ЛІНГВОКРАЇНОЗНАВСТВО АНГЛОМОВНИХ КРАЇН

1. The United Kingdom: England

England is a country that is part of the United Kingdom.[7][8][9] It shares land
borders with Wales to its west and Scotland to its north. The Irish Sea lies
northwest of England and the Celtic Sea to the southwest. England is separated
from continental Europe by the North Sea to the east and the English Channel to
the south. The country covers five-eighths of the island of Great Britain, which lies
in the North Atlantic, and includes over 100 smaller islands, such as the Isles of
Scilly and the Isle of Wight.

The area now called England was first inhabited by modern humans during the
Upper Paleolithic period, but takes its name from the Angles, a Germanic tribe
deriving its name from the Anglia peninsula, who settled during the 5th and 6th
centuries. England became a unified state in the 10th century and has had a
significant cultural and legal impact on the wider world since the Age of
Discovery, which began during the 15th century.[10] The English language, the
Anglican Church, and English law—the basis for the common law legal systems of
many other countries around the world—developed in England, and the country's
parliamentary system of government has been widely adopted by other nations.
The Industrial Revolution began in 18th-century England, transforming its society
into the world's first industrialised nation.

England's terrain is chiefly low hills and plains, especially in central and southern
England. However, there is upland and mountainous terrain in the north (for
example, the Lake District and Pennines) and in the west (for example, Dartmoor
and the Shropshire Hills). The capital is London, which has the largest
metropolitan area in both the United Kingdom and, prior to Brexit, the European
Union. England's population of 56.3 million comprises 84% of the population of
the United Kingdom, largely concentrated around London, the South East, and
conurbations in the Midlands, the North West, the North East, and Yorkshire,
which each developed as major industrial regions during the 19th century.

The Kingdom of England – which after 1535 included Wales – ceased being a
separate sovereign state on 1 May 1707, when the Acts of Union put into effect the
terms agreed in the Treaty of Union the previous year, resulting in a political union
with the Kingdom of Scotland to create the Kingdom of Great Britain. In 1801,
Great Britain was united with the Kingdom of Ireland (through another Act of
Union) to become the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. In 1922 the
Irish Free State seceded from the United Kingdom, leading to the latter being
renamed the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland.

TOPONOMY
The name "England" is derived from the Old English name Englaland, which
means "land of the Angles". The Angles were one of the Germanic tribes that
settled in Great Britain during the Early Middle Ages. The Angles came from the
Anglia peninsula in the Bay of Kiel area (present-day German state of Schleswig–
Holstein) of the Baltic Sea. The earliest recorded use of the term, as "Engla londe",
is in the late-ninth-century translation into Old English of Bede's Ecclesiastical
History of the English People. The term was then used in a different sense to the
modern one, meaning "the land inhabited by the English", and it included English
people in what is now south-east Scotland but was then part of the English
kingdom of Northumbria. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle recorded that the Domesday
Book of 1086 covered the whole of England, meaning the English kingdom, but a
few years later the Chronicle stated that King Malcolm III went "out of Scotlande
into Lothian in Englaland", thus using it in the more ancient sense.

The earliest attested reference to the Angles occurs in the 1st-century work by
Tacitus, Germania, in which the Latin word Anglii is used. The etymology of the
tribal name itself is disputed by scholars; it has been suggested that it derives from
the shape of the Angeln peninsula, an angular shape. How and why a term derived
from the name of a tribe that was less significant than others, such as the Saxons,
came to be used for the entire country and its people is not known, but it seems this
is related to the custom of calling the Germanic people in Britain Angli Saxones or
English Saxons to distinguish them from continental Saxons (Eald-Seaxe) of Old
Saxony between the Weser and Eider rivers in Northern Germany. In Scottish
Gaelic, another language which developed on the island of Great Britain, the
Saxon tribe gave their name to the word for England (Sasunn); similarly, the
Welsh name for the English language is "Saesneg". A romantic name for England
is Loegria, related to the Welsh word for England, Lloegr, and made popular by its
use in Arthurian legend. Albion is also applied to England in a more poetic
capacity, though its original meaning is the island of Britain as a whole.

Politics
The Palace of Westminster, the seat of the Parliament of the United Kingdom
England is part of the United Kingdom, a constitutional monarchy with a
parliamentary system. There has not been a government of England since 1707,
when the Acts of Union 1707, putting into effect the terms of the Treaty of Union,
joined England and Scotland to form the Kingdom of Great Britain. Before the
union England was ruled by its monarch and the Parliament of England. Today
England is governed directly by the Parliament of the United Kingdom, although
other countries of the United Kingdom have devolved governments. In the House
of Commons which is the lower house of the British Parliament based at the Palace
of Westminster, there are 532 Members of Parliament (MPs) for constituencies in
England, out of the 650 total. As of the 2019 United Kingdom general election,
England is represented by 345 MPs from the Conservative Party, 179 from the
Labour Party, seven from the Liberal Democrats, one from the Green Party, and
the Speaker of the House, Lindsay Hoyle.
Since devolution, in which other countries of the United Kingdom – Scotland,
Wales and Northern Ireland – each have their own devolved parliament or
assemblies for local issues, there has been debate about how to counterbalance this
in England. Originally it was planned that various regions of England would be
devolved, but following the proposal's rejection by the North East in a 2004
referendum, this has not been carried out.

One major issue is the West Lothian question, in which MPs from Scotland and
Wales are able to vote on legislation affecting only England, while English MPs
have no equivalent right to legislate on devolved matters. This when placed in the
context of England being the only country of the United Kingdom not to have free
cancer treatment, prescriptions, residential care for the elderly and free top-up
university fees, has led to a steady rise in English nationalism. Some have
suggested the creation of a devolved English parliament, while others have
proposed simply limiting voting on legislation which only affects England to
English MPs.

Law
The Royal Courts of Justice
The English law legal system, developed over the centuries, is the basis of
common law legal systems used in most Commonwealth countries and the United
States (except Louisiana). Despite now being part of the United Kingdom, the legal
system of the Courts of England and Wales continued, under the Treaty of Union,
as a separate legal system from the one used in Scotland. The general essence of
English law is that it is made by judges sitting in courts, applying their common
sense and knowledge of legal precedent – stare decisis – to the facts before them.

The court system is headed by the Senior Courts of England and Wales, consisting
of the Court of Appeal, the High Court of Justice for civil cases, and the Crown
Court for criminal cases. The Supreme Court of the United Kingdom is the highest
court for criminal and civil cases in England and Wales. It was created in 2009
after constitutional changes, taking over the judicial functions of the House of
Lords. A decision of the Supreme Court is binding on every other court in the
hierarchy, which must follow its directions.

The Secretary of State for Justice is the minister responsible to Parliament for the
judiciary, the court system and prisons and probation in England. Crime increased
between 1981 and 1995 but fell by 42% in the period 1995–2006. The prison
population doubled over the same period, giving it one of highest incarceration rate
in Western Europe at 147 per 100,000. Her Majesty's Prison Service, reporting to
the Ministry of Justice, manages most prisons, housing over 85,000 convicts.

Regions, counties, and districts

The subdivisions of England consist of up to four levels of subnational division
controlled through a variety of types of administrative entities created for the
purposes of local government. The highest tier of local government were the nine
regions of England: North East, North West, Yorkshire and the Humber, East
Midlands, West Midlands, East, South East, South West, and London. These were
created in 1994 as Government Offices, used by the UK government to deliver a
wide range of policies and programmes regionally, but there are no elected bodies
at this level, except in London, and in 2011 the regional government offices were
abolished.

After devolution began to take place in other parts of the United Kingdom it was
planned that referendums for the regions of England would take place for their own
elected regional assemblies as a counterweight. London accepted in 1998: the
London Assembly was created two years later. However, when the proposal was
rejected by the 2004 North East England devolution referendum in the North East,
further referendums were cancelled. The regional assemblies outside London were
abolished in 2010, and their functions transferred to respective Regional
Development Agencies and a new system of Local authority leaders' boards.

Below the regional level, all of England is divided into 48 ceremonial counties.
These are used primarily as a geographical frame of reference and have developed
gradually since the Middle Ages, with some established as recently as 1974. Each
has a Lord Lieutenant and High Sheriff; these posts are used to represent the
British monarch locally. Outside Greater London and the Isles of Scilly, England is
also divided into 83 metropolitan and non-metropolitan counties; these correspond
to areas used for the purposes of local government and may consist of a single
district or be divided into several.

There are six metropolitan counties based on the most heavily urbanised areas,
which do not have county councils. In these areas the principal authorities are the
councils of the subdivisions, the metropolitan boroughs. Elsewhere, 27 non-
metropolitan "shire" counties have a county council and are divided into districts,
each with a district council. They are typically, though not always, found in more
rural areas. The remaining non-metropolitan counties are of a single district and
usually correspond to large towns or sparsely populated counties; they are known
as unitary authorities. Greater London has a different system for local government,
with 32 London boroughs, plus the City of London covering a small area at the
core governed by the City of London Corporation. At the most localised level,
much of England is divided into civil parishes with councils; in Greater London
only one, Queen's Park, exists as of 2014 after they were abolished in 1965 until
legislation allowed their recreation in 2007.

Я копіпастив з вікіпедії, якщо кому випаде ця тема користуйтесь нею далі. я

не додаю більше бо док вже дуже великий.
2. The United Kingdom: Wales
Wales is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It is bordered by England to
the east, the Irish Sea to the north and west, and the Bristol Channel to the south. It
had a population in 2011 of 3,063,456 and has a total area of 20,779 km2 (8,023 sq
mi). Wales has over 1,680 miles (2,700 km) of coastline and is largely
mountainous with its higher peaks in the north and central areas, including
Snowdon (Yr Wyddfa), its highest summit. The country lies within the north
temperate zone and has a changeable, maritime climate.

Welsh national identity emerged among the Britons after the Roman withdrawal
from Britain in the 5th century, and Wales is regarded as one of the modern Celtic
nations. Llywelyn ap Gruffudd's death in 1282 marked the completion of Edward I
of England's conquest of Wales, though Owain Glyndŵr briefly restored
independence to Wales in the early 15th century. The whole of Wales was annexed
by England and incorporated within the English legal system under the Laws in
Wales Acts 1535 and 1542. Distinctive Welsh politics developed in the 19th
century. Welsh Liberalism, exemplified in the early 20th century by David Lloyd
George, was displaced by the growth of socialism and the Labour Party. Welsh
national feeling grew over the century; a nationalist party, Plaid Cymru was
formed in 1925 and the Welsh Language Society in 1962. Established under the
Government of Wales Act 1998, the Senedd (or Parliament, formerly known as the
National Assembly for Wales) is responsible for a range of devolved policy
matters.

At the dawn of the Industrial Revolution, development of the mining and

metallurgical industries transformed the country from an agricultural society into
an industrial nation; the South Wales Coalfield's exploitation caused a rapid
expansion of Wales' population. Two-thirds of the population live in South Wales,
including Cardiff, Swansea, Newport and the nearby valleys. Now that the
country's traditional extractive and heavy industries have gone or are in decline,
the economy is based on the public sector, light and service industries, and
tourism. In livestock farming, including dairy farming, Wales is a net exporter,
contributing towards national agricultural self-sufficiency.

Wales closely shares its political and social history with the rest of Great Britain,
and a majority of the population in most areas speaks English as a first language,
but the country has retained a distinct cultural identity. Both Welsh and English are
official languages; over 560,000 Welsh-speakers live in Wales, and the language is
spoken by a majority of the population in parts of the north and west. From the late
19th century onwards, Wales acquired its popular image as the "land of song", in
part due to the eisteddfod tradition. At many international sporting events, such as
the FIFA World Cup, Rugby World Cup and the Commonwealth Games, Wales
has its own national team. At the Olympic Games, Welsh athletes compete for the
UK as part of a Great Britain team. Rugby union is seen as a symbol of Welsh
identity and an expression of national consciousness.
сурс

3. The United Kingdom: Scotland

Scotland (Scots: Scotland, Scottish Gaelic: Alba [ˈal̪ ˠapə] (About this soundlisten))
is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. Covering the northern third of the
island of Great Britain, mainland Scotland has a 96-mile (154 km) border with
England to the southeast and is otherwise surrounded by the Atlantic Ocean to the
north and west, the North Sea to the northeast and the Irish Sea to the south. The
country also contains more than 790 islands, principally in the archipelagos of the
Hebrides and the Northern Isles. Most of the population, including the capital
Edinburgh, is concentrated in the Central Belt – the plain between the Scottish
Highlands and the Southern Uplands – in the Scottish Lowlands.

Scotland is divided into 32 administrative subdivisions or local authorities, known

as council areas. Glasgow City is the largest council area in terms of population,
with Highland being the largest in terms of area. Limited self-governing power,
covering matters such as education, social services and roads and transportation, is
devolved from the Scottish Government to each subdivision. Scotland is the
second largest country in the United Kingdom, and accounted for 8.3% of the
population in 2012.

The Kingdom of Scotland emerged as an independent sovereign state in the Early

Middle Ages and continued to exist until 1707. By inheritance in 1603, James VI
of Scotland became king of England and Ireland, thus forming a personal union of
the three kingdoms. Scotland subsequently entered into a political union with the
Kingdom of England on 1 May 1707 to create the new Kingdom of Great Britain.
The union also created the Parliament of Great Britain, which succeeded both the
Parliament of Scotland and the Parliament of England. In 1801, the Kingdom of
Great Britain entered into a political union with the Kingdom of Ireland to create
the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland (in 1922, the Irish Free State
seceded from the United Kingdom, leading to the latter being officially renamed
the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland in 1927).

Within Scotland, the monarchy of the United Kingdom has continued to use a
variety of styles, titles and other royal symbols of statehood specific to the pre-
union Kingdom of Scotland. The legal system within Scotland has also remained
separate from those of England and Wales and Northern Ireland; Scotland
constitutes a distinct jurisdiction in both public and private law. The continued
existence of legal, educational, religious and other institutions distinct from those
in the remainder of the UK have all contributed to the continuation of Scottish
culture and national identity since the 1707 incorporating union with England.

In 1999, a Scottish Parliament was re-established, in the form of a devolved

unicameral legislature comprising 129 members, having authority over many areas
of domestic policy. The head of the Scottish Government is the first minister of
Scotland, who is supported by the deputy first minister of Scotland. Scotland is
represented in the United Kingdom Parliament by 59 MPs. Scotland is also a
member of the British–Irish Council, sending five members of the Scottish
Parliament to the British–Irish Parliamentary Assembly, as well as being part of
the Joint Ministerial Committee, represented by the first minister

Source

4. The United Kingdom: Northern Ireland

Northern Ireland is a constituent country of the United Kingdom, which is on the

island of Ireland.
The whole island of Ireland used to be a kingdom, called the Kingdom of Ireland
but after the Act of Union in the year 1800, it became part of the United Kingdom
of Great Britain and Ireland. This stayed until 1922, after a civil war, when Ireland
was divided into the Republic of Ireland, the sovereign state that takes up the
southern part of the island, and Northern Ireland, which stayed as part of the UK.
About 1.8 million people live in Northern Ireland, which has the capital and largest
city is Belfast. The historic administrative roles of its 6 counties have since 1972
been replaced by 26 unitary authorities Counties of Northern Ireland.
Sometimes people use other names for Northern Ireland. Some call it Ulster, even
though some parts of Ulster are actually in the Republic of Ireland. Others call it
"the North" or "the Six Counties", because they do not want to recognize that a part
of the island of Ireland is not fully independent and the north of it is actually in the
United Kingdom. Northern Ireland is the smallest part of the United Kingdom at
5,345 sq mi.
The only official flag in Northern Ireland is the Union Flag of the United
Kingdom. The Ulster Banner, however, is still used as the flag of Northern Ireland
by loyalists and unionists, and to represent Northern Ireland internationally in
some sporting competitions.English is spoken by almost everyone in Northern
Ireland. Another important language is Irish (sometimes called "Irish Gaelic") and
a language known as Ulster Scots, which comes from Eastern Ulster and Lowland
Scotland. The Irish language became less widely spoken in the 20th century, but a
revival has led to increased usage, especially in Belfast, the Glens of Antrim and
counties Tyrone and Fermanagh. This revival has been driven largely through the
creation of Irish-language schools. The Irish language is spoken by some
nationalists (whether Catholic or Protestant) people. Ulster Scots is almost
exclusive to areas of North Antrim and the Ards Peninsula.
Some languages like Chinese, Urdu or Polish are becoming more common in
Northern Ireland as people from other countries move to Northern Ireland.
 
5. The United Kingdom. Historical and poetic names of England, Scotland, Wales,
Northern Ireland. Signs of national identity: names, clothes, musical instrument,
ect.
There are so many names for the United Kingdom that it can be hard to keep them
straight. Some were used interchangeably as if they mean the same thing. Some are
used incorrectly. Oftentimes people are mistaken when they refer to something in
Scotland as being in England or that the word ‘English’ means the same thing as
‘British.’
UK – The official name is the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern
Ireland, which consists of England, Wales, Scotland, and Northern Ireland.
(Great) Britain – The island of Great Britain itself but often used when talking
about the United Kingdom. Does not include Northern Ireland.
British – A term usually used to mean anyone from the United Kingdom though
this may annoy the Northern Irish. It is also not advisable to call a Scotsmen
British. While they are technically British, they are Scottish first. Someone like
Andy Murray is Scottish until he’s winning at Wimbledon at which point he
becomes British.
Britannia – An outdated Latin term for the island of Great Britain that was coined
by the Romans. They also founded Londinium, the city that became London.
Britannia is also the female symbol of the UK – the shield maiden used on older
currency. Britannia was also a symbol of British Imperialism.
Briton – Essentially citizens of the United Kingdom, the Isle of Man, the Channel
Islands, or of one of the British Overseas Territories. The shortened version is
‘Brit’ which is commonly used by Americans to refer to the British. There are
many who don’t like usage of that term.
The British Isles – The Geographic name for the islands that make of Great Britain
and Ireland, though it’s falling out of use because the Irish don’t like being called
British for good reason.
Hibernia – Classical Latin name for Ireland.
Éire – Irish Gaelic for Ireland
Albion – Another outdated term for the island of Great Britain. This is the oldest
known name of the island and comes from Ancient Greek.
Caledonia – The Latin name given to the northern part of Britannia which is now
called Scotland.
Cymru – The Welsh language name for Wales.
Ulster – The northern, UK part of the island of Ireland (the independent Republic
of Ireland is the bottom part).
6. National symbols of England, Wales, Scotland, Northern Ireland: legends.

The United Kingdom (abbreviated from "The United Kingdom of Great Britain
and Northern Ireland") is the political name of the country which consists of
England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland (sometimes known as Ulster).
Great Britain is the name of the island which is made up of England, Scotland,
Wales, whereas the British Isles is the geographical name of all the islands off the
north-west coast of the European continent. In everyday speech "Britain" is used to
mean the United Kingdom.
The flag of the United Kingdom, known as the Union Jack, is made up of three
crosses. The upright red cross on a white background is the cross of the 1st George,
the patron saint of England. The white diagonal cross on a blue background is the
cross of St. Andrew, the patron saint of Scotland, The red diagonal cross on a
white background is the cross of St. Patrick, the patron saint of Ireland.
The Welsh flag, called the Welsh dragon, represents a red dragon on a white and
green background.
St. George's Day falls on 23 April and is regarded as England's national day. On
this day some patriotic Englishmen wear a rose pinned to their jackets'. A red rose
is the national emblem of England from the time of the Wars of the Roses (15th
century).
St. Andrew's Day (the 30th of November) is regarded as Scotland's national day.
On this day some Scotsmen wear a thistle in their buttonhole. As a national
emblem of Scotland, thistle apparently first used in the 15th century as a symbol of
defence. The Order of the Thistle is one of the highest orders of knighthood. It was
founded in 1687, and is mainly given to Scottish noblemen (limited to 16 in
number).
St. Patrick's Day (the 17th of March) is considered as a national day in Northern
Ireland and an official bank holiday there. The national emblem of Ireland is
shamrock. According to legend, it was the plant chosen by St. Patrick to illustrate
the Christian doctrine of the Trinity to the Irish.
St. David's Day (the 1st of March) is the church festival of St. David, a 6th-century
monk and bishop, the patron saint of Wales. The day is regarded as the national
holiday of Wales, although it is not an official bank holiday.
On this day, however, many Welshmen wear either a yellow daffodil or a leek
pinned to their jackets, as both plants are traditionally regarded as national
emblems of Wales.
In the Royal Arms three lions symbolize England, a lion rampant - Scotland, and a
harp - Ireland. The whole is encircled and is supported by a lion and a unicorn. The
lion has been used as a symbol of national strength and of the British monarchy for
many centuries. The unicorn, a mythical animal that looks like a horse with a long
straight horn, has appeared on the Scottish and British royal coats of arms for
many centuries, and is a symbol of purity.
England is the main part of the UK as there is its capital — London city The
floral emblem and at the same time the symbol of England is the red rose.
This flower has become a symbol since the Civil war which is called War of
roses (1455-1485). The winner was the Royal Family with a red rose as a
family symbol. Besides the floral symbol England has the national animal of
England and it is a lion.
 
The national flower in Scotland is the Thistle or sometimes it is called
Scottish Bluebell. It became the symbol in the 15th century when this prickly-
leaved violet flower was used as the defense of the border of the country.
Scotland also has its national animal and it is a unicorn
 
Wales has the symbol spring flower daffodil. There are many versions about
the origin of this symbol, but the main was told by Shakespeare in his poem
in which Welsh archers wore this flower in the battle of Agincourt in 15th
century for easy distinguishing from the enemies. Sometimes it is possible to
find the leek as the symbol of Wales. Welsh national animal is a red dragon
which is also on the welsh flag.
 
 

7. Historical events connected with patron saints of England, Wales, Scotland,

Northern Ireland.

Every country has its own unique symbols.  They can be places, things, and even
people that represent the country.   The countries of the British Isles each have
their own patron saint who acts as advocate and protector over England, Scotland,
Ireland, and Wales and we’re going to take you on a journey to discover each one
and his importance to each land in Great Britain and Ireland.

St George is truly an international saint and England is not the only country or
region to claim him as its patron. England shares St George with Venice, Genoa,
Portugal, Ethiopia and Catalonia among others as their patron saint and many of
these places have their own celebrations and ceremonies in his honour.

St. David’s.  David was born the descendant of Welsh royalty, and during his life,
he founded twelve monasteries (including Glastonbury and Minevia), traveled to
the Holy Land, was consecrated a bishop, and ultimately became the Archbishop
of Wales in 550 AD.  Pope Callistus II canonized David in 1120 and subsequently
became the patron saint of Wales.  David died on March 1, 589 and that date is
reserved for his feast day.  On an interesting note, St. David is said to have been a
strict vegetarian and would sometimes stand in water up to his neck and recite
scripture as penance.

Having Saint Andrew as Scotland's patron saint gave the country several
advantages: because he was the brother of Saint Peter, founder of the Church, the
Scots were able to appeal to the Pope in 1320 (The Declaration of Arbroath) for
protection against the attempts of English kings to conquer the Scots
The patron Saint of Northern Ireland is St Patrick and his Saints day is celebrated
every year on March 17. St Patrick's Day is held on what is thought to be the date
on which St Patrick died, and it was originally also the celebration of the arrival of
Christianity to the island.

Unlike David, Andrew is the first saint in this article who wasn’t from the country
he patronizes.  Andrew, along with his brother Simon Peter, was a fisherman who
gave up his livelihood to become one of Jesus Christ’s original twelve disciples. 
Following Christ’s death, Andrew traveled far spreading the word of Christ and
died in Patras, executed on an X-shaped cross (now known as St. Andrew’s Cross)
because he felt he was not worthy to die in the same manner as Jesus.  Legend has
that his travels brought him as far as Scotland, where he founded a church at Fife. 
His feast day has been celebrated in Scotland as far back as 1000 AD, and he
became the patron saint of Scotland in 1320 with the Declaration of Arbroath when
the country announced its independence.

Perhaps the most legendary figure among Great Britain’s patron saints, Saint
George is the one on this list about whom we know the least.  It is believed he was
once a high-ranking Roman soldier in the 4th Century and the Emperor Diocletian
tortured him in an attempt to get George to renounce his Christian faith.  George’s
resiliency and the strength of his faith led to stories of his courage spreading
throughout the Christian world, including the legend of him fighting a dragon
(dragons also represented Satan in serpent form during the Middle Ages).  Despite
never having visited England, English Crusaders began to evoke his name, and
King Edward III made him the patron saint of England in 1350 when Edward
founded the Order of the Garter.
IRELAND

Arguably the most famous amongst the four, St. Patrick’s celebrity is owed in part
to his feast day being as much a representation of all things Irish as it is his
ministry to the island of Ireland.  Patrick grew up in lowland Scotland or possibly
Wales, the son of a Roman officer and deacon.  Young Patrick had little interest in
Christianity until he was kidnapped at the age of sixteen and sold into slavery in
Ireland.  He considered these events a punishment from God for his lack of faith
and became increasingly more religious.  Patrick eventually had a vision that aided
in his escape back to Britain and after studying to become a priest, had another
vision that led him back to Ireland as a missionary.  For twenty years he traveled
throughout the island baptizing believers and constructing churches and
monasteries.  Several legends sprung up about Patrick in the wake of his death
including that his walking stick transformed into a living tree and that he banished
all snakes from Ireland.  While not the first missionary to Ireland, he was by far the
most successful and as a result became the country’s patron saint.
 

8. English speaking countries: the USA.

Great Britain, USA, Canada, Australia and New Zealand are English speaking
countries. They are situated in different parts of the world and differ in many ways.
The nature of these countries, their weather and climate and way of life of their
people differ. Each coutry has it's own history customs, traditions, its own national
holidays. But they all have a common language. English, the language of the
people who left England to make their names in new countries. 

The USA comprise fifty states and a federal district. The country is situated mostly
in central North America, where its forty-eight contiguous states and Washington,
D.C., the capital district, lie between the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans, bordered by
Canada to the north and Mexico to the south. 
The capital of the United States is Washington, D.C., commonly referred to as
Washington, the District, or simply D.C. The city shares its name with the U.S.
state of Washington on the country's Pacific coast. 

The United States is a multicultural nation, home to a wide variety of ethnic

groups, traditions, and values. Aside from the now small Native American and
Native Hawaiian populations, nearly all Americans or their ancestors immigrated
within the past five centuries. The culture held in common by most Americans is a
Western culture largely derived from the traditions of European immigrants with
influences from many other sources, such as traditions brought by slaves from
Africa.

English is the national language. In 2006, about 224 million, or 80% of the
population aged five years and older, spoke only English at home. Spanish, spoken
by 12% of the population at home, is the second most common language and the
most widely taught second language. In Hawaii, both Hawaiian and English are
official languages. Louisiana has laws providing for the use of both English and
French.
Religion
The United States is a constitutional republic and representative democracy. The
government is regulated by a system of checks and balances defined by the U.S.
Constitution, which serves as the country's supreme legal document. In the
American federalist system, citizens are usually subject to three levels of
government, federal, state, and local. The federal government is composed of three
branches: the Legislative (the bicameral Congress, made up of the Senate and the
House of Representatives), the Executive (the president) and the Judicial (the
Supreme Court and lower federal courts). The United States has operated under a
two-party system for most of its history. The major parties are the Democratic
Party and the Republican Party. The Democrat Barack Obama is currently the 44th
U.S. president.

Коротко;

The United States of America is considered to be a country of unlimited

opportunities. Millions of people have arrived there to fulfill their American
dream. Some of them dream to become Hollywood actors, others have a wish to
live in cozy houses with white fences. Anyway, the USA attracts with its spirit of
freedom and democracy. But what is real America really like?
Since the USA is one of the largest countries in the world, it’s very diverse.
America is divided into 50 states and each of them has its own star on the
American flag. Each state has its own government and even its own laws which
differ from state to state. The capital of the USA is Washington where the White
House is situated. Other big cities are New York, Chicago, Los Angeles and San
Francisco. They are big financial and cultural centers. The interesting fact is that
it borders only with two countries, Canada and Mexico, but it’s washed by two
oceans, Atlantic and Pacific and is famous for its beautiful beaches in California.
The country is rich with different natural resources such as coal, natural gas, gold
and silver. It has strong economical system and highly developed industry and
agriculture.
The national symbol of the USA is the Statue of Liberty. It accumulates the spirit
of democracy and freedom. The Statue is located on an island in New York and it
was the first thing that people saw arriving to America on the ferry.
Talking about America, it’s impossible not to mention Hollywood. It is a region
in Los Angeles which is the center of American and world movie making
industry. It is famous for its movie studios and locations as well as Hollywood
Walk of Fame. The stars on this Walk are given as an award to the people for
their contribute to the entertainment industry.
In my opinion America is just amazing. I admire its culture and the spirit. I have
never been to the USA, but I’m looking forward to going there and seeing
everything with my own eyes.

9. English speaking countries: Canada.

Canada is one of the most advanced countries in the world and here we will
upgrade its economy and constitution and all the important information about
Canada. All of this information will be found here in Canada essay.
Canada
The State of Canada is located in the northern part of the North American
continent.It is a federal state with a representative democratic and constitutional
monarchy, Where Queen Elizabeth II heads the state.
Canada is the second largest country in the world in terms of area, with a total area
of about 9984670 km 2, While the population according to the statistics in 2006
about 31612897 people. Canada extends from the Atlantic Ocean eastward to the
Pacific Ocean, and on the north side is the Arctic Ocean.
English and French are the official languages of the country.Canada is one of the
most advanced countries in the world,  Canada is a member in the Group of Seven
Industrial Countries , the Group of 20,  The Organization for Economic
Cooperation and Development, the Organization of American States and APEC.
The State of Canada is a large part of the North American continent, sharing the
southern border with the United States and also sharing the Northwest Frontier
with the State of Alaska. The State of Canada is located between latitudes 41 ° C
and 84 ° N and longitudes 52 ° W.
Canada consists of eight large forests, the most famous of which are the vast
northern forests. It contains a large number of lakes and a large stock of fresh
water in the world.
 Canada is also a geologically active country, with active earthquakes and
volcanoes , most notably the volcano in the Tesikas cone in 1775 that killed 2,000
people.
Temperatures vary in Canada from one location to another, with coastal and inland
provinces dominating a continental climate,  The land-locked areas are covered by
snow for nearly six months.

10. English speaking countries: Australia.

Australia, the smallest continent and one of the largest countries on Earth, lying
between the Pacific and Indian oceans in the Southern Hemisphere. Australia’s
capital is Canberra, located in the southeast between the larger and more important
economic and cultural centres of Sydney and Melbourne.
The Australian mainland extends from west to east for nearly 2,500 miles (4,000
km) and from Cape York Peninsula in the northeast to Wilsons Promontory in the
southeast for nearly 2,000 miles (3,200 km). To the south, Australian jurisdiction
extends a further 310 miles (500 km) to the southern extremity of the island of
Tasmania, and in the north it extends to the southern shores of Papua New Guinea.
Australia is separated from Indonesia to the northwest by the Timor and Arafura
seas, from Papua New Guinea to the northeast by the Coral Sea and the Torres
Strait, from the Coral Sea Islands Territory by the Great Barrier Reef, from New
Zealand to the southeast by the Tasman Sea, and from Antarctica in the far south
by the Indian Ocean.
Australia has been called “the Oldest Continent,” “the Last of Lands,” and “the
Last Frontier.” Those descriptions typify the world’s fascination with Australia,
but they are somewhat unsatisfactory. In simple physical terms, the age of much of
the continent is certainly impressive—most of the rocks providing the foundation
of Australian landforms were formed during Precambrian and Paleozoic time
(some 4.6 billion to 252 million years ago)—but the ages of the cores of all the
continents are approximately the same. On the other hand, whereas the landscape
history of extensive areas in Europe and North America has been profoundly
influenced by events and processes that occurred since late in the last Ice Age—
roughly the past 25,000 years—in Australia scientists use a more extensive
timescale that takes into account the great antiquity of the continent’s landscape.
The most striking characteristics of the vast country are its global isolation, its low
relief, and the aridity of much of its surface. If, like the English novelist D.H.
Lawrence, visitors from the Northern Hemisphere are at first overwhelmed by “the
vast, uninhabited land and by the grey charred bush…so phantom-like, so ghostly,
with its tall, pale trees and many dead trees, like corpses,” they should remember
that to Australians the bush—that sparsely populated Inland or Outback beyond the
Great Dividing Range of mountains running along the Pacific coast and separating
it from the cities in the east—is familiar and evokes nostalgia. It still retains some
of the mystical quality it had for the first explorers searching for inland seas and
great rivers, and it remains a symbol of Australia’s strength and independence; the
Outback poem by A.B. (“Banjo”) Paterson, “Waltzing Matilda,” is the unofficial
national anthem of Australia known the world over.
(там на сайте очень много инфы,но по ссылкам можно переходить по разным
запросам,кароч лучше загляните сюда чтобы выцепить ту инфу,что нужна)
https://www.britannica.com/place/Australia  

11. English speaking countries: New Zealand.

New Zealand, Maori Aotearoa, island country in the South Pacific Ocean, the
southwesternmost part of Polynesia. New Zealand is a remote land—one of the last
sizable territories suitable for habitation to be populated and settled—and lies more
than 1,000 miles (1,600 km) southeast of Australia, its nearest neighbour. The
country comprises two main islands—the North and South islands—and a number
of small islands, some of them hundreds of miles from the main group. The capital
city is Wellington and the largest urban area Auckland; both are located on the
North Island. New Zealand administers the South Pacific island group of Tokelau
and claims a section of the Antarctic continent. Niue and the Cook Islands are self-
governing states in free association with New Zealand.

New Zealand is a land of great contrasts and diversity. Active volcanoes,

spectacular caves, deep glacier lakes, verdant valleys, dazzling fjords, long sandy
beaches, and the spectacular snowcapped peaks of the Southern Alps on the South
Island—all contribute to New Zealand’s scenic beauty. New Zealand also has a
unique array of vegetation and animal life, much of which developed during the
country’s prolonged isolation. It is the sole home, for example, of the long-beaked,
flightless kiwi, the ubiquitous nickname for New Zealanders.
New Zealand is predominantly an English-speaking country, though English,
Maori, and New Zealand Sign Language are official languages. Virtually all Maori
speak English, and about one-fourth of them also speak Maori. The Maori
language is taught at a number of schools. Other non-English languages spoken by
significant numbers of people are Samoan, Hindi, and Mandarin Chinese.

(ссылОчка для того чтобы найти больше инфы если надо)

https://www.britannica.com/place/New-Zealand/People 

12. History of Great Britain: prehistory, the Roman period, two ways of Germanic
invasion.

Prehistory

 Two thousand years ago there was an Iron Age Celtic culture throughout the
British Isles. It seems that the Celts, who had been arriving from Europe from the
eighth century BC onwards, intermingled with the people who were already there.
We know that religious sites that had been built long before the arrival of the Celts
continued to be used in the Celtic period. For people in Britain today, the chief
significance of the prehistoric period (for which no written records exist) is its
sense of mystery. This sense finds its focus most easily in the astonishing
monumental architecture of this period, the remains of which exist throughout the
country. Wiltshire, in southwestern England, has two spectacular examples:
Silbury Hill, the largest burial mound in Europe, and Stonehenge. Such places
have a special importance for anyone interested in the cultural and religious
practices of prehistoric Britain. We know very little about these practices, but there
are some organizations today (for example, the Order of Bards, Ovates and Druids
— a small group of eccentric intellectuals and mystics) who base their beliefs on
them.

The Roman Period (43-410) The Roman province of Britannia covered most of
presentday England and Wales. The Romans imposed their own way of life and
culture, making use of the existing Celtic aristocracy to govern and encouraging
this ruling class to adopt Roman dress and the Roman language (Latin). They
exerted an influence, without actually governing there, over only the southern part
of Scotland. It was during this time that a Celtic tribe called the Scots migrated
from Ireland to Scotland, where they became allies of the Piets (another Celtic
tribe) and opponents of the Romans. This division of the Celts into those who
experienced direct Roman rule (the Britons in England and Wales) and those who
did not (the Gaels in Ireland and Scotland) may help to explain the development of
two distinct branches of the Celtic group of languages.

The Germanic invasions (410—1066)

One reason why Roman Britannia disappeared so quickly is probably that its
influence was largely confined to the towns. In the countryside, where most people
lived, farming methods had remained unchanged and Celtic speech continued to be
dominant. The Roman occupation had been a matter of colonial control rather than
largescale settlement. But, during the fifth century, a number of tribes from the
northwestern European mainland invaded and set e in large numbers. Two of these
tribes were the Angles and the Saxons. These AngloSaxons soon had the southeast
of the country in their grasp. In the west of the country their advance was
temporarily halted by an army of (Celtic) Britons under the command of the
legendary King Arthur. Nevertheless, by the end of the sixth century, they and
their way of life predominated in nearly all of England and in parts of southern
Scotland. The Celtic Britons were either Saxonized or driven westwards, where
their culture and language survived in southwest Scotland, Wales and Cornwall.

The Germanic invasions: King Alfred

King Alfred was not only an able warrior but also a dedicated scholar and a wise
ruler. He is known as ‘Alfred the Great’ the only monarch in English history to be
given this title. He is also popularly known for the story of the burning of the
cakes. 
13. The medieval England: the origins of Parliament.

The Norman invasion of England in 1066 brought Britain into the mainstream of
western European culture. Unlike the Germanic invasions, the Norman invasion
was small- scale. And the Norman soldiers who had been part of the invading army
were given the ownership of land - and of the people living on it. A strict feudal
system was imposed. The peasants were the English-speaking Saxons and The
lords and the barons were the French-speaking Normans. This was the beginning
of the English class system.

   There are the words for the living animals (e.g. cow, pig, sheep), which have
their origins in Anglo-Saxon, and the words for the meat from the animals (e.g.
beef, pork, mutton), which have their origins in the French language that the
Normans brought to England. Only the Normans normally ate meat; the poor
Anglo-Saxon peasants did not!

   Because of the strong system of government that was easily the most powerful
political force in the British Isles the authority of the English monarch gradually
extended to other parts of these islands in the next 250 years. By the end of the
thirteenth century, a large part of eastern Ireland was controlled by AngloNorman
lords in the name of English king and the whole of Wales was under his direct rule.
Scotland managed to remain politically independent in the medieval period. Two
hundred and fifty years after the Norman Conquest, it was a Germanic language
(Middle English) and not the Norman (French) language which had become the
dominant one in all classes of society in England. Furthermore, it was the Anglo-
Saxon concept of common law, and not Roman law, which formed the basis of the
legal system.

   Despite English rule, northern and central Wales was never settled in great
numbers by Saxon or Norman. As a result the (Celtic) Welsh language and culture
remained strong. The Anglo-Norman lords of eastern Ireland remained loyal to the
English king but, despite laws to the contrary, mostly adopted the Gaelic language
and customs. The political independence of Scotland did not prevent a gradual
switch to English language and customs in the lowland (southern) part of the
country. By the end of this period a cultural split had developed between the
lowlands, where the way of life and language was similar to that in England, and
the highlands, where (Celtic) Gaelic culture and language prevailed - and where,
because of the mountainous landscape, the authority of the king was hard to
enforce. It was in this period that Parliament began its gradual evolution into the
democratic body which it is today.
14. The 16th century: Tudor England, the split of Parliament.
In Tudor times most important decisions concerning government were made by the
king or queen and a small group of advisers called the Privy Council. However,
before these decisions became law, they had to be passed by Parliament.
Parliament was the House of Lords and the House of Commons. The House of
Lords was made up of about sixty Bishops, Dukes, Earls and Barons. It was
unusual for members of the House of Lords to criticise the king's policies. If they
did so, they were in danger of being stripped of their titles.
Members of the House of Commons were more independent as they were
sometimes elected by the people who lived in the area they represented. However,
very few people had the vote and in many cases the largest landowner in the area
decided who went to Parliament.

15. The medieval England: Battle of Hastings, language and class, the War of
Roses, Magna Carta.
Battle of Hastings —1066 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Hastings 

This is the most famous date in English history. On 14 October 1066 an invading
army from Normandy defeated the English at the Battle of Hastings.

The battle was close and extremely bloody. At the end of it, most of the best
warriors in England were dead, including their leader, King Harold. As a result of
this single battle, the Norman leader, Duke William of Normandy, became king of
the whole of England. He is known in popular history as ‘William the Conqueror’.

The date is remembered for being the last time that England was successfully
invaded.

Language and Class

https://www.nottingham.ac.uk/manuscriptsandspecialcollections/researchguidance/
medievaldocuments/languages.aspx 

The existence of two words for the larger farm animals in modern English is a
result of the class divisions established by the Norman conquest. There are the
words for the living animals (e.g. cow, pig, sheep), which have their origins in
Anglo-Saxon, and the words for the meat from the animals (e.g. beef, pork,
mutton), which have their origins in the French language that the Normans brought
to England. Only the Normans normally ate meat; the poor Anglo-Saxon peasants
did not.

Two hundred and fifty years after the Norman Conquest, it was a Germanic
language (Middle English) and not the Norman (French) language which had
become the dominant one in all classes of society in England. Furthermore, it was
the Anglo-Saxon concept of common law, and not Roman law, which formed the
basis of the legal system.

Despite English rule, northern and central Wales was never settled in great
numbers by Saxon or Norman. As a result the (Celtic) Welsh language and culture
remained strong. Eisteddfods, national festivals of Welsh song and poetry,
continued throughout the medieval period and still take place today. The Anglo-
Norman lords of eastern Ireland remained loyal to the English king but, despite
laws to the contrary, mostly adopted the Gaelic language and customs. The
political independence of Scotland did not prevent a gradual switch to English
language and customs in the lowland (southern) part of the country. First, the
Anglo- Saxon element here was strengthened by the arrival of many Saxon
aristocrats fleeing the Norman conquest of England. Second, the Celtic kings saw
that the adoption of an AngloNorman style of government would strengthen royal
power. By the end of this period a cultural split had developed between the
lowlands, where the way of life and language was similar to that in England, and
the highlands, where (Celtic) Gaelic culture and language prevailed - and where,
because of the mountainous landscape, the authority of the king was hard to
enforce. It was in this period that Parliament began its gradual evolution into the
democratic body which it is today. The word ‘parliament’, which comes from the
French word parler (to speak), was first used in England in the thirteenth century to
describe an assembly of nobles called together by the king. In 1295, the Model
Parliament set the pattern for the future by including elected representatives from
urban and rural areas.

The Wars of the Roses https://www.britannica.com/event/Wars-of-the-Roses 

During the fifteenth century the throne of England was claimed by representatives
of two rival groups. The power of the greatest nobles, who had their own private
armies, meant that constant challenges to the position of the monarch were
possible. The Lancastrians, whose symbol was a red rose, supported the
descendants of the Duke of Lancaster, and the Yorkists, whose symbol was a white
rose, supported the descendants of the Duke of York. The struggle for power led to
the ‘Wars of the Roses’ between 1455 and 1485. They ended when Henry VII
defeated and killed Richard III at the Battle of Bosworth Field and were followed
by an era of stability and strong government which was welcomed by those
weakened and impoverished by decades of war.

1215 An alliance of aristocracy, Church and merchants force King John to agree to
the Magna Carta (Great Charter), a document in which the king agrees to follow
certain rules of government. In fact, neither John nor his successors entirely
followed them, but Magna Carta is remembered as the first time a monarch agreed
in writing to abide by formal procedures.

 
16. The medieval England: historical event that caused the naming of the
monarch’s eldest son – the Prince of Wales.
England in the Middle Ages concerns the history of England during the medieval period, from the
end of the 5th century through to the start of the Early Modern period in 1485. When England
emerged from the collapse of the Roman Empire, the economy was in tatters and many of the towns
abandoned. After several centuries of Germanic immigration, new identities and cultures began to
emerge, developing into kingdoms that competed for power. A rich artistic culture flourished under
the Anglo-Saxons, producing epic poems such as Beowulf and sophisticated metalwork. The Anglo-
Saxons converted to Christianity in the 7th century and a network of monasteries and convents were
built across England. In the 8th and 9th centuries England faced fierce Viking attacks, and the
fighting lasted for many decades, eventually establishing Wessex as the most powerful kingdom and
promoting the growth of an English identity. Despite repeated crises of succession and
a Danish seizure of power at the start of the 11th century, it can also be argued that by the 1060s
England was a powerful, centralised state with a strong military and successful economy.
The Norman invasion of England in 1066 led to the defeat and replacement of the Anglo-Saxon elite
with Norman and French nobles and their supporters. William the Conqueror and his successors
took over the existing state system, repressing local revolts and controlling the population through a
network of castles. The new rulers introduced a feudal approach to governing England, eradicating
the practice of slavery, but creating a much wider body of unfree labourers called serfs. The position
of women in society changed as laws regarding land and lordship shifted. England's population more
than doubled during the 12th and 13th centuries, fueling an expansion of the towns, cities, and trade,
helped by warmer temperatures across Northern Europe. A new wave of monasteries and friaries
was established while ecclesiastical reforms led to tensions between successive kings
and archbishops. Despite developments in England's governance and legal system, infighting
between the Anglo-Norman elite resulted in multiple civil wars and the loss of Normandy.
The 14th century in England saw the Great Famine and the Black Death, catastrophic events that
killed around half of England's population, throwing the economy into chaos, and undermining the
old political order. Social unrest followed, resulting in the Peasants' Revolt of 1381, while the
changes in the economy resulted in the emergence of a new class of gentry, and the nobility began
to exercise power through a system termed bastard feudalism. Nearly 1,500 villages were
deserted by their inhabitants and many men and women sought new opportunities in the towns and
cities. New technologies were introduced, and England produced some of the great medieval
philosophers and natural scientists. English kings in the 14th and 15th centuries laid claim to
the French throne, resulting in the Hundred Years' War. At times England enjoyed huge military
success, with the economy buoyed by profits from the international wool and cloth trade, but by 1450
the country was in crisis, facing military failure in France and an ongoing recession. More social
unrest broke out, followed by the Wars of the Roses, fought between rival factions of the English
nobility. Henry VII's victory in 1485 conventionally marks the end of the Middle Ages in England and
the start of the Early Modern period.

prince of Wales, title reserved exclusively for the heir apparent to the

British throne. It dates from 1301, when King Edward I, after his conquest
of Wales and execution (1283) of David III, the last native prince of Wales,
gave the title to his son, the future Edward II. Since that time most, but not all,
of the eldest sons of English sovereigns have been given the title. It is
specifically granted by the sovereign, and in due course the recipient is
invested as prince of Wales. The title ceases to exist when a prince of Wales
becomes king, until a monarch bestows it upon a son.
17. The 17th century: the conflict between king and Parliament, the civil war.
The English Civil Wars were a catastrophic series of conflicts that took place in the middle of the
17th century. Fought between those loyal to the king, Charles I, and those loyal to Parliament,
the wars divided the country at all levels of society. At the heart of the conflict were fundamental
questions about power and religion.

The legacy of the Civil Wars can be seen not only in our political landscape, but in the historic
environment. Many of the ruined castles we see today sustained their damage during the war.
Learn more about the Civil Wars, the people who lived through them, and how the conflict
unfolded at English Heritage sites.
The English Civil Wars comprised three wars, which were fought between Charles I and
Parliament between 1642 and 1651.
The wars were part of a wider conflict involving Wales, Scotland and Ireland, known as the
Wars of the Three Kingdoms.
The human cost of the wars was devastating. Up to 200,000 people lost their lives, or 4.5% of
the population. This was as great a loss, proportionally, as during the First World War.
The causes of the wars were complex and many-layered. At the centre of the conflict were
disagreements about religion, and discontent over the king’s use of power and his economic
policies.
In 1649, the victorious Parliamentarians sentenced Charles I to death. His execution resulted in
the only period of republican rule in British history, during which military leader Oliver
Cromwell ruled as Lord Protector of the Commonwealth. This period is known as the
Interregnum, and lasted for 11 years until 1660 when Charles’s son, Charles II, was restored to
the throne.
The Civil Wars saw the beginning of the modern British Army tradition with the creation of the
New Model Army – the country’s first national army, comprised of trained, professional
soldiers.
Many castles were besieged during the wars, resulting in severe damage. Others were
deliberately destroyed, or ‘slighted’, after the fighting. The ruinous state of many of England’s
castles that we see today can be traced back to these events.

18. The 17th century: the Gunpowder Plot.

The Gunpowder Plot of 1605, in earlier centuries often called the Gunpowder Treason Plot or
the Jesuit Treason (Змова про порохову зраду або єзуїтська зрада), was a failed
assassination attempt against King James I by a group of provincial English Catholics led by Robert
Catesby who sought to restore the Catholic monarchy to England after decades of persecution
against Catholics.
The plan was to blow up the House of Lords during the State Opening of Parliament on 5 November
1605,[a] as the prelude to a popular revolt in the Midlands during which James's nine-year-old
daughter, Elizabeth, was to be installed as the Catholic head of state. Catesby may have embarked
on the scheme after hopes of securing greater religious tolerance under King James had faded,
leaving many English Catholics disappointed. His fellow traitors were John and Christopher
Wright, Robert and Thomas Wintour, Thomas Percy, Guy Fawkes, Robert Keyes, Thomas
Bates, John Grant, Ambrose Rookwood, Sir Everard Digby and Francis Tresham. Fawkes, who had
10 years of military experience fighting in the Spanish Netherlands in the failed suppression of
the Dutch Revolt, was given charge of the explosives.
The plot was revealed to the authorities in an anonymous letter sent to William Parker, 4th Baron
Monteagle, on 26 October 1605. During a search of the House of Lords in the evening on 4
November 1605, Fawkes was discovered guarding 36 barrels of gunpowder—enough to reduce the
House of Lords to rubble—and arrested. Most of the conspirators fled from London as they learned
that the plot had been discovered, trying to enlist support along the way. Several made a stand
against the pursuing Sheriff of Worcester and his men at Holbeche House; in the ensuing battle
Catesby was one of those shot and killed. At their trial on 27 January 1606 eight of the survivors,
including Fawkes, were convicted and sentenced to be hanged, drawn and quartered.
Details of the assassination attempt were allegedly known by the principal Jesuit of England,
Father Henry Garnet. Although he was convicted of treason and sentenced to death, doubt has been
cast on how much he really knew of the plot. As its existence was revealed to him
through confession, Garnet was prevented from informing the authorities by the absolute
confidentiality of the confessional. Although anti-Catholic legislation was introduced soon after the
discovery of the plot, many important and loyal Catholics retained high office during King James I's
reign. The thwarting of the Gunpowder Plot was commemorated for many years afterwards by
special sermons and other public events such as the ringing of church bells, which evolved into the
British variant of Bonfire Night of today.

19. The United Kingdom: the industrial revolution.

The Industrial Revolution was the transition to new manufacturing processes in Great
Britain, continental Europe, and the United States, in the period from about 1760 to sometime
between 1820 and 1840.[1] This transition included going from hand production
methods to machines, new chemical manufacturing and iron production processes, the increasing
use of steam power and water power, the development of machine tools and the rise of
the mechanized factory system. Output greatly increased, and a result was an unprecedented rise in
population and in the rate of population growth.
Textiles were the dominant industry of the Industrial Revolution in terms of employment, value of
output and capital invested. The textile industry was also the first to use modern production
methods.[2]: 40 
The Industrial Revolution began in Great Britain, and many of the technological and architectural
innovations were of British origin.[3][4] By the mid-18th century, Britain was the world's leading
commercial nation,[5] controlling a global trading empire with colonies in North America and the
Caribbean. Britain had major military and political hegemony on the Indian subcontinent; particularly
with the proto-industrialised Mughal Bengal, through the activities of the East India Company.[6][7][8]
[9]
 The development of trade and the rise of business were among the major causes of the Industrial
Revolution.[2]: 15 
The Industrial Revolution marked a major turning point in history. Comparable only to
humanity's adoption of agriculture with respect to material advancement,[10] the Industrial Revolution
influenced in some way almost every aspect of daily life. In particular, average income and
population began to exhibit unprecedented sustained growth. Some economists have said the most
important effect of the Industrial Revolution was that the standard of living for the general population
in the western world began to increase consistently for the first time in history, although others have
said that it did not begin to meaningfully improve until the late 19th and 20th centuries.[11][12][13]
GDP per capita was broadly stable before the Industrial Revolution and the emergence of the
modern capitalist economy,[14] while the Industrial Revolution began an era of per-capita economic
growth in capitalist economies.[15] Economic historians are in agreement that the onset of the
Industrial Revolution is the most important event in the history of humanity since
the domestication of animals and plants.[16]
The precise start and end of the Industrial Revolution is still debated among historians, as is the
pace of economic and social changes.[17][18][19][20] Eric Hobsbawm held that the Industrial Revolution
began in Britain in the 1780s and was not fully felt until the 1830s or 1840s,[17] while T. S. Ashton held
that it occurred roughly between 1760 and 1830.[18] Rapid industrialization first began in Britain,
starting with mechanized spinning in the 1780s,[21] with high rates of growth in steam power and iron
production occurring after 1800. Mechanized textile production spread from Great Britain to
continental Europe and the United States in the early 19th century, with important centres of textiles,
iron and coal emerging in Belgium and the United States and later textiles in France.[2]
An economic recession occurred from the late 1830s to the early 1840s when the adoption of the
Industrial Revolution's early innovations, such as mechanized spinning and weaving, slowed and
their markets matured. Innovations developed late in the period, such as the increasing adoption of
locomotives, steamboats and steamships and hot blast iron smelting. New technologies, such as
the electrical telegraph, widely introduced in the 1840s and 1850s, were not powerful enough to
drive high rates of growth. Rapid economic growth began to occur after 1870, springing from a new
group of innovations in what has been called the Second Industrial Revolution. These innovations
included new steel making processes, mass-production, assembly lines, electrical grid systems, the
large-scale manufacture of machine tools, and the use of increasingly advanced machinery in
steam-powered factories.[2][22][23][24]

20. Victorian Britain.

The 19th century was one of rapid development and change, far swifter than in previous
centuries. During this period England changed from a rural, agricultural country to an urban,
industrialised one. This involved massive dislocation and radically altered the nature of
society. It took many years for both government and people to adjust to the new conditions.

Strictly speaking, the Victorian era began in 1837 and ended with Queen Victoria's death in
1901, but the period can be stretched to include the years both before and after these dates,
roughly from the Napoleonic Wars until the outbreak of World War I in 1914.

The Industrial Revolution

This was made up of technological, scientific and industrial innovations (e.g. mass
production, steam engines, railways, sewing machines, gas and electric light, the telegraph)
that led to an enormous expansion of production, particularly through the factory system.
There were huge social costs: the dehumanisation of work, child labour, pollution, and the
growth of cities where poverty, filth and disease flourished. Child labour and poverty were
also a feature of rural life, where farm work involved long hours, very low pay and exposure
to all weathers.

Population growth and migration

Between 1801 and 1871 alone the population of the UK doubled. Migration in both
directions was a feature of Victorian life. Many Britons left the UK for North America or the
colonies in search of a better life. The Irish poor formed a large number of these migrants,
especially after the Irish potato famine in 1845: the Irish moved in large numbers to England
and Scotland, as well as abroad. Within the UK as a whole, people moved from the
countryside into the new industrial cities to find work. Migrants from across the world also
settled in Britain, notably Jews from Europe and Russia.

Social reforms
As a result of early campaigns by people such as Michael Sadler and the Earl of Shaftesbury,
and reports by parliamentary commissions, legislation protecting child and adult workers
began to be enacted. Important reforms included legislation on child labour, safety in mines
and factories, public health, the end of slavery in the British Empire, and education (by 1880
education was compulsory for all children up to the age of 10). There was also prison reform
and the establishment of the police.

The rise of the middle classes

Society was hierarchical, yet there was much social and geographical mobility. Self-made
entrepreneurs used their new wealth to rise in society, building large houses, educating their
children and employing domestic servants (by the 1880s 1.25 million people were employed
in domestic service – more than in any other work category).

The growth of democracy

The franchise was gradually extended to the working classes, until by 1918 there was
universal suffrage for men. The fight for votes for women was in full swing, but it was not
until 1930 that women achieved the same voting rights as men. 
Expansion of Empire
Before the start of the 19th century Britain had already lost her American Empire, and was
acquiring another in India. Her accumulation of additional territory across the globe
continued steadily. The Great Exhibition of 1851 displayed the wonders of both industry and
Empire. Tied up with the Empire were Britain's trading dominance, naval and military
strength, and competition for territory against other European nations. By the end of
Victoria's reign imperialists could boast that the sun never set upon the British Empire.

Idealisation of the family

The ideal of family – respectable and loving – dominated the Victorian period. The cult of
the home grew steadily, with Queen Victoria and her family providing a role model for the
nation. Women were expected to stay at home and bring up the family, but the reality for
many poor families was that women had to work; and many single middle-class women also
had to work.

The growth of leisure pursuits

The 19th century saw the beginning of mass leisure: seaside holidays, religious activities,
and the development of public parks, museums, libraries, spectator sports, theatres and music
halls.

For this period we have the voices of those not often heard: the poor, women and children,
giving us a real insight into their thoughts and daily lives. The pictures and words of children
working in mines and factories, recorded by parliamentary commissioners, are particularly
evocative – see the lessons on Lotte (Down the mine) and child labour in factories (Textile
mills).

Books such as Flora Thompson's Lark Rise to Candleford and Mrs Beetons Household
Management are treasure troves of information about domestic work and life that children
can relate to (see for instance Blenheim Square). Henry Mayhew's graphic 1851 descriptions
of London labour and the London poor illuminate the lives led by destitute people in
Victorian cities.

Indeed, the whole period abounds in rich sources: buildings, canals, railways, documents
(including statistics, censuses, trade directories, parish registers, evidence to parliamentary
commissions), pictures, objects and music.

Films and television series of novels by Charles Dickens convey a particularly vivid sense of
life at many levels of Victorian society. Good educational videos include Yorkshire
Television's 'The way we used to live', and the BBC's 'Landmarks' series, both made in the
early 1990s. There are also many internet sites covering all aspects of the Victorian era.

The period is particularly suited to local history studies, and your local studies library should
hold a range of sources for studying events and developments in your area during Victorian
times (such as school life through log books, shops and occupations through trade and street
directories, who lived in the area through the census, a visit by Queen Victoria, mining
disasters). For examples of local Victorian studies, see the Fulwell windmill and Mining
disasters lessons; also Victorian school buildings and Reading trade directories teaching
method exemplars.
21. History of the United Kingdom. The 19th-20th century: important dates.
The nineteenth century Not long before this century began, Britain had lost its
most important American colonies in a war of independence. When the century
began, the country was locked in a war with France, during which an invasion by a
French army was a real possibility. Soon after the end of the century, Britain
controlled the biggest empire the world had ever seen. One section of this empire
was Ireland. During this century it was, in fact, part of the UK itself, and it was
during this century that the British culture and way of life came to predominate in
Ireland. In the 1840s, the potato crop failed two years in a row and there was a
terrible famine. Millions of peasants, those with Irish Gaelic language and
customs, either died or emigrated. By the end of the century almost the whole of
the remaining population were using English as their first language. • The
nineteenth century Another part of the empire was made up of Canada, Australia
and New Zealand, where settlers from the British Isles formed the majority of the
population. These countries had complete internal self-government but recognized
the overall authority of the British government. Another was India, an enormous
country with a culture more ancient than Britain’s. Tens of thousands of British
civil servants and troops were used to govern it. At the head of this administration
was a viceroy (governor) whose position within the country was similar to the
monarch’s in Britain itself. Because India was so far away, and the journey from
Britain took so long, these British officials spent most of their working lives there
and so developed a distinctly Anglo-Indian way of life. They imposed British
institutions and methods of government on the country, and returned to Britain
when they retired. Large parts of Africa also belonged to the empire. Except for
South Africa, where there was some British settlement, most of Britain’s African
colonies started as trading bases on the coast, and were only incorporated into the
empire at the end of the century. • The nineteenth century As well as these areas
(Canada, Australia, New Zealand, India and Africa), the empire included numerous
smaller areas and islands. Some, such as those in the Caribbean, were the result of
earlier British settlement, but most were acquired because of their strategic
position along trading routes. A change in attitude in Britain towards colonization
during the nineteenth century gave new encouragement to the empire builders.
Previously, colonization had been seen as a matter of settlement, of commerce, or
of military strategy. The aim was simply to possess territory, but not necessarily to
govern it. By the end of the century, colonization was seen as a matter of destiny.
There was an enormous increase in wealth during the century, so that Britain
became the world’s foremost economic power. This, together with long years of
political stability unequalled anywhere else in Europe, gave the British a sense of
supreme confidence, even arrogance, about their culture and civilization. The
British came to see themselves as having a duty to spread this culture and
civilization around the world. The nineteenth century: The White Man’s Burden
Being the rulers of an empire was therefore a matter of moral obligation. It was, in
fact, known as ‘the white man’s burden’. Here are some lines from the poem of
this title by Rudyard Kipling (1865-1936), who is sometimes referred to as ‘the
poet of imperialism’. Take up the White Man's burden – Send forth the best ye
breed – Go, bind your sons to exile To serve your captives’ need; To wait in heavy
harness On fluttered folk and wild – Your new-caught, sullen peoples. Half-devil
and half-child. Other races, the poem says, are ‘wild’ and have a ‘need’ to be
civilized. The white man’s noble duty is to ‘serve’ in this role. This is not a quest
for mere power. The duty is bestowed by God, whom Kipling invokes in another
poem (Recessional) in a reference to the British empire in tropical lands; God of
our fathers, known of old. Lord of our far-flung battle-line, Beneath whose awful
hand we hold Dominion over palm and pine — The nineteenth century There were
great changes in social structure. Most people now lived in towns and cities. They
no longer depended on country landowners for their living but rather on the owners
of industries. These factory owners held the real power in the country, along with
the new and growing middle class of tradespeople. As they established their power,
so they established a set of values which emphasized hard work, thrift, religious
observance, family life, an awareness of one’s duty, absolute honesty in public life
and extreme respectability in sexual matters. This is the set of values which we
now call Victorian. Middle-class religious conviction, together with a conscious
belief that reform was better than revolution, allowed reforms in political and
public life to take place. Britain was gradually turning into some-thing resembling
a modem state. The nineteenth century There were not only political reforms, but
also reforms which recognized some human rights (as we now call them). Slavery
and the laws against people on the basis of religion were abolished, and laws were
made to protect workers from some of the worst forms of exploitation resulting
from the industrial mode of production. Public services such as the police force
were set up. Despite reform, the nature of the new industrial society forced many
people to live and work in very unpleasant conditions. Writers and intellectuals of
this period either protested against the horrors of this new style of life (as Dickens
did) or simply ignored it. Many, especially the Romantic poets, praised the
beauties of the countryside and the simplicity of country life. This was a new
development. In previous centuries the countryside had just existed, and it wasn’t
something to be discussed or admired. But from this time on, most British people
developed a sentimental attachment to the idea of the countryside. The nineteenth
century: Queen Victoria Queen Victoria reigned from 1837 to 1901. During her
reign, although the modem powerlessness of the monarch was confirmed (she was
often forced to accept as Prime Ministers people she personally disliked), she
herself became an increasingly popular symbol of Britain’s success in the world.
As a hard-working, religious mother of nine children, devoted to her husband,
Prince Albert, she was regarded as the personification of contemporary morals.
The idea that the monarch should set an example to the people in such matters was
unknown before this time and has created problems for the monarchy in the
twentieth century. Queen Victoria, Prince Albert, and their nine children,
photographed in 1857 The nineteenth century : Important Dates • 1800 The
separate Irish Parliament is closed and the United Kingdom of Great Britain and
Ireland is formed. • 1805 A British fleet under the command of Admiral Horatio
Nelson defeats Napoleon’s French fleet at the Battle of Trafalgar. Nelson’s
Column in Trafalgar Square in London commemorates this national hero, who died
during the battle. • 1829 Robert Peel, a government minister, organizes the first
modern police force. The police are still sometimes known today as ‘bobbies’.
(‘Bobby’ is a short form of the name ‘Robert’.) Catholics and non-Anglican
Protestants are given the right to hold government posts and become MPs. • 1833
The first law regulating factory working conditions is passed. (It set a limit on the
number of hours that children could work.) Slavery is made illegal throughout the
British Empire. • 1868 The TUC (Trades Union Congress) is formed. • 1870 Free
primary education (up to the age of eleven) is established. • 1886 After much
debate, an atheist is allowed to sit in the House of Commons. • 1893 The first
socialist, Keir Hardie, is elected to Parliament. He enters the House of Commons
for the first time wearing a cloth cap (which remained a symbol of the British
working man until the 1960s).

22. The United Kingdom. The church in modern life.

The Church of England (C of E) is a Christian church and also the established church of England.[2]
[3][4]
The archbishop of Canterbury is the most senior cleric, although the monarch is the supreme
governor. The Church of England is also the mother church of the international Anglican
Communion. It traces its history to the Christian church recorded as existing in the Roman province
of Britain by the 3rd-century, and to the 6th-century Gregorian mission to Kent led by Augustine of
Canterbury.[5][6][7]
Wales: Religion
Most Welsh people are Protestants. The Methodist and Anglican churches are the largest Protestant
churches in Wales. Others include the Baptist, Presbyterian, and United Reformed churches.
The Church of England became the official Welsh church in 1536. But by 1811, so many people had
joined the Methodist Church that it formally separated from the Church of England and became a
separate from denomination. The Welsh Church Act of 1914 declared that the Church of England was
no longer the official church of Wales. The act went into effect in 1920.Religion has traditionally been
important in Welsh life, but it has become less so since the mid-1900’s. However, the choral tradition it
fostered survives, notably with some famous male choirs.
Scotland: Religion
The Church of Scotland, a Presbyterian church, is the official church of Scotland. But the people may
worship as they choose. Many Scots are Baptists, Episcopalians, Methodists, Roman Catholics, or
members of Presbyterian churches other than the Church of Scotland.
The Church of Scotland has about 2 million members. The members elect about 1,250 ministers and
elders (officers) of the church to the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland, which meets once a
year. The assembly is often called the Voice of Scotland because it discusses national and world affairs
as well as church matters. The British monarch sometimes attends the assembly meeting.
Northern Ireland: Religion
About two-thirds of the people of Northern Ireland are Protestants. Most of the rest are Roman
Catholics The Church of Ireland and the Presbyterian Church are the largest Protestant churches.
The Church of Ireland belongs to the Anglican Communion, which also includes the Church of England
and the Episcopal Church in the United States.

23. The British in their private life.

Traditionally the British like to live independently in their own houses. No wonder
their favourite saying is "My home is my fortress". They do not like to live in flats. In
recent years the percentage of people who have their own houses has increased
greatly, and more than half of all families in the country live in homes built after 1945.
When you buy a house you do not need to have all the money to pay for it. You can
make a loan for the house and pay it out over a period of 20 or 25 years.

Basically people live in three types of houses, all depending on your income: in
terraced houses, and in detached or semi-detached houses.
The older type of housing is the terraced house. These houses, especially in old
industrial centres, were arranged in long rows or terraces all standing together and with
each house containing its own door, a front room and a back room on each of its two
floors, with perhaps a small room above the entrance hall.

The other type of house is the detached house standing on its own land and not
attached to another building. Such houses are generally more expensive to buy than
semi-detached houses, which are houses attached on one side only to another, usually
very similar house.

These houses have their tiny front and back gardens and offer the necessary privacy
and comfort which every Britisher wants to enjoy. Traditionally they have the dining-
room, the living-room for receiving guests and the kitchen on the ground floor, and the
bedrooms upstairs. The number of bedrooms, bathrooms and the size of the house
depends upon its price. Some houses have large gardens, especially in the countryside.
Now that most families have their own cars it isn't difficult to get to work in the industrial
centres, and so many people buy houses not only in the suburbs of cities, but also in
the countryside

in small old villages, where they can enjoy the fresh air and the quietness of rural life. Of
course, life in these small places is

quite different from life in big cities like London, Birmingham or Manchester. And it is not
depressing, as it may seem to some outside visitor from a big industrial centre.

Usually the local schools organize evening

classes not only for those adults who wish to

prepare for examinations leading to

professional qualifications. Many people

attend classes connected with their hobbies,

folk-dancing, dog training,

physical training, car maintenance,

archaeology, learning foreign languages, gardening and many, many others. Some are
most exciting as cave exploration, or handicraft work. With improving living standards
more and more people become involved in such activities.

The local churches too play an important role in organizing the life of rural
communities, helping the aged people. There are many youth clubs, some but not all of
them connected with churches which carry out different social activities. Great numbers
of people, especially women, spend much of their free time working together for charity,
making clothes or food, or collecting money for the benefit of the various types of people
who are in need due to age, or illness, or poor earnings. It is a wonderful sight to see
how much is collected and brought to the churches during the traditional autumn
harvest festival, or at Christmas. Some of this goad work is now co-ordinated with,
services provided by the local authorities.
The British people have the experience of good organization and they work in
various committees to achieve their aims in helping others. Much money is to be
collected, and for this purpose they organize different campaigns. For example, during
Easter week they may organize a ten miles' walk collecting money from the residents of
the rural community. They report in the local press how much is collected and to whom
every penny goes. These charity workers may stand in the streets with collecting boxes
into which passers-by put money, receiving in exchange little paper "flags" or "flowers"
to pin on their coats. Before 11th of November every year, which is known as
Remembrance Day when the dead of both world wars are remembered, you will see
thousands of people all over the country wearing paper poppy flowers on their coats.
Other events are organized such as "bazaars" or "sales of work" with speeches made
by people of social importance, such as mayors, bishops, members of parliament. In the

course of these activities people meet their friends and enjoy themselves by doing
good to the public.

Public libraries which are supported by the local authorities are very well developed,
and everywhere allow people to take books without any payment. The books are kept
on open shelves, and the librarians are very helpful to get books from other libraries
through the exchange system.

One of the most popular hobbies of the British is gardening, and the people take
pride in their gardens. The front gardens may be very small, but the patch of grass is
very neatly cut, with flowers and bushes here and there. Every gardener has his or her
secrets of decorating the gardens. In every place they have their competitions for the
best garden, and every house owner will be very proud to win the cup. Flower shows
and vegetable shows, with prizes for the best exhibits, are very popular. For example,
the Chelsea Flower Show is the most important flower show in Britain; it is held
in May every year in the grounds of Chelsea Hospital (London) and is attended by
the Queen.

Dancing and pop music festivals are very popular in the country attracting
thousands of young people. For example, the Glastonbury Pop Festival held annually in
summer in Somerset (south-west England) is visited by youngsters from all over the
country. It continues for more than a week and the police have much work to do to keep
order.

A very British reality is the fish and chip shop, also known as the chippy, where it is
possible to buy a piece of fried fish and chipped potatoes known in many restaurants as
French fries. The dish may be taken away, wrapped in paper, or if tables are provided,
to be eaten in the shop. Some young people buy the chips alone so as to save money.
American influence is becoming more widespread and the Macdonald eateries all
around Britain are a vivid indication. Here you can order a big "Mac", that is a
hamburger with a Coca-Cola or juice quite cheap.

The pub is another British institution, where alcoholic and nonalcoholic drinks and,
usually, snacks or meals are sold. Of course the most popular drink is beer or ale, which
is stronger than beer. That is why most pubs are owned by a brewery where beer is
made.

The pub is a traditional institution of almost all towns and villages, and is often a
place of "character" or even historic interest. It is a very popular place to visit, a kind of a
club, where you can rest, talk with friends, listen to music and play games such as darts
or billiards, and enjoy good beer and eating. Darts is a game in which feathered arrows,
called darts, are thrown at a board divided into sections with numbers on them. The aim
is to score a particular number of points, usually 301 or 501.Many pubs have a darts
team which plays matches against teams from other pubs. Most pubs are open twice
daily or all day, and many have a garden where food and drink can be taken in summer.
Inside the building there maybe several bars. Children under 16 are not allowed to
come into a pub, although they may sit outside together with their parents in the garden.
All pubs have interesting names many of which reflect their long history.

Much social contact takes place in people's homes. On Sunday afternoons many
families have friends or relations in for tea. Sometimes people are invited for lunch, or a
cocktail party at lunch time. In summer everybody will gather in the garden having
informal drinks with sandwiches and moving around talking with whoever you like to. If
the weather is bad, or it is cold then the guests gather in the living-room. Dinner parties
have a limited number of guests, all depending upon the size of the table. But the
general tendency is that these gatherings are becoming very free and easy: you take
the food and drinks at a buffet, and move around to talk to as many people as you like,
and you may sit wherever you like. Just feel comfortable and at home.

English Qardens and Qardeners

Elizabethan gardens were planned almost as carefully as the house itself. All was
neatness with straight walks and flower-beds bordered by tiny hedges of box to form a
complicated geometrical pattern known as a "knot". Covered walks, bushes cut in
fantastic shapes, fountains and lawns were all arranged with trim accuracy.

Travellers brought new plants from abroad, and the flowers which still remain our
favourites today; roses, carnations, violets, lilacs. Many of them were used in making
jams, soap and toilet water for the fingers after dinner.

The herb garden was of great importance to the housewife. She used herbs not
only for cooking, for medicines and ointments, but also for hanging up in the rooms to
sweeten the air. The gardens of some famous herbalists included from 300 to 1,000
different kinds.

Passion for gardening in Great Britain brought forward many distinguished garden
designers. Among them was William Kent, the first of the professional landscape
gardeners. He started work as apprentice to a coach builder in Yorkshire.

William Kent tried to make the gardens more natural by planting dead tree stumps "to
give the greater air of truth to the scene". Formal flower-beds were replaced by a lake,
temples, ruins and statues to form what he called "landscape pictures". His landscape
plan of the grounds can still be seen in Buckinghamshire and Oxfordshire. These
"landscape pictures", however, were designed for the estates of very rich people, who
could afford to pay immense sums of money for such schemes.

Kent's most famous pupil was Lancelot Brown, better known by his nickname
"Capability" Brown. It derived from his habit of saying, when looking at the grounds of a
future garden, that they had "capabilities" of improvement. He is the most outstanding of
all the landscape gardeners of the 18th century. He was originally a gardener, unlike the
others. He carried out much of the work planned by William Kent. He began as an
independent designer of gardens in 1750, and a few years later a garden designed by
Capability Brown was in the forefront of fashion.
Brown's greatest power was probably his management of water, and he created
many "natural" lakes. The lake created at Blenheim is considered to be his masterpiece,
and Capability Brown himself became nationally known as the "Landscape Architect of
England".

The next generation saw a return to more contained styles introduced by Humphry
Repton, a talented painter. The name of Repton has became so much a household
word by the end of the 18th century that he has the distinction of being mentioned in
one of Jane Austen's novels, Mansfield Park (1814). He started life as merchant, but
had no liking for commerce. His tastes were for painting, poetry and music. The idea of
becoming a landscape gardener gave him an opportunity to use his talent for painting.

In his garden designs he retained the wide spaces, but renewed flower-beds and
terraces near the house. His changes coincided with renewed interest in individual
flowers, trees and shrubs.

More modest gardens sprang up around the smaller country houses of the landowners
and the new middle-class people. These gardens also reflected a growing interest in
flower-beds. Topiary returned to fashion again. Formal lawns, previously ciit with
scythes, became suddenly very popular among ordinary gardeners with the invention of
Budding's lawn-mower in 1830. Although the task of keeping a garden is so essentially
individual, for many people in Britain gardening is the basis of social and competitive
relations.

Leisure and Sports

The attitude to leisure has been much influenced by the great love of the British
of moving around and by the ease of travel. Industrial and professional workers have
their annual holiday with pay, and so they can spend it as they like. Factory holidays are
much concentrated in the period between mid-July and mid-August. Many people who
have schoolchildren usually take their holiday also in summer, because British schools
usually have only six weeks off in summer, from about mid-July to the end of August.

The coast is the most popular place where the British spend their annual holiday, and
seaside resorts have many hotels. Food in British hotels and restaurants is quite cheap,
but rooms are not. Few British people rent houses or flats for their holidays, but one of
the traditional ways of spending a summer holiday is in a boarding-house, which may
have a card in its window advertising "apartments" or "bed and breakfast".

In seaside towns there are whole streets of houses almost every one of which has
such a notice in its window. Some boarding-houses provide all meals for their guests,
others provide breakfast only. There are also lots of so-called holiday camps at the sea.
Their name is misleading, because they are really holiday towns or villages. They
consist usually of great numbers of small, very comfortable homes, rather like those of a
motel , together with central dining halls, dance halls, swimming- pools, lots of
attractions, shops, parking for cars - everything a family would need during a holiday.

Camping holidays in the proper sense of the word, with tents, are not so well
developed in Britain as in France; the summer weather too often can be very
unpleasant for tent-dwellers. On the other hand, caravans have become very popular.
Some people bring their own caravans, pulling them behind their cars, others hire
caravans, already in position. Very few British people have summer houses, of the
type so
popular in Scandinavia, or of dachas so popular in Belarus, or Russia, to visit for
holidays and weekends. A caravan, pulled by the family car, can provide good
opportunities for holiday making.

The British love to take to new places. Many take their cars together with their tents
and caravans and cross the Channel in ferries to get to some distant spot on the
French, or Spanish coast to enjoy the sun and the warm waters of the sea. Some, when
they are away, have problems with the local shops, especially those which sell
handicraft. The British tourists lose much energy, thinking what to buy, struggling to
convert the prices into English pounds and pence. When they get home again they can
talk endlessly of their purchases and complain of what they were asked to pay for cups
of tea or glasses of wine.

The British are great lovers of competitive sports. When they do not play or watch
games they like to talk about them, and when they cannot do that they think about them.
The game that is especially connected with England is cricket. Many other games too
are English in origin; they have become popular in other countries, but cricket has
become popular only in some countries like Australia, India, South Africa and the West
Indies. So cricket continues to be a game which expresses the British spirit.

Organized amateur cricket is played between club teams mainly on Saturday

afternoons. Nearly every village, except in the far north, has its cricket club. A first-class
match, as played between English counties, lasts for up to three days, with six hours'
play on each day. The game is thus indeed slow, and a spectator, sitting in the
afternoon sun after his lunch of sandwiches and beer, may even have a little sleep for
half an hour. The game is played between two teams, each of 11 people. They play on
a grass field at the centre of which is the pitch (playing zone). The aim is for one team
(the batsmen) to win a large number of runs by hitting the ball with a bat bowled
(thrown) to them by the other team in the field (the fielders). The fielders try to send the
batsmen out of the game as quickly as possible, for example, by catching a ball hit by a
batsman before it touches the ground.

However, for the great mass of the British public the eight months of the football
season are more important than the four months of cricket. There are plenty of
amateur football (or soccer ) clubs, but professional football is big business. Every large
town has at least one professional football club. The players may not personally have
any personal connections with the town for whose team they play. They are bought and
sold with their agreement between the clubs.

Money has invaded the world of football through the football pools, which are a
big system of betting on the results of these games. English league football is organized
in four Divisions with 22 or 24 teams in each. Besides the League games there is also a
knock-out contest each season for the Football Association Cup, and the Cup Final,
which is played in May each year in London. This is, of course, the greatest event of the
season.

Rugby football (or rugger ) is played with an egg-shaped ball, which may be carried
and thrown (but not forward). If a player is carrying the ball he may be tackled or
attacked and made to fall down. Each team has 15 players, who spend much time lying
in the mud or on top of each other and become very dirty, but they do not need to wear
such protective clothing as men playing American football who look like ice- hockey
players.
Rugby is a game very popular at the schools where they have good playing fields for
that. Boys normally play rugger or soccer in winter and cricket in summer. Grass hockey
is also widely played at schools by boys and girls. Schoolgirls like to play tennis.

In recent years rugby has become very popular among adults and this was quite
obvious especially during the World rugby championship when England won the World
Cup in the final match against Australia in 2003. The English team was greeted by
thousands of fans in London, and the Queen welcomed the victors at Buckingham
Palace.

Golf and tennis are played by great numbers of people. Golf courses are meeting
places of people of different social background. There are plenty of tennis clubs, but
every town provides numerous tennis courts in public parks, and anyone may play
tennis on a court for a small payment. The greatest event in tennis is the Wimbledon
international tennis championship held near London. The ancien mainly by middle-aged
people. In the game a heavy wooden ball (bowl) is rolled over a smooth lawn (bowling
green) in such a way that it stops as close as possible to a small white ball (jack). The
game has from two to eight players, each bowling two or more bowls. The game may be
played indoors in specially built halls.

Another popular spectator sport in British life is horse racing. There are many race
tracks all over the country, and each of these has from two to about six "meetings"
every year, with each meeting consisting of two, three or four days of racing. There are
totalisators at the race-courses, but bookmakers are also allowed to take the bets of the
spectators.

When there are races people all over the country bet on the results. A famous race-
course is located near Epsom, where a popular annual horse race is held. The event is
named after the Earl of Derby who first organized such a race in 1780. The Derby Cup
usually attracts rich and well-to-do people because the tickets are very expensive. Such
people also "show off" in their best clothes. For an ordinary working man a visit to horse
races may be quite a rare thing, though he may make bets on most days of the week.
However, he can easily go to dog races if he wants to. In nearly every town there is at
least one greyhound racing track, on which races are held on Saturday afternoons and
on several evenings a week after working hours. There are 89 tracks in Britain. The
dogs race round a track after an electric "hare", which is really a trolley carrying a piece
of meat. Bets are placed on the dogs.

Another popular game is bingo or lotto, which is usually played in halls or former
cinemas. Players buy cards with rows of numbers and cross off the numbers as they
are called out by a special announcer. The winner is the first player to cross out all the
numbers on his or her card. Today it is also possible to play bingo by filling in cards
which are published in the newspapers.

Athletic sports and gymnastics are practised at school. Jogging is becoming more
popular today, but still it isn't as popular as in the United States or Canada. The same
may be said about bicycle racing. On the other hand, rowing, in fours and eights,
occupies a leading place in the sporting life of schools and universities which have
suitable water nearby, and several regattas held mainly in summer are watched from
the river banks by large crowds of spectators. Among these is the Henley Royal Regatta
held every year in late June and early July on the river Thames at Henley near Oxford.
+
 Britain was the first home of many of the modern world's most popular sports.
However, the British cannot claim to be the best, even in these sports. The British pay
much attention to the "sporting spirit", which means to play with respect for the rules
and the opponents, to win a competition with modesty and to lose with good temper.
They apply this sportsmanship not only to sports, but to a person's behaviour in
everyday life.

24. The United Kingdom. National traits.

 MOST COMMON BRITISH TRAITS

1. Wearing summer clothing at the first sight of sun

2. Apologising automatically

3. Ability to talk at length about the weather

4. Making a cup of tea in response to a crisis

5. Finding queue-jumping the ultimate crime

6. Forming a queue for pretty much anything

7. The typically British ‘stiff upper lip’(крепость духа, плотно сжатые

губы))

8. Grumbling throughout a meal, but not telling staff so as not to cause a fuss

9. Making sarcastic/dry jokes

10. Having a beer at the airport even though it’s before 8am

11.Giggling at innuendos(намёки, упоминать вскользь)

12.Making a cup of tea when you have no time to drink it

13.Getting sunburnt on the first warm day of the year

14.Finding the American forwardness ‘a bit much’

15.Avoiding eye contact on the tube

16.Binge drinking at the weekends

17.Insisting the other person goes through the door first

18.Searching for a fry-up when on holiday abroad

19.Mistaking brightness for warmth

20.Finding nothing better than a bacon sandwich

21.Not asking for help so as not to ‘put anyone out’

22.Insisting the barbecue will still go on despite rain

23.Bringing out fancy biscuits on a plate for visitors

24.Feeling extremely patriotic during sports events

25.Indulging in a pint and a packet of crisps

26.Reading newspapers in the morning

27. Feeling at home to the tune of EastEnders or Coronation Street

28.Wearing extra layers rather than putting the heating on

29.Feeling appreciative that the person in front put the ‘next customer’ barrier

on the conveyor belt

30.Doing anything possible for a light tan

31.Owning a picnic hamper but only ever using it once a year

32.Starting a controversial statement with ‘I’m not being funny, but...’

33.Being vague about your plans rather than decline an invitation

34.Thanking someone when you’ve done them a favour

35.Not correcting someone when they pronounce your name wrong

36.Loving your cat/dog more than your child

37.Searching your pockets when asked for spare change

38.Feeling extreme excitement over a Sunday roast dinner

 39.Having mixed feelings towards the ill colleague who is still coming to work

40.Being skilled in writing a letter of complaint

25. The United Kingdom. Food and meals.

Food
When thinking about England, traditional comfort food comes to mind, rather than
world-class cuisine.  The world views the British as a meat and potatoes culture,
which they were for a long time, however, the food culture in Britain is changing
and it is a very exciting time.  Michelin star restaurants are popping up throughout
the nation and TV chefs are entertaining international audiences.  There is a new
emphasis on local and fresh foods, and in England's larger cities, every type of
ethic food is available.   
Popular dishes in England include:
Ploughman’s Lunch: This is a dish found in many pubs across England.  It is made
up of cheese, gherkins, and pickled onions served with delicious fresh bread.
Sunday Roast: This is a staple in many English (and British) homes.  It is usually
roast beef served with roast potatoes, various vegetables and Yorkshire pudding.
Toad-in-the-hole: This meal consists of sausage that has been cooked in Yorkshire
pudding batter.  It is then served with gravy.
Drinks: Bitters and lagers are the most popular beers in England, and cider is a
favourite amongst many people.  Gin is often the choice spirit, and Pimms, a gin-
based drink made with lemonade, fruit, cucumber and mint is often prepared in the
summer.  Tea is considered the nation’s drink, however it is popular throughout the
UK.
ALSO 1. Fish and chips
2. Cream Tea
3. Falafel
4. Cornish Pasty
5. Apple Crumble
6. Chips and Gravy

 
Things to know:
A service charge of between 10-15% may be added to bills in restaurants.  If this is
the case, a further tip is not necessary.  However, if no service charge has been
added, than a tip for good service is appreciated.
 
Drinking age:
People aged 16 and 17 can drink beer, wine or cider with a meal if an adult
accompanies them.  They cannot buy alcohol until they are 18.

26. The United Kingdom. Transport.

Roads and motorways are Britain's primary domestic transport routes. There are
some 225,000 miles (362,000 km) of roads in Britain.
Travel by car, van or taxi is by far the most common means of transport,
accounting for 85 per cent of passenger mileage in Great Britain.
(London Transport)

Most people in Britain travel by car. About 75% of households have at least one
car.

Motorcycling is popular in Britain, both as a means of transport and as a pastime

with over one million motorcyclists.
A moped with an engine capacity up to 50cc can be ridden at the age of 16 with a
provisional licence. The maximum legal speed a moped can be ridden is 30 mph
(50kph).
A full motorcycle licence can be obtained at the age of 17 after passing a test.
The red double decker buses (pictured below) are famous all over the world. You
can see loads of them in London.
A Double Decker bus for you to colour
There are two main kinds of buses in London: the red double-decker and the red
single-decker.
The main places a bus goes to are shown on the front of the bus. Some double-
deckers have automatic doors and you pay the driver when you go in. On single-
deckers you sometimes buy your ticket from a machine in the bus. Most London
buses have a conductor who will come round and collect fares.
In London, the taxis are black but in the rest of the country they are different
colours.
Black Cabs are the only taxi you can hail from the street (though they now come in
other colours as well). With the "for hire" sign lit, the driver is obliged to stop for
you.
A london taxis for you to colour
The London underground railway system (or 'tube', as it is known locally)
celebrated its centenary in 1990 and is internationally famous, ranking alongside
the Paris metro and the New York subway. London's tube network covers the
largest area of any underground rail system, with 242 miles (391km of tracks, of
which around 106 miles (171 km) is underground, and 267 stations. The tube runs
to all areas of central and greater London, connecting all mainline stations.
When in London, "the Tube" is a great means of getting around!
ENGLAND : There are 470 airports in England.
London has five airports : Heathrow, Gatwick, Stanstead, London City and Luton.
The first three have underground connections to the centre of London and are the
main London airports.
Heathrow and Gatwick Airports are the two main centres for overseas flights.
London (Heathrow) Airport is one of the largest airports in the world and has two
tube stations.
The number of passengers arriving and departing to or from London's airports
equalled over 120 million in 2004. Heathrow handled 67m passengers, making the
airport the busiest and best connected in the world. Source; CAA, BAA
Shipping still remains the main form of cargo transport in to and out of Britain,
despite the opening of the Channel Tunnel to France in 1994. The busiest sea port
is Dover.
Many ferries cross the seas between England and Spain, Ireland, the Netherlands
and France.
Below is some information about ferry crossings from England to Ireland, France,
Isle of Wight and Holland

27. The United Kingdom in the 21st century.

The United Kingdom is a highly developed nation that exerts considerable

international economic, political, scientific and cultural influence. Located off the
northwest corner of Europe, the country includes the island of Great Britain –
which contains England, Scotland and Wales – and the northern portion of the
island of Ireland. 
The nation’s global influence has its roots in the British Empire that formed during
the European colonial era and peaked in the early 20th century before embarking
on decolonization following World War II. The United Kingdom of today dates to
the formation of the Medieval Kingdom of England, and later, the establishment of
a constitutional monarchy and parliamentary democracy in the 17th century. The
national government is divided between executive, legislative and judicial
branches. The prime minister is the head of government and appoints members of
the cabinet. 
The capital city, London, is a major international financial center and one of the
most visited cities in the world. The banking and tourism industries are parts of a
larger service sector that powers much of the nation’s economic growth. The
industrial revolution began in the U.K., and manufacturing – led by the automobile
and aerospace industries – is a declining though still significant part of the nation’s
economy.
The United Kingdom has attracted immigrants for centuries. Beginning in the
second half of the 20th century, the sources of immigration began to diversify,
coming from South Asia, Africa and the Caribbean as well as from Central and
Eastern Europe. Immigration has become a major focus of public debate in the 21st
century.
The nation has a long history of major contributions to the arts and sciences.
William Shakespeare is regarded as one of the greatest writers in the history of
English literature. British scientists discovered gravity, hydrogen and penicillin
and developed theories in aerodynamics and natural evolution. The nation
continues to be at scientific and technological fore.the  Stephen Hawking has
produced groundbreaking work in cosmology and computer scientist Tim Berners-
Lee invented the World Wide Web.
The United Kingdom is home to some of the top universities in the world,
including Oxford, Cambridge and Imperial College London.
The United Kingdom is a permanent member of the United Nations Security
Council, and is a member of major international organizations including the
European Union, the World Trade Organization, the World Bank, NATO and the
Group of 20.