm, a di-
ameter of 6.3870 cm, and a volume of
0.2993 liters. Its classification scores, cal-
culated from the equations shown, were
1.1070 for consumption, 2.0895 for liq-
uid-related use, 2.6207 for utility, and
0.7451 for long storage. The highest nu-
merical value considering the sign is the
most likely use. For vessel 56, this is "util-
ity."
The variables discussed as use predic-
tors have seldom been measured on ar-
cheological materials, partly because di-
rect measurements of volume and surface
area are difficult on damaged vessels. Re-
cently, however, several methods for vol-
ume and area have been put forward
(Nelson 1985; Smith 1988a).
Cautious and experimental use of these
predictive equations is advocated in set-
tings where the spectrum of past vessel
uses seems to have been similar to that
shown for the Southwest and West Africa.
It is especially important that shape's tes-
timony about use be heard together with
other evidence, as I have tried to show in
validating the discriminant predictions
for Black Mesa.
The Black Mesa Case
The potential of shape-based studies of
vessel function is illustrated by showing
Table 3
Diameter Volume
term term Constant
+ 0.4109D + 0.0525V - 19.5750
+ 0.3009D + 0.0292V - 5.1590
+ 0.41 10D + 0.0170V - 8.8870
+ 0.2832D + 0.0844V - 6.4774
 REPORTS
RESEARCH
that ceramics may tell us something of
changing patterns of prehistoric settle-
ment on Black Mesa, Arizona. Paleoeco-
nomic concepts can be tested, and crucial
variables can be operationalized, by
shape-based discriminations of vessel
use.
Background:Evidencefor an "Extensive
Shift"
As a result of large-scale mining oper-
ations, the Peabody Coal Company sup-
ported extensive archeological work on
Black Mesa in northern Arizona for
nearly two decades. Powell et al. (1983)
describe the project, while several recent
syntheses have treated the evolution of
subsistence and settlement on Black
Mesa (Euler et al. 1979; Powell 1983;
Plog and Powell 1984; Plog 1986c). A
convenient summary of the prehistory of
Black Mesa is offered by Nichols and
Smiley (1985). Human presence seems to
have been limited until about 200 B.C.
Relative to other areas of the Southwest,
prehistoric settlement on Black Mesa was
fairly dispersed, with archeological evi-
dence relating to small habitation sites or
to loci of limited activities. Ceramics were
first used on Black Mesa during the first
half of the 9th century, fixing one tem-
poral bound for our study. At about A.D.
1150, for reasons that are not entirely
clear, habitation ceased until historic
times.
Four major demographic regimes have
been identified by Plog (1986b:232-239):
(1) A.D. 800-1030: small population,
growth relatively slow and often inter-
rupted; (2) A.D. 1030-1070: moderate
population, derived from rapid growth,
despite a major "crash" in the middle
1lth century; (3) A.D. 1070-1110: high-
est population levels, founded on very
rapid and steady growth; and (4) A.D.
1110-1150; rapid and relatively steady
decline from the highest levels to zero.
The third of Plog's regimes poses a
problem for Black Mesa research, be-
cause of massive population growth in the
face of static technology, fluctuating and
agriculturally marginal environment,
and lack of evidence for intensification,
including agricultural intensification.
One factor that may have permitted the
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917
demographic florescence is a shift in set-
tlement and subsistence patterns to a
more "extensive" pattern: spatial expan-
sion into, and more intensive exploitation
of, higher elevations less suited for agri-
culture; ecologically, a broader, or more
diffuse, subsistence focus lower on the
food chain. The underlying causes of
Black Mesa's complex demographic his-
tory are far beyond this paper's mission
(see Smith 1988b).
CeramicImplicationsof an ExtensiveShift
An extensive shift in settlement and
subsistence should reveal itself in changes
to site-level variables. One such variable
is the diversity of economic activities
shown collectively by sites of the settle-
ment system. Extensive shifts would en-
tail the proliferation of specialized pro-
curement stations. Such sites tend to
show these characteristics: (1) limited va-
riety of economic behaviors; (2) shorter-
span, seasonal occupation, (3) increased
use of or location in formerly underex-
ploited environmental settings, and (4)
population smaller than the maximal
face-to-face community. A mathematical
consequence of rising percentages of spe-
cialized sites is decreased average diver-
sity for all sites. However, high-diversity
sites often continue to be occupied at es-
pecially favorable seasons and places. If
this is the case, the spread (e.g., the vari-
ance or interquartile range) of economic
diversities will increase during extensive
shifts.
Household size is another site variable
that may react to extensive shifts. I define
it as the number of persons forming the
smallest autonomous economic unit-
commonly those persons eating together
and residing under the same roof. Reor-
ganization of the social system into
smaller "atoms" increases the logistical
flexibility of the system. There may, for
instance, be a trend toward the nucleari-
zation of extended families. Extensive
shifts may be expected to lead to smaller
households overall.
Changes in pottery can be argued to
follow those of the site-level variables.
Given a means of establishing the use of
recovered artifacts, diversity of vessel use
should correlate with the diversity of eco-
918 AMERICAN
ANTHROPOLOGIST
nomic activities at sites. This assumption
is oversimplified due to the possible roles
of nonceramics, but it should serve as a
first approximation. Regarding house-
hold size, ceramic correlates are argued
from the assumption that rational people
conserve resources used for processing
subsistants, especially human labor and
firewood. The size of containers used for
batch processing (such as cooking) of re-
sources is likely to correlate with the
number of persons in the household (cf.
Turner and Lofgren 1966; Dickens and
Chapman 1978; Nelson 1981; Shapiro
1984). Implications of this assumption
differ according to vessel use. For utility
and for long-storage vessels, volume
should show a positive correlation with
household size, other things being equal.
For consumption vessels, however, there
should be little correlation: volume
should be independent of household size,
as long as diet and technology of food
preparation are constant.
The relationship of pots for manipula-
ting liquids is likely to be more complex.
I would indeed expect positive correla-
tion with household size, but volume also
correlates negatively with distance trans-
ported in use in my ethnographic sample
(Smith 1983:270-271). Changes in the
distribution of settlement relative to
water sources could swamp the effects of
household size. Also, the category as de-
fined includes pots suited for shorter term
storage of water, and their volume might
well increase with procurement distance
if a caching strategy is adopted. I expect
that the volume of pots for liquids will not
relate simplistically to household size.
Archeological Findings
In work performed for the Black Mesa
Archaeological Project (Smith 1988b), I
have classified nearly 600 archeological
vessels by use according to the method
developed above. This sample is prey to
both general and project-specific biases
(Smith 1988b) whose discussion is be-
yond the scope of this paper. I will simply
note that the relatively large size of the
sample is some defense against random
errors, and that analyses treating changes
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[90, 1988]
between periods should be little affected
by biases that were similar through
time-lifeways seem to have been fairly
stable between A.D. 800 and 1150. Biases
of archeological context ought also to
have been fairly consistent for this collec-
tion from a single project with continuity
of personnel.
For my study, vessels were analyzed
only if they were recovered from single oc-
cupation sites that could be firmly dated
by tree-ring samples or ceramic evidence.
Four periods were identified: (1) A.D.
800-940, (2) 900-1030, (3) 1070-1150,
and (4) 1100-1150. The fourth period
was the shortest interval before abandon-
ment for which numbers of sites and ves-
sels permitted use studies. It overlapped
with Period 3 because some 1070-1150
sites straddled or related ambiguously to
the A.D. 1100 line. Since the overlap
would tend to decrease real contrasts be-
tween pre-1100 and post-1100 cultures,
changes that are detected should be valid,
although they are likely to be underesti-
mated. Plog's first period roughly covers
my Periods 1 and 2; his second period cor-
responds to a span with few reliable dates
to which I have assigned no whole-vessel
sites; the third and fourth periods corre-
spond closely.
Knowledge of vessel use allows one to
monitor site economic diversity and
household size. First consider diversity of
activities. If ceramics are involved in
most activities, then diversity of economic
activities will correlate with diversity of
ceramic uses. A quantitative measure of
use diversity, an index of diversity, can be
defined for each site collection of vessels.
The index used is based on one discussed
by Dickens (1980). It has been modified
(Smith 1988b) to have the following de-
sirable properties: value of 0.0 when pots
are minimally diverse (all uses the same),
value of 1.0 when the site collection is
maximally diverse (spread as evenly as
possible over categories), and indepen-
dence of sample size. Since site collections
smaller than four vessels cannot even the-
oretically show a full range of uses, such
collections were not analyzed for diver-
sity. Pots from burial contexts had to be
included in diversity analyses to attain a
 REPORTS
RESEARCH
reasonable sample of 35 sites across four
periods (Table 4). Although biases are
possible, only long-storage pots differed
greatly between burial and nonburial
contexts (Smith 1988b).
What trends are actually observed on
Black Mesa? Table 4 compiles results
from which graphs were prepared. Figure
1 shows the distribution of diversity of ce-
ramic use by time period. The interme-
diate solid line is the 50th percentile or
median, which summarizes the overall
trend of site diversities. The distance be-
tween the dashed lines (75th and 25th
percentiles of site diversity) measures the
variability in ceramic diversity at each
period. The most important feature of the
graph is the contrast between Period 3
and Period 4: ceramic (by inference, eco-
nomic) diversity drops sharply overall,
while the variability in diversity in-
creases. These changes are those ex-
pected from an extensive adaptation of
the settlement system.
Statistical tests confirmed the signifi-
cance of differences. Treating diversity as
the dependent and time period as the in-
dependent variable, a one-way analysis of
variance found (F = 3.97 with 3 df) less
than a 2% chance that observed values
would have occurred if diversity were un-
related to period. A conservative statistic
designed to identify significantly different
pairs (the statistic known as Tukey's
Honestly Significant Difference [SAS In-
Table 4
Variation in ceramic variables through time.
Period 1
(800-940)
Diversity
N of sites for diversity 2 5
Median diversity 0.793
75th percentile of diversity 0.812
25th percentile of diversity 0.773
(75th)-(25th) 0.039
Volume(liters)
Consumption mean volume/Na 0.57/8
Liquid T/S mean volume/Na 2.03/8
Utility mean volume/Na 0.70/3
"aNumberof vessels in the analysis.
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919
stitute 1983:Chapter 9]) found that Pe-
riods 3 and 4 differed at an overall signif-
icance level of 5%.
The other ceramic implications of ex-
tensive adaptations were changes in ves-
sel size for specific uses. Analyses for ves-
sel size included pots regardless of the
number found at the site, but eliminated
burial pots from consideration, for a final
sample of 180 (Table 4). Figure 2 shows
the median volume of different use classes
at each period (except for long term stor-
age, which was predicted only for a few
Period 3 vessels). Utility volumes de-
crease sharply after rising through the
second and third periods: putatively con-
sistent with smaller average households.
Liquid-related pots grow in average vol-
ume throughout, even faster after Period
3-not expected if decreasing household
size were the sole influence, but possibly
reflective of larger short-term storage pots
for caching water at upland sites. Con-
sumption sizes are relatively stable, as ex-
pected in the absence of significant
changes in diet or in techniques for food
preparation. Some period contrasts are
significant using the conservative Tukey
HSD test at a 5% significance level. For
liquid-related pots, pairs of periods so dif-
ferent are (1,4) and (1,3); changes
through time for the other uses cannot be
verified with the same high confidence be-
cause of the small numbers of vessels in-
volved. Overall, ceramic evidence from
Period 2 Period 3 Period 4
(900-1030) (1070-1150) (1100-1150)
22 6
0.750 0.798 0.545
0.857 0.879 0.783
0.602 0.708 0.375
0.255 0.171 0.408
0.79/19 0.61/33 0.68/16
5.62/6 11.97/36 16.81/8
4.53/6 10.01/32 4.72/5
920 AMERICAN
ANTHROPOLOGIST
1.0O
0.8
0.6-
SITE
DIVERSITY
0.4
0.2.
0.0
1 2
PERIOD
Figure 1
Distribution of use diversity of site collections showing the 75th, 50th (median), and 25th
percentile values at each of four periods on Black Mesa.
shape-based use predictions is not incon-
sistent with an extensive response after
A.D. 1100.
Conclusions
The case for extensive change rests on
multiple lines of argument, not just ce-
ramics. There is evidence for decreasing
size in prey animals through Black Mesa
time (Seme' 1981), which is consistent
with broader spectrum exploitation.
Klein's 1979 study of social group size on
Black Mesa produced three findings of
particular interest. First, the area of non-
kiva pithouses, presumably used for hab-
itation and as specialized mealing areas,
consistently decreased through time on
Black Mesa. Second, the area of jacals
and ramadas, interpreted as dwellings,
dropped substantially from an all-time
high during the Lamoki phase (dated at
that time A.D. 1050-1075) to a signifi-
cantly lower value for the Toreva phase
(A.D. 1075-1150). Finally, significant in-
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[90, 1988]
Q75
050
S25
3 4
creases were observed in the volume of in-
terior hearths. The first two observations,
although not the last, fit an "extensifica-
tion" picture. However, Klein felt struc-
ture size a better indicator of group size
than hearth volume (1979:75).
From a general settlement perspective,
Plog has argued that the ratio of limited
activity to habitation sites from A.D. 1050
to 1150, except possibly from 1100 to
1125, was much higher than in earlier
times. Diversity in locational character-
istics was also higher during the last cen-
tury, exceeding values expected for ran-
dom patterns. Average site elevation
tends upward from A.D. 950 to 1125,
showing decreased suitability for farming
on the plausible assumption that eleva-
tion correlates with decreased growing
season (Plog 1986a:212-233). Substan-
tively, the congruence between ceramic
evidence and implications of an extensive
shift is very suggestive, although it is not
conclusive statistically because of inade-
quate sample sizes.
 REPORTS
RESEARCH 921

20-

15

MEDIAN
VOLUME 10,
(liters)

5 U

0 C
1 2 3 4

PERIOD
Figure 2
Volume of three use categories through time on Black Mesa. L denotes vessels for shorter
term storage and transport of liquids, as inferred from shape; U, utility vessels; C, con-
sumption-oriented pots.

Methodologically, a framework has ical Investigations, Southern Illinois Univer-

been proposed for relating ceramic prop-
erties of the archeological record to inter-
esting economic parameters of culture.
The probable primary use of whole ves-
sels can be inferred from artifact shape
and used to operationalize theoretical di-
mensions of cultural systems, such as
household size and position of the system
on scales of economic intensity-extensive-
ness. It is further proposed that the pre-
dictive model, while drawn from the eth-
nographic Southwest and West Africa,
may have wider relevance for utilitarian
vessels made and used in domestic set-
tings.
Acknowledgments. The Peabody Coal Com-
pany supported the Black Mesa Archaeologi-
cal Projectthrough the Center for Archaeolog-
sity at Carbondale. I want to thank George
Gumerman and Shirley Powell, at the Center,
for the chance to work on the endlessly fasci-
nating ceramics of Black Mesa. Tom Gatlin
takes credit for the figures. For cogent com-
ments on various versions of this manuscript,
I am most grateful to Dean E. Arnold, Chris-
topher Carr, Barbara Mills, Stephen Plog, Su-
san C. Smith, and two anonymous reviewers.
In Tallahassee, Jim Miller's support has been
crucial.
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The Effect of Incidental
Conversation on Memory for
Focal Colors
JOHNA. Lucy
RICHARDA. SHWEDER
Committeeon Human Development
Universityof Chicago
In this research report we present find-
ings from an experiment on memory for
color that isolates the source of a discrep-
ancy in results between Lucy and
Shweder (1979) and Garro (1986). We
find that memory for "focal" colors is af-
fected by whether or not conversation is
permitted during the memory task. When
conversation is permitted during the
memory task, as in our original proce-
dure, focal and nonfocal colors are re-
membered equally well. When conversa-
tion is not permitted, as in Garro's pro-
cedure, memory for focals improves,
while memory for nonfocals remains un-
changed. A second set of results analyzing