Communication Systems I

Dr. N. M. Eltayeb

Nov. 2018
Amplitude Modulation (AM)

Lecture No. (2)

 Lecture Outline
• Introduction

• Amplitude Modulation

• Modulation Index

• Power Consumption
 Introduction
• Purpose of a communication system: convey information
through a medium or communication channel.
• The information is often represented as a baseband
signal.

• Proper utilization of the communication channel often

requires a shift of the range of baseband frequencies into
other frequency ranges suitable for transmission, and a
corresponding shift back to the original frequency range
after reception.
 Introduction
• A shift of the range of frequencies in a signal is
accomplished by using Modulation.

• A common form of the carrier is a sinusoidal wave, in

which case we speak of continuous-wave modulation.

• The baseband signal is referred to as the modulating

wave, and the result of the modulation process is
referred to as the modulated wave.

• Modulation is performed at the transmitting end.

 Introduction
• Modulation, is defined as the process by which some
characteristic of a carrier is varied in accordance with a
modulating wave (signal).

• At the receiving end, we require the original baseband

signal to be restored. This is accomplished by using a
process known as demodulation, which is the reverse of
the modulation process.
 Amplitude Modulation
• So, the AM signal is obtained by adding a large carrier c(t) to
the modulating signal:
• 𝒌𝒂 = constant called
𝑠 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐 + 𝑚(𝑡) cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡
Amplitude sensitivity of the
1 modulator.
𝑠 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐 1 + 𝑚(𝑡) cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡
𝐴𝑐
• Responsible for the
𝑠 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐 1 + 𝑘𝑎 𝑚(𝑡) cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 generation of the
modulated signal s(t)
1
Where: 𝑘𝑎 =
𝐴𝑐
 Amplitude Modulation
• Figure 3.1(a) shows a message signal and Figs. 3.1(b) and 3.1(c) show
the corresponding AM wave s(t) for two values of amplitude sensitivity
𝑘𝑎 and a carrier amplitude 𝐴𝑐 = 1 volt.
 Amplitude Modulation

• In amplitude modulation, information pertaining to the

message signal resides solely in the envelope, which is
defined as the amplitude of the modulated wave s(t) —
that is, 𝐴𝐶 1 + 𝑘𝑎 𝑚(𝑡) .

• The envelope of s(t) has essentially the same shape as

the baseband signal m(t) provided that two requirements
are satisfied.
 Amplitude Modulation
1. The amplitude of 𝑘𝑎 m(t) is always less than unity, that is:
𝒌𝒂 𝒎(𝒕) < 𝟏, for all t

• It ensures that the function 1+ 𝒌𝒂 𝒎(𝒕) is always positive, and since an

envelope is a positive function, we may express the envelope of the
AM wave envelope of the AM wave s(t) as 𝐴𝑐 [1 + 𝑘𝑎 𝑚 𝑡 ].

• When 𝒌𝒂 𝒎(𝒕) > 𝟏for any t → the carrier wave becomes

overmodulated, resulting in carrier phase reversals whenever the
factor 1+ 𝒌𝒂 𝒎(𝒕) crosses zero. (envelope distortion )
 Amplitude Modulation
2. The carrier frequency 𝑓𝑐 is much greater than the highest
frequency component 𝑓𝑚 of the message signal m(t), that is

𝒇 𝒄 ≫ 𝒇𝒎
• We call 𝑓𝑚 t he message bandwidth. If this condition is not
satisfied, an envelope can not be visualized satisfactorily.
 Amplitude Modulation
• We find that the Fourier transform of the AM wave s(t)

• is given by
 Amplitude Modulation
S(f)
𝐴𝑐 𝐴𝑐
𝞭(𝑓 + 𝑓𝑐) 𝞭(𝑓 − 𝑓𝑐)
2 𝑘 𝑎 𝐴𝑐 2
𝑀(0)
2
USB USB
LSB LSB

ω
−𝑓𝑐− 𝑓𝑚 −𝑓𝑐 −𝑓𝑐+ 𝑓𝑚 0 𝑓𝑐− 𝑓𝑚 𝑓𝑐 𝑓𝑐+ 𝑓𝑚

Figure (b): Frequency Spectrum of AM signal s(t)

 Amplitude Modulation
• From the spectrum of S( f ), we note the following:
1. As a result of the modulation process, the spectrum of the message
signal m(t)for negative frequencies extending from
− 𝒇𝒎 𝒕𝒐 𝟎 becomes completely visible for positive frequencies,
provided that the carrier frequency satisfies the condition 𝒇𝒄 > 𝒇𝒎 .

2. .For positive frequencies: The spectrum of an AM wave above 𝒇𝒄 is

referred to as the upper sideband, below 𝒇𝒄 is referred to as the lower
sideband. For negative frequencies: The upper sideband is below
–𝒇𝒄 and the lower sideband is above –𝒇𝒄 . The condition fc >𝒇𝒎
ensures that the sidebands do not overlap.
 Amplitude Modulation
3. For positive frequencies, the highest frequency component of the AM
wave equals (𝒇𝒄 +𝒇𝒎 ), and the lowest frequency component equals
(𝒇𝒄 − 𝒇𝒎 ). The difference between these two frequencies defines the
transmission bandwidth 𝑩𝑻 for an AM wave.

𝑩𝑻 = 𝟐𝒇𝒎
Exercise:
• Show that the Fourier transform of the AM wave s(t)

• is given by
single tone Signal
(Single Frequency Component)
Lecture (3)
 Lecture Outline
• Explain Amplitude Modulation

• How signal is getting changed in AM

• Derive AM signal equation

• Modulation Index
 Amplitude Modulation
“Amplitude modulation is a process of changing the amplitude of
a high frequency carrier signal in proportion with the
instantaneous value of modulating signal (information).”

“It is the process in which the amplitude of a carrier signal

changes w.r.t. message (modulating) signal.”

“ Amplitude modulation is a type of modulation where the

amplitude (signal strength) of the carrier signal is varied in
accordance with the amplitude (signal strength) of the message
signal. “
 Amplitude Modulation
• Consider a modulating wave shown in figure (a), that consists
of a single tone or frequency component; that is,
𝒎 𝒕 = 𝑨𝒎 𝒄𝒐𝒔(ω𝒎 𝒕)

Figure (a): Modulating Signal (Message signal)

 Amplitude Modulation
• The sinusoidal carrier wave has amplitude 𝐴𝑐 and frequency
𝑓𝑐 , as shown in the figure below (b):

𝒄 𝒕 = 𝑨𝒄 𝒄𝒐𝒔(ω𝒄 𝒕)

Figure (b): High frequency Carrier Signal

 Amplitude Modulation
• As shown in the figure (c), the corresponding AM wave is therefore given by:
𝒔 𝒕 = 𝑨𝒄 𝟏 + 𝝁 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝎𝒎 (𝒕) 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝝎𝒄 𝒕
𝒎 𝒕 = 𝑨𝒎 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝝎𝒎 𝒕
𝒔 𝒕 = 𝑨𝒄 𝟏 + 𝝁 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝎𝒎 (𝒕) 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝝎𝒄 𝒕
𝒔 𝒕 = 𝑨′𝒄 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝝎𝒄 𝒕

𝒔 𝒕 = [𝑨𝒄 + 𝒎 𝒕 ] 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝝎𝒄 𝒕
= [𝑨𝒄 + 𝑨𝒎 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝝎𝒎 𝒕] 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝝎𝒄 𝒕
𝑨𝒎
= 𝑨𝒄 [1 + 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝝎𝒎 𝒕] 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝝎𝒄 𝒕
𝑨𝒄

𝑨𝒎
Modulating Index: 𝝁 =
𝑨𝒄

𝒔 𝒕 = 𝑨𝒄 𝟏 + 𝝁 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝎𝒎 (𝒕) 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝝎𝒄 𝒕

Figure (c): Modulated wave
 AM Modulation - single tone
• The corresponding AM wave is therefore given by:

𝑠 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐 1 + 𝜇 cos ω𝑚 𝑡 cos ω𝑐 𝑡
= 𝐴𝑐 cos ω𝑐 𝑡 + 𝜇 𝐴𝑐 cos ω𝑚 𝑡 cos ω𝑐 𝑡
𝟏
𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝑨 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝑩 = 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝑨 + 𝑩 + 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝑨 − 𝑩)
𝟐
𝜇𝐴𝑐 𝜇𝐴𝑐
𝑠 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ω𝑐 𝑡 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ω𝑐 + ω𝑚 𝑡 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ω𝑐 − ω𝑚 𝑡
2 2

Carrier USB LSB

DSB
End of Lecture
 Spectrum of AM Wave
• The AM signal is given by the following expression:

𝝁𝑨𝒄 𝝁𝑨𝒄
𝒔 𝒕 = 𝑨𝒄 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝝎𝒄 𝒕 + 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝝎𝒄 − 𝝎𝒎 𝒕 + 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝝎𝒄 + 𝝎𝒎 𝒕
𝟐 𝟐

• In the above equation, the first term represents unmodulated

carrier, the second term represents lower sideband and the last
term represents upper sideband..
 Spectrum of AM Wave
• Note that 𝜔𝑐 = 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 and 𝜔𝑚 = 2𝜋𝑓𝑚 . Hence the above can also be
written as:
𝝁𝑨𝒄 𝝁𝑨𝒄
𝒔 𝒕 = 𝑨𝒄 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝟐𝝅𝒇𝒄 𝒕 + 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝟐𝝅 𝒇𝒄 − 𝒇𝒎 𝒕 + 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝟐𝝅 𝒇𝒄 + 𝒇𝒎 𝒕
𝟐 𝟐

• This contains the full carrier

𝜇𝐴𝑐 𝜇𝐴𝑐
and both the sidebands. 2 2
Hence, it is also called Double
Sideband Full Carrier (DSBFC)
system.
 Bandwidth of Amplitude Modulation
• The bandwidth of the signal can be obtained by taking the difference
between the highest and lowest frequencies of the signal. From the
above figure, we can obtain the bandwidth of AM wave as,

𝜇𝐴𝑐 𝜇𝐴𝑐
BW = 𝑓𝑈𝑆𝐵 − 𝑓𝐿𝑆𝐵 2 2

= 𝑓𝑐 + 𝑓𝑚 − (𝑓𝑐 − 𝑓𝑚 )

BW = 𝟐𝒇𝒎
 Modulation Index
• Amplitude modulation index describes how the amplitude of
the carrier signal and message signal affects the amplitude of
the amplitude modulated (AM) signal.

𝑨𝒎
𝝁=
𝑨𝒄

Where: 𝝁 = modulating Index

 Modulation Index
𝐴𝑚
• Since: 𝜇 = = modulating Index
𝐴𝑐

• Where 𝐴𝑚 ≡ Amplitude of message

𝐴𝑐 ≡ Amplitude of carrier

Then

• Maximum Amplitude of AM wave = 𝐴𝑐 + 𝐴𝑚

• Minimum Amplitude of AM wave = 𝐴𝑐 − 𝐴𝑚
 Modulation Index
• 𝐴𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐴𝑐 + 𝐴𝑚
• 𝐴𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝐴𝑐 − 𝐴𝑚

𝐴𝑚𝑎𝑥 + 𝐴𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝐴𝑐 = 𝑨𝒎
2 𝝁=
𝐴𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝐴𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑨𝒄
𝐴𝑚 =
2
𝑨𝒎𝒂𝒙 − 𝑨𝒎𝒊𝒏
𝝁=
𝑨𝒎𝒂𝒙 + 𝑨𝒎𝒊𝒏
 Modulation Index
𝑨𝒎 𝑨𝒎𝒂𝒙 − 𝑨𝒎𝒊𝒏
𝝁= 𝝁=
𝑨𝒄 𝑨𝒎𝒂𝒙 + 𝑨𝒎𝒊𝒏

Under Ideal Over

Modulation Modulation Modulation

Standard case 100% modulation Envelope Distortion

𝑨𝒎 < 𝑨𝒄 𝑨𝒎 = 𝑨𝒄 𝑨𝒎 > 𝑨𝒄
𝟎<𝝁 <𝟏 𝝁=𝟏 𝝁 >𝟏
 Standard case
𝑨𝒎 < 𝑨𝒄
𝟎<𝝁 <𝟏 time

100% modulation
𝑨𝒎 = 𝑨𝒄
𝝁=𝟏

Envelope Distortion
𝑨𝒎 > 𝑨𝒄
𝝁 >𝟏
Power & Efficiency of
AM Signal
Power Calculation of AM Signal:
• For single-tone sinusoidal modulating signal, the expression for
AM wave is given by:

𝒔 𝒕 = 𝑨𝒄 𝟏 + 𝝁 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝝎𝒎 𝒕 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝝎𝒄 𝒕

Pure carrier signal Carrier modulated Carrier modulated

by message: USB by message: LSB
 Power of AM Signal
• The total Power of AM wave is equal to the sum of powers of carrier, upper
sideband, and lower sideband frequency components.

• We know that the standard formula for power of cosine signal is

 Power of AM Signal
• First, let us find the powers of the carrier, the upper and
lower sideband one by one.
• Carrier power

• Upper Sideband power:

Similarly, we will get the lower sideband power same as that of

the upper side band power.
• Lower Sideband power:
 Power of AM Signal
Now, let us add these three powers in order to get the power of
AM wave.

• We can use the above formula to calculate the power of AM wave,

when the carrier power and the modulation index are known.
 AM Signal Efficiency (𝞰)
• It is defined as the Ratio of sideband power to the total power :
power in carrier_modulated by message
Efficiency (𝞰) =
Total power

• Because pure carrier component 𝐴𝐶 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝐶 𝑡 does NOT convey

any information.

• Pure carrier is being transmitted simply to enable envelope

detection at receiver.
 AM Signal Efficiency (𝞰)
• It is defined as the Ratio of sideband power to the total power:

𝑆𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑏𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
Efficiency (𝞰) =
Total power

𝜇2 𝐴2𝑐 𝜇2 𝐴2𝑐 𝜇2 𝐴2𝑐

𝑃𝐿𝑆𝐵 + 𝑃𝑈𝑆𝐵 +
𝞰= = 8𝑅 8𝑅 = 4𝑅
𝑃𝑡 𝐴2𝑐 𝜇2 𝐴2𝑐 𝜇2
1+ 1+
2𝑅 2 2𝑅 2
Efficiency of AM for Sinusoidal modulation (𝞰)
• Since
𝝁𝟐
𝞰=
𝟐+𝝁𝟐
2
=1 −
2+ 𝜇2
• This implies, as (𝜇) increases, the efficiency (𝞰) of AM signal
increases.

• For envelope detection, maximum value of 𝜇 = 1.

• If 𝜇 > 1, carrier is overmodulated which results in envelope

distortion.
 Efficiency of AM for Sinusoidal modulation (𝞰)

• Maximum efficiency occurs for of 𝜇 = 1.

𝜇2 1 1
𝞰𝑚𝑎𝑥 = = =
2+ 𝜇2 2+1 3
𝜇=1
𝟏
𝞰𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝟑
• Therefore, maximum efficiency of AM with no envelope
1
distortion or 33%
3
 Efficiency of AM for Sinusoidal modulation (𝜀)

• Efficiency is very poor, and 67% of the power is wasted.

• Energy can be improved by reducing the power of the carrier

or suppressing the carrier signal.
Midterm Exam
Thank You
Switching Modulator
 Switching Modulator

• Switching modulator is similar to the square law

modulator.

• The only difference is that in the square-law

modulator, the diode is operated in a non-linear
mode, whereas, in switching modulator, the diode
has to operate as and ideal switch.
 Block Diagram of Switching Modulator
• Following is the block diagram of switching modulator

𝑣2 (𝑡)
m(t) + 𝑣1 (𝑡) Switching Bandpass s(t)
Diode Filter
+

𝒄 𝒕 = 𝐴𝐶 cos(2𝜋𝑓𝐶 𝑡)
 Switching Modulator
• Consider a semiconductor diode used as an ideal switch to which the carrier
signal 𝑐 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 t and information signal 𝑚(𝑡) are applied
simultaneously as shown in figure below:
 Switching Modulator
• The total input for the diode at any instant is given by:

𝒗𝟏 𝒕 = 𝒄 𝒕 + 𝒎(𝒕)

𝒗𝟏 𝒕 = 𝒎 𝒕 + 𝑨𝑪 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟐𝝅𝒇𝑪 𝒕 ⇒ (𝟏)

When the peak amplitude of c(t) is maintained more than that of information
signal, the operation is assumed to be dependent on only c(t) irrespective of
m(t). When c(t) is positive, v2=v1since the diode is forward biased. Similarly,
when c(t) is negative, v2=0 since diode is reverse biased. Based upon above
operation, switching response of the diode is periodic rectangular wave with
an amplitude unity and is given by
 Switching Modulator
 Assume carrier wave c ( t) is large in amplitude and the diode acts as
an ideal switch.

𝒗𝟏 𝒕 = 𝑨𝑪 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝟐𝝅𝒇𝑪 𝒕) + 𝒎 𝒕 ===⇒ (𝟏)

𝑣1 𝑡 , 𝑐 𝑡 >0
𝑣2 𝑡 ≈ ===⇒ (2)
0, 𝑐 𝑡 <0
• So the diode’s ON and OFF action is controlled by the carrier
signal 𝑐(𝑡).
 Switching Modulator
We may express Eq. (2) mathematically as

𝑣2 𝑡 = 𝑣1 (𝑡) 𝒈𝑻𝟎 (𝒕) ⇒ (𝟑)

• We can express v2(t) mathematically as under :

𝒗𝟐 𝒕 = 𝒎 𝒕 + 𝑨𝑪 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟐𝝅𝒇𝑪 𝒕 𝒈𝑻𝟎 (𝒕) ⇒ (𝟒)

 Switching Modulator
where, 𝑔𝑇0 (𝑡) is a periodic pulse train of duty cycle equal to one
half cycle period i.e. T0 /2 (where T0 = 1/fc) .
• The Fourier series representation of this periodic pulse train
(𝑔𝑇0 ) can be expressed as follows:
∞
1 2 (−1)𝑛−1
𝒈 𝑻𝟎 𝒕 = + cos[𝜔𝑐 𝑡 (2𝑛 − 1) ⇒ (𝟓)
2 𝜋 2𝑛 − 1
𝒏=𝟏

1 2
𝒈𝑻 𝟎 𝒕 = + cos(𝜔𝑐 𝑡) + odd harmonic components ⇒ (𝟔)
2 𝜋
 • Substituting 𝒈𝑻𝟎 𝒕 into equation (4), we get
𝟏 𝟐
𝒗𝟐 𝒕 = 𝒎 𝒕 + 𝑨𝑪 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟐𝝅𝒇𝑪 𝒕 + 𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝝎𝒄 𝒕) + odd harmonic
𝟐 𝝅

• The odd harmonics in this expression are unwanted, and therefore,

are assumed to be eliminated.
Hence, 1 1 2 2𝐴𝑐
𝑣2 𝑡 = 𝑚 𝑡 + 𝐴𝑐 cos 𝜔𝑐 𝑡 + 𝑚(𝑡) cos 𝜔𝑐 𝑡 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 (𝜔𝑐 𝑡)
2 2 𝜋 𝜋

Modulating Second harmonic

AM Wave
signal of carrier

• In this expression, the first and the fourth terms are unwanted terms whereas the
second and third terms together represents the AM wave .
• Clubbing the second and third terms together , we obtain

𝐴𝐶 4
𝑣2 𝑡 = 1+ 𝑚(𝑡) cos(2𝜋𝑓𝐶 𝑡)
2 𝜋𝐴𝐶
𝐴′𝐶 𝜇

This is the required expression for the AM wave with 𝜇 = [4/πAc].

The unwanted terms can be eliminated using a band-pass filter
(BPF) .
End of Lecture

Thank You
AM Wave Generation
 AM Modulator
• The circuit that is used to generate amplitude modulated
waves is known as amplitude modulator or AM
modulator.

• Basically there are two types of AM modulator:

1. Square Law Modulator
2. Switching Modulator
• Both of these circuits use a non-linear elements such as a diode for their
implementation . Both these modulators are low power modulator circuits. .
 AM Modulator
Following is the block diagram of the square law modulator

+ 𝑣1 (𝑡) 𝑣2 (𝑡) 𝑠(𝑡)

m(𝑡) . Square Law
Device
Band Pass Filter

+ 𝑽𝟐 𝒕 = 𝒂𝑽𝟏 𝒕 + 𝒃𝑽𝟐𝟏 𝒕

Local Oscillator It consists of the following :

1.A non-linear device
c(t)=𝐴𝑐 cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡) 2.A bandpass filter (BPF)
3. A carrier source and modulating signal
 AM Modulator
• The Following diagram represents the square law modulator circuit

• The modulating signal and carrier are connected in series with each other
and their sum V1(t) is applied at the input of the non-linear device, such as
diode, transistor etc.
 Square-law Modulator
Let the modulating and carrier signals be denoted as 𝑚 𝑡 and
𝐴𝑐 cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡) respectively.

These two signals are applied as inputs to the summer (adder) block. This
summer block produces an output, which is the addition of the
modulating and the carrier signal. Mathematically, we can write it as

𝑽𝟏 𝒕 = 𝒎 𝒕 + 𝑨𝒄 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝝎𝒄 𝒕 -------- (1)

This signal 𝑉1 (𝑡) is applied as an input to a nonlinear device like diode. The
characteristics of the diode are closely related to square law.
 Square-law Modulator
• The input output relation for non-linear device is expressed as follows:

𝑽𝟐 𝒕 = 𝒂𝑽𝟏 𝒕 + 𝒃𝑽𝟐𝟏 𝒕 −−→ (𝟐)

Where, 𝑎 and 𝑏 are constants.

• Substitute 𝑉1 𝑡 in Equation (2):

𝑉2 𝑡 = 𝑎𝑚 𝑡 + 𝒂𝑨𝒄 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝝎𝒄 𝒕 + 𝑏 𝑚2 𝑡 + 𝑏𝐴2𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 ω𝑐 𝑡 + 𝟐𝒃𝑨𝒄 𝒎 𝒕 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝝎𝒄 𝒕

• Out of these five terms, terms 2 and 5 are useful whereas the remaining
terms are not useful. .
 Square-law Modulator
• The LC tuned circuit acts as a bandpass filter . Its frequency response is shown
in fig below which shows that the circuit is tuned to frequency fc and its
bandwidth is equal to 2fm . This bandpass filter eliminates the unuseful terms
from the equation of v2(t) .

• Hence the output voltage vo(t) contains only the useful terms .
𝑽𝒐 𝒕 = 𝒂𝑨𝒄 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝝎𝒄 𝒕 + 𝟐𝒃𝑨𝒄 𝒎 𝒕 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝝎𝒄 𝒕
 Square-law Modulator
• The useful terms of the above equation represents the desired AM
wave and the other three terms of the above equation are unwanted.

• So, with the help of band pass filter, we can pass only AM wave that
represent the useful term and eliminate the unuseful other terms.

• Therefore, the output of square law modulator is

𝟐𝒃
𝑽𝒐 𝒕 = 𝒂𝑨𝒄 𝟏 +
𝒂
𝒎(𝒕) 𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝟐𝝅𝒇𝒄 𝒕) (3)
 Square-law Modulator

• Comparing equation (3) with the expression for standard AM

wave i.e.

Standard Form of
S(t) = 𝑨𝒄 𝟏 + 𝝁𝒎(𝒕) 𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝟐𝝅𝒇𝒄 𝒕) AM Wave.

• We find that the expression for Vo(t) of equation (3) represents an

AM wave with 𝝁 = (2b/a) .
 Exercise: Square-law Modulator derivation
• A square-law modulator for generating an AM wave relies on the use of
a nonlinear device(e.g., diode). Figure ( ) depicts the simplest form of
such a modulator. Ignoring higher order terms, the input-output
characteristic of the diode-load resistor combination in this figure is
represented by the square law:

𝑣2 𝑡 = 𝑎1 𝑣1 𝑡 + 𝑎2 𝑣12 (𝑡)
• Where
𝑣1 𝑡 = 𝐴𝐶 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝐶 𝑡 + 𝑚 𝑡

• Derive the AM signal using the square-law modulation

Detection or Demodulation of AM Wave
 Introduction
• Introduce and explain AM wave demodulation.

• Explain the working operation envelope

detection.

• Envelope Detection Simulation using NI

software.
Demodulation:
• The process of recovering the message signal
from the received modulated signal is known as
demodulation . This process of detection is
exactly opposite to that of modulation .
Types of Demodulation:
• There are two types of AM detectors or
demodulators such as :

1. Envelope Detector

2. Square Law Demodulator (Assignment)

Email: n.e.eltayeb@gmail.com
Envelope Detector:

• The envelope demodulator is a simple and very

efficient device which is suitable for the detection of
a narrowband AM signal, (i.e. : 𝒇𝒄 ≫ 𝒇𝒎 ).

• An envelope demodulator produces an output signal

that follows the envelope of the input AM signal
exactly . It is used in all the commercial AM radio
receivers .
AM Signal:
𝒔 𝒕 = 𝑨𝒄 𝟏 + 𝒌𝒂 𝒎(𝒕) 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝟐𝝅𝒇𝒄 𝒕 𝒌𝒂 = Amplitude sensitivity
 Envelope of signal

𝑠 𝑡 = 𝑨𝒄 + 𝒎 𝒕 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑐 𝑡 assume: 𝒌𝒂 =
𝟏
𝑨𝒄
Modulation index: 𝝁 ≤ 1 (Under modulation)
 Amplitude Modulation (AM)
Modulation index: 𝝁 > 1 (Over-modulation)
Circuit Diagram:
The circuit diagram of the envelope demodulator is shown
in fig. below:

The envelope demodulator consists of a diode and RC filter.

 Tone Modulation

𝒇𝒎 (single frequency) 𝒇𝒄
 Part - 2

Envelope Detector Working Principle

Working Operation of Envelope Detector:

𝑣𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑜𝑢𝑡

 𝑣𝑖𝑛 > 𝑣𝑜𝑢𝑡  Diode is Forward biased

 𝑣𝑖𝑛 < 𝑣𝑜𝑢𝑡  Diode is reverse biased
Working Operation of Envelope Detector:
Envelope Detector
AM Waveform details
Envelope Detector
Envelope Detector

Ripple
Envelope Detector
Envelope Detector
 Part - 3
Selection of the RC time Constants
 Selection of the RC time Constants
Very Rapid
discharge, track
the carrier

• If RC time constant is too small, then the capacitor will discharge

rapidly and we will see more ripple in the output.

• Therefore it will tracks the carrier rather than the envelope.

 Selection of the RC time Constants
Slow discharge, fails
to track envelop

• If RC time constant is too large, then the capacitor will take a longer time for
discharge and may not be able to follow the Envelope of the signal.
Optimal Condition

𝟏 𝟏
≪𝝉 ≪
𝒇𝑪 𝒇𝒎
 Distortions in the Envelope Demodulator Output

• There are two types of distortions which can occur in

the detector output such as:

1. Diagonal clipping

2. Negative peak clipping

Diagonal Clipping:
• This type of distortion occurs when the RC time constant of the
load circuit is too long. Due to this, the RC circuit cannot follow
the fast changes in the modulating envelope . The diagonal
clipping is shown in fig.
 Negative Peak Clipping:
• This distortion occurs due to a fact that the modulation index on
the output side of the detector is higher than that on its input side.

• The negative peak clipping will take place as a result of this

overmodulation as shown in fig:
Thank You
Envelope Detection Simulation
Envelope Detection Circuit
Waveforms:
• The input-output waveforms for the envelope demodulator is
shown in fig.

• It shows the charging discharging of the filter capacitor and the

approximate output voltage .
• It may be observed from these waveforms that the envelope of the AM
wave is being recovered successfully .
Waveforms:
• The input-output waveforms for the envelope demodulator is
shown in fig.

• It shows the charging discharging of the filter capacitor and the

approximate output voltage .
• It may be observed from these waveforms that the envelope of the AM
wave is being recovered successfully .
 Envelope Detection

• The process of demodulation is used to recover the original

modulating wave from the incoming modulated wave.

• One way to demodulate an AM wave: envelope detector.

 Consist of a diode and a resistor-capacitor (RC) filter. (see next page)
 Circuit Diagram
• Envelope detector circuit diagram, assuming the diode is
ideal, having a constant resistance rf when forward biased and
infinite resistance when reverse-biased.

𝑣𝑖𝑛 𝑹𝑳 𝑣𝑜𝑢𝑡
 The operation of envelope detector
• On a positive half-cycle of the input signal, the diode is forward-biased
and the capacitor “C” charges up rapidly to the peak value of the input
signal.

• When the input signal falls below this value, the diode becomes
reverse biased and the capacitor “C” discharges slowly through the
load resistor RL. The discharging process continues until the next
positive half-cycle.

• When the input signal becomes greater than the voltage across the
capacitor, the diode conducts again and the process is repeated.
 Envelope Detection
• The time constant for discharge of capacitor is given by:
𝜏 = 𝑅𝐿 𝐶

• When:
 𝑣𝑖𝑛 > 𝑣𝑜𝑢𝑡  Diode is Forward biased
 𝑣𝑖𝑛 < 𝑣𝑜𝑢𝑡  Diode is reverse biased

• The time constant (𝜏) has to be chosen appropriately.

 Envelope Detection
• if 𝜏 = 𝑅𝐿 𝐶, is very large that implies the detector fails to
track the envelope.

• The envelope 𝐴𝑐 [1 + 𝑘𝑎 𝑚 𝑡 ] is determined by the message

signal.
 i.e., The rate of which the envelope is changing is determined by the
message signal 𝑚 𝑡 .

• Discharge must be faster than the rate of change of the

envelope.
𝟏
𝝉 ≪
𝒇𝒎
𝑹𝑳 𝑪 is too high:
𝟏
𝝉>
𝒇𝒎

Slow discharge, fails

to track envelope
 Envelope Detection
• if 𝜏 = 𝑅𝐿 𝐶, is too small that implies the capacitor will
discharge very rapidly.

• Therefore it will tracks the carrier rather than the envelope.

• Time constant of the capacitor discharge must be much

greater than the time period of the carrier.
𝟏
• Therefore, 𝝉 ≫
𝒇𝑪

• so that the output tracks the envelope rather than the carrier.
𝑹𝑳 𝑪 is too small:
𝟏
𝝉<
𝒇𝑪

Very Rapid discharge, track the

carrier
 Optimal Condition
• Therefore
𝟏 𝟏
≪𝝉 ≪
𝒇𝑪 𝒇𝒎

• This gives the appropriate range for 𝝉 = 𝑹𝑳 𝑪, the time

constant for capacitor discharge .
Thank You
 Tutorial
(Envelope Detector)
Q.1
 𝑓𝑐 = 1 × 106 𝐻𝑧 and 𝑓𝑚 = 2 × 103 𝐻𝑧
𝟏 𝟏
≪ 𝑹𝑪 ≪
𝒇𝒄 𝒇𝒎
1 1
6
≪ 𝑅𝐶 ≪
1 × 10 2 × 103

−3
10 10 −3
10−6 ≪ 𝑅𝐶 ≪ × −3
10
2
𝟏 𝝁𝒔 ≪ 𝑹𝑪 ≪ 𝟓𝟎𝟎 𝝁𝒔 So, we can demodulate the
• The appropriate time constant is: AM signal using the
Envelope Detector without
𝑅𝐶 = 𝜏 = 20 𝜇𝑠
distortion.
Q.2
 Multi-tone signal:

m t = cos 2000𝜋 𝑡 + 4cos(4000𝜋 𝑡)

𝒇𝒎 : 𝑓1 = 1 𝑘 𝐻𝑧 and 𝑓2 = 2 𝑘 𝐻𝑧, 𝒇𝒄 = 1 𝑀 𝐻𝑧 = 1 × 106

1 1
6
≪ 𝑅𝐶 ≪
1 × 10 2 × 103

𝟏 𝝁𝒔 ≪ 𝑹𝑪 ≪ 𝟎. 𝟓 𝒎𝒔
Q.3
 𝑠 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐 cos 𝜔𝑐 𝑡 + 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑚 𝑡 cos 𝜔𝑐 𝑡
• Compare these two expressions , i.e. Eq.
• Conditions for Detection of AM wave: (1) and Eq. (2) we get:, for proper
𝟏 𝟏 detection,
1. ≪ 𝑹𝑪 ≪
𝒇𝒄 𝒇𝒎
𝝁 ≤𝟏
So,
2. 𝝁 ≤ 𝟏 𝟐
≤𝟏
𝑨𝒄
• The standard form of AM Signal is:
Or
𝟐
𝒔 𝒕 = 𝑨𝒄 𝟏 + 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝝎𝒎 𝒕 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝝎𝒄 𝒕 (1) 𝑨𝒄 ≥ 𝟐
𝑨𝒄
• So, the minimum value of 𝑨𝒄 is :
• For single tone modulation, we
𝑨𝒄 𝒎𝒊𝒏 =𝟐𝐕
know the standards form as,

𝒔 𝒕 = 𝑨𝒄 𝟏 + 𝛍 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝝎𝒎 𝒕 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝝎𝒄 𝒕 (2)

Q.4 Exercise :
Thak You