Linear CW Modulation

COMMUNICATION SYSTEM ( TC-307), FALL, 2022

Taxonomy of Modulation Schemes
Analogue Modulation Schemes
Digital Modulation Schemes
AM Signals and Spectra
AM Signals and Spectra
AM Signals and Spectra
AM Signals and Spectra
Modulation Factor (Percent of Modulation):
AM Signals and Spectra
Modulation Index:
Vc+Vm
Vc
Vc-Vm

𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑉𝑐 + 𝑉𝑚 −−−−− − 1 Therefore,

𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥−𝑉𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑉𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝑉𝑐 − 𝑉𝑚 −−−−− −(2) M= 𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥+𝑉𝑚𝑖𝑛

By solving Eq. (1) and (2) we get:

𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥−𝑉𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑉𝑚 = and
2
𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥+𝑉𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑉𝑐 =
2
AM Signals and Spectra
Cases of Modulation Index:
𝑉𝑚
1. Under modulation: M<1: <1 Vm<Vc Vc-Vm is positive.
𝑉𝑐
Vc+Vm
Vc
Vc-Vm

𝑉𝑚
2. Critical modulation: M=1: =1 Vm=Vc Vc-Vm is 0.
𝑉𝑐
AM Signals and Spectra
Cases of Modulation Index:
𝑉𝑚
3. Over modulation: M>1: >1 Vm>Vc Vc-Vm is negative.
𝑉𝑐
AM Signals and Spectra
Double Sideband Full Carrier (DSBFC)

 The modulating voltage is known as the intelligence.

 The carrier frequency of the carrier signal is much greater than that of the modulating voltage.
 The carrier signal is usually a radio frequency signal in the mid-frequency range of 300 KHz to 3 MHz or
higher.
 In contrast, the frequency of modulating voltage is typically an audio frequency signal in the range of 20 Hz
to 20 KHz.
Double Sideband Full Carrier (DSBFC)
Analysis of DSBFC:

If X(t) represents information signal/intelligence/modulating signal

C(t) represents Carrier signal= 𝑉𝑐 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑤𝑐 𝑡
M(t) represents Modulated signal
Then the DSBFC modulated signal will be: 𝑴 𝒕 = (𝑿 𝒕 + 𝑽𝒄 )𝑪𝒐𝒔𝒘𝒄 𝒕
The frequency domain of the M(t) is represented as M(w) so
𝟏
M(w)= 𝑽𝒄 𝝅 𝜹 𝒘 − 𝒘𝒄 + 𝜹 𝒘 + 𝒘𝒄 + (X(𝒘 − 𝒘𝒄 )+X(𝒘 + 𝒘𝒄 ))
𝟐
Because, Frequency transform
1
of 𝑉𝑐 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑤𝑐 𝑡 = 𝑉𝑐 𝜋 𝛿 𝑤 − 𝑤𝑐 + 𝛿 𝑤 + 𝑤𝑐 and Frequency
transform of 𝑋 𝑡 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑤𝑐 𝑡= (X(𝑤 − 𝑤𝑐 )+X(𝑤 + 𝑤𝑐 ))
2
 Double Sideband Full Carrier (DSBFC)
Single-Tone Modulation Analysis:
Only one frequency component of message signal is considered in single tone represented with 𝑓𝑚 , hence the message signal will be:
X(t)= 𝑉𝑚 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑤𝑚 𝑡 where 𝑤𝑚 =2𝜋𝑓𝑚 .
 As M(t) = (𝑋 𝑡 + 𝑉𝑐 )𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑤𝑐 𝑡
M(t)= (𝑉𝑚 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑤𝑚 𝑡 +𝑉𝑐 )𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑤𝑐 𝑡
𝑉𝑚 𝑉𝑚
M(t)= 𝑉𝑐 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑤𝑐 𝑡 {( ) 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑤𝑚 𝑡 +1} Therefore M=
𝑉𝑐 𝑉𝑐

M(t)= 𝑉𝑐 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑤𝑐 𝑡 {1+M𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑤𝑚 𝑡} = 𝑽𝒄 𝑪𝒐𝒔𝒘𝒄 𝒕 {1+MX(t)}

𝑀𝑉𝑐
M(t)= 𝑉𝑐 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑤𝑐 𝑡+𝑀𝑉𝑐 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑤𝑐 𝑡 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑤𝑚 𝑡= 𝑉𝑐 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑤𝑐 𝑡 + 2𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑤𝑐 𝑡 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑤𝑚 𝑡
2
Using trigonometry identity: 2cosAcosB= cos(A-B)+cos(A+B) we have:
𝑀𝑉𝑐
M(t)=𝑉𝑐 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑤𝑐 𝑡 + {𝐶𝑜𝑠(𝑤𝑐 + 𝑤𝑚 )𝑡+ 𝐶𝑜𝑠(𝑤𝑐 − 𝑤𝑚 )𝑡 }
2
𝑀𝑉 𝑀𝑉
M(t)=𝑉𝑐 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑤𝑐 𝑡 + 𝑐 𝐶𝑜𝑠(𝑤𝑐 + 𝑤𝑚 )𝑡+ 𝑐 𝐶𝑜𝑠(𝑤𝑐 − 𝑤𝑚 )𝑡
2 2

Carrier Upper Sideband Lower Sideband

 Bandwidth Of DSBFC
Bandwidth (BW) is the difference between the highest and lowest frequencies of the signal. Mathematically, we
can write it as
BW=fmax−fmin
 Consider the following equation of amplitude modulated wave:
𝑀𝑉𝑐 𝑀𝑉𝑐
M(t)=𝑉𝑐 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑤𝑐 𝑡 + 𝐶𝑜𝑠(𝑤𝑐 + 𝑤𝑚 )𝑡+ 𝐶𝑜𝑠(𝑤𝑐 − 𝑤𝑚 )𝑡
2 2
 Hence, the DSBFC modulated wave has three frequencies. Those are carrier frequency 𝑤𝑐 , upper sideband
frequency (𝑤𝑐 +𝑤𝑚 ) and lower sideband frequency ((𝑤𝑐 − 𝑤𝑚 ).
Here 𝑓𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑤𝑐 +𝑤𝑚 and 𝑓𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝑤𝑐 − 𝑤𝑚
Therefore: BW=𝑤𝑐 +𝑤𝑚 -(𝑤𝑐 − 𝑤𝑚 )= 𝑤𝑐 +𝑤𝑚 -𝑤𝑐 + 𝑤𝑚
Hence BW= 2𝒘𝒎
Thus, it can be said that the bandwidth required for DSBFC modulated wave is twice the frequency of the
modulating signal.
Frequency Spectrum of DSBFC
The modulated signal is represented as:
𝑀𝑉𝑐 𝑀𝑉𝑐
M(t)=𝑉𝑐 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑤𝑐 𝑡 + 𝐶𝑜𝑠(𝑤𝑐 + 𝑤𝑚 )𝑡+ 𝐶𝑜𝑠(𝑤𝑐 − 𝑤𝑚 )𝑡
2 2
 The first term in equation represents the carrier frequency. The second and third terms represents the
Upper sideband (USB) and Lower sideband (LSB) respectively.
 The LSB is the mathematical difference between the carrier frequency and the modulation frequency
(𝑤𝑐 − 𝑤𝑚 ) and the USB is the mathematical sum of the carrier frequency and the modulation frequency
(𝑤𝑐 + 𝑤𝑚 ).
 The total composite signal DSBFC is comprised of two sidebands and a carrier frequency, referred to as
Double- sideband full-carrier or DSBFC.
𝑀𝑉
 The peak value terms 𝑐 of LSB and USB are equal. If these peak values are represented as 𝑉𝐿𝑆𝐵 and
2
𝑉𝑈𝑆𝐵 respectively then
𝑀𝑉𝑐
=𝑉𝐿𝑆𝐵 =𝑉𝑈𝑆𝐵
2
Frequency Spectrum of DSBFC
 When all frequency components are in phase they add together linearly and form the maximum signal
amplitude, 𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 that is:
𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑉𝑐 + 𝑉𝐿𝑆𝐵 +𝑉𝑈𝑆𝐵
 Since 𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 is equal to the sum of 𝑉𝑐 and 𝑉𝑚 that is:
𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑉𝑐 + 𝑉𝑚 because 𝑉𝑚 = 𝑉𝐿𝑆𝐵 +𝑉𝑈𝑆𝐵
 Similarly, the peak sideband voltages are equal.
𝑉𝑚 = 2𝑉𝐿𝑆𝐵 or 𝑉𝑚 =2𝑉𝑈𝑆𝐵
Frequency Spectrum of DSBFC
Problems
Problems
Problems
Problems
Problems
Problems
Power Distribution in the DSBFC
Waveform
 The total effective (rms) power 𝑃𝑇 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 DSBFC wave is the sum of the effective carrier power
level 𝑃𝑐 and the effective sideband power levels 𝑃𝐿𝑆𝐵 and 𝑃𝑈𝑆𝐵 .
𝑃𝑇 =𝑃𝑐 +𝑃𝐿𝑆𝐵 +𝑃𝑈𝑆𝐵
(𝑉𝑐𝑟𝑚𝑠 )2 (𝑉𝐿𝑆𝐵𝑟𝑚𝑠 )2 (𝑉𝑈𝑆𝐵𝑟𝑚𝑠 )2
𝑃𝑇 = + +
𝑅 𝑅 𝑅
(0.707𝑉𝑐 )2 (0.707𝑉𝐿𝑆𝐵 )2 (0.707𝑉𝑈𝑆𝐵 )2
𝑃𝑇 = + +
𝑅 𝑅 𝑅
𝑉𝑐 2 𝑉𝐿𝑆𝐵 2 𝑉𝑈𝑆𝐵 2
𝑃𝑇 = + +
2𝑅 2𝑅 2𝑅
Since the power in the upper and lower sidebands
2 is equal, the second and the third terms of equation
(𝑀𝑉𝑐 )
4 𝑴𝟐 𝑽𝒄 𝟐
are equal. Therefore 𝑃𝐿𝑆𝐵 = 𝑃𝑈𝑆𝐵 = =
2𝑅 𝟖𝑹
𝑉𝑐 2 𝑴𝟐 𝑽𝒄 𝟐 𝑴𝟐 𝑃𝑐
Since the total power in carrier, 𝑃𝑐 , is , we have: 𝑃𝐿𝑆𝐵 = 𝑃𝑈𝑆𝐵 = =
2𝑅 𝟖𝑹 4
Power Distribution in the DSBFC
Waveform
Hence we have: 𝑃𝑇 =𝑃𝑐 +𝑃𝐿𝑆𝐵 +𝑃𝑈𝑆𝐵
𝑴𝟐 𝑃𝑐 𝑴𝟐 𝑃𝑐
𝑃𝑇 =𝑃𝑐 + +
4 4
𝑴𝟐 𝑃𝑐
𝑃𝑇 =𝑃𝑐 +
2
𝑴𝟐
𝑷𝑻 =𝑷𝒄 (1+ )
𝟐

The equation is useful in computing the total effective power of the

DSBFC waveform by knowing only the value of the carrier power
and the modulation index.
Power Distribution in DSBFC wave for
100% Modulation
It is necessary to consider DSBFC waveform in terms of power efficiency. When 100% modulation is
used, M=1 sets the condition for maximum power utilization in the sidebands. For 100% modulation:
𝑀2 1
𝑃𝑇 =𝑃𝑐 (1+ )=𝑃𝑇 =𝑃𝑐 (1+ )
2 2
2
Hence 𝑃𝑐 = 𝑃𝑇
3

For 100% modulation, two-thirds of the total power is dissipated by the carrier frequency.
Problems
Problems
Power Spectrum:
Problems
Problems
Problems
Problems
Problems
Square Law Modulator for Generating
DSBFC
 If a 1 KHz tone is transmitted at 1 MHz, it is crucial to modulate the signal.
 An op-amp summing amplifier is used to electrically sum the two sinusoids together i.e. Modulating and
carrier frequencies.
 To produce an AM wave requires a device called a modulator. An AM/DSBFC modulator produces the
sum and difference products of the carrier and the modulation frequencies.
 The non linear device such as diode or transistor biased in its non-linear region are used in modulator
circuits.
 Non linear device produce output signals that are not in proportion to their input. It combines two
frequencies and produces a mixing action, resulting in harmonics as well as sum and difference
frequencies of the original signals.
 The resistor in the figure shown in Fig. (a) clips the negative half of the composite signal, thus producing
pulsating DC signal that is rich in harmonic content.
AM Modulators
The generating circuits for AM wave are called as amplitude modulator circuits.
The modulator circuits are classified into two categories:
Low level modulation.
High level modulation.
Low level modulation: The block diagram of a low level AM transmitter is shown below.
 Low Level Modulation
The RF crystal oscillator is most stable mechanical device suitable to generate high frequency carrier signal of particular frequency.
The high frequency carrier signal is generated by producing firstly low frequency signal and then multiplying harmonics using
harmonic generator to maintain stability. The buffer amplifier is a low gain, high impedance circuit that isolates any changes occur
in the load from crystal oscillator.
The amplified modulating signal is applied to the modulator signal along with carrier. At the output of the modulator we get the
AM wave.
This AM signal is then amplified using a chain of linear amplifiers to raise its power level.
The linear amplifiers can be class A, AB or B type amplifiers. The linear amplifiers are used in order to avoid the waveform
distortion in AM wave. As these amplifiers are wide band so the information can not be lost and distortion can be avoided.
The amplitude modulated signal is then transmitted using transmitting antenna.
The square law modulator, switching modulator or emitter circuits can be used for low level modulator due to the low power
which is to be handled.
The low level transmitter circuit does not require a large AF modulator power so its design is simplified.
However the overall efficiency is much lower compared to high level modulation. This is due to the use of less efficient linear
amplifiers.
 High Level Modulation
•Here the carrier generated by the stabilized crystal oscillator is first amplified to the adequate power level
using class C RF amplifiers.
• Class C amplifier is inserted to amplify carrier signal so that information signal can be preserved and
distortion does not takes place because class C amplifier is a narrow band amplifier.
•The modulating signal also is amplified to a high power level before modulation takes place. If we want
100% modulation then the power of modulating signal must be 33% of the total power. So if 1500 W total
power is to be transmitted, the modulating power will be 500 W. This highlights the need to amplify the
modulating signal to an adequate power level.
•The modulation takes place in the last class C RF amplifier. The modulator output is Am wave which can
be directly transmitted.
•The collector modulated transistorized circuit or plate modulated vacuum tube modulator is used as
modulator stage.
•The advantage of high level modulation is due to the use of highly efficient class C amplifiers.
High Level Modulation
Square Law Modulator for Generating
DSBFC
Square Law Modulator for Generating
DSBFC
 When a signal pulse is fed to a tank circuit, it causes a damped oscillations to occur at the natural
resonant frequency of the tank.
 A damped oscillation is a sinusoid function with an exponentially decaying envelope.
The tank circuit attached at the output of diode shown in Fig. c sustain the oscillatory effect in the
pulsating Dc, thereby producing complete sinusoids whose amplitudes are proportional to the amplitude
of modulating signal. The resulting AM wave is produced.
The resonant tank circuit filters out the undesirable harmonics and preserves the AM frequency
components.
Square Law Modulator for Generating
DSBFC
Square Law Modulator for Generating
DSBFC
𝑉2 (𝑡)= a𝑉1 (𝑡)+ b𝑉1 2 (𝑡) where 𝑉1 𝑡 = x t + 𝑉𝑐 cos𝑤𝑐 t
2
𝑉2 (𝑡)= a{x t + 𝑉𝑐 cos𝑤𝑐 t}+b{x t + 𝑉𝑐 cos𝑤𝑐 t}
2
𝑉2 (𝑡)= ax t + 𝑎𝑉𝑐 cos𝑤𝑐 t+ b𝑥 2 t + 𝑏𝑉𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑤𝑐 t + 2bx t 𝑉𝑐 cos𝑤𝑐 t OR
2
𝑉2 (𝑡)= ax t + b𝑥 2 t + 𝑏𝑉𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑤𝑐 t + 𝑎𝑉𝑐 cos𝑤𝑐 t + 2bx t 𝑉𝑐 cos𝑤𝑐 t
The last two terms of the above equation represents the desired AM wave and the first three terms of the above
equation are unwanted. So, with the help of band pass or tank filter, we can pass only AM wave and eliminate
the first three terms.
2𝑏
𝑉2 (𝑡)= 𝑎𝑉𝑐 cos𝑤𝑐 t + 2bx t 𝑉𝑐 cos𝑤𝑐 t = 𝑎𝑉𝑐 cos𝑤𝑐 t (1+ 𝑎 𝑥 t )
This expression is similar to the modulated AM/DSBFC waveform:
M(t)=𝑉𝑐 cos𝑤𝑐 t(1+mx(t))
Switching Modulator
Following is the block diagram of switching modulator.
Switching Modulator
Switching modulator is similar to the square law modulator. The only difference is that in the square
law modulator, the diode is operated in a non-linear mode, whereas, in the switching modulator, the
diode has to operate as an ideal switch.
Let the modulating and carrier signals be denoted as m(t) and respectively. These
two signals are applied as inputs to the summer (adder) block. Summer block produces an output,
which is the addition of modulating and carrier signals. Mathematically, we can write it as

 This signal V1(t) is applied as an input of diode. Assume, the magnitude of the modulating signal is
very small when compared to the amplitude of carrier signal Ac. So, the diode’s ON and OFF action is
controlled by carrier signal c(t). This means, the diode will be forward biased when c(t)>0 and it will be
reverse biased when c(t)<0. Therefore, the output of the diode is
Switching Modulator
We can approximate this as
 Switching Modulator

The 1st term of the above equation represents the desired AM wave and the remaining terms are unwanted
terms. Thus, with the help of band pass filter, we can pass only AM wave and eliminate the remaining
terms.
Therefore, the output of switching modulator is
Switching Modulator
Emitter Modulator
The emitter modulator is basically a small signal amplifier, and is shown by
Emitter Modulator
When no modulating signal is present, the circuit operates as a linear amplifier. The output is simply the
carrier amplified by the quiescent voltage gain. When a modulating signal is applied, the amplifier
operates nonlinearly, and signal multiplication occurs.
 Modulating signal is applied through isolation transformer to the emitter of transistor and the carrier is
applied directly to the base. The modulating signal drives the circuit into both saturation and cut-off
states, producing the nonlinear amplification necessary for modulation to occur. The collector waveform
includes the carrier, upper and lower side frequencies as well as a component at the modulating
frequency. Coupling capacitor C2 removes the modulating signal frequency from the waveform,
producing a symmetrical AM envelope at Vout.
DSBFC Limitations
1.Power wastage takes place in DSB-FC transmission:
DSBFC Limitations
2. DSB-FC system is bandwidth inefficient system:
The bandwidth (BW) of DSB-FC system is 2fm . This is due to the simultaneous transmission of both the
sidebands, out of which only one is sufficient to convey all the information .
 Thus, the BW of DSB-FC is double than actually required and therefore, DSB-FC is a bandwidth inefficient
system .
3. AM wave gets affected due to noise:
When the AM wave travels from the transmitter to receiver over a communication channel, noise gets added to
it.
The noise changes the amplitude of the envelope of AM in a random manner.
As the information is contained in the amplitude variations of the AM wave, the noise will contaminate the
information contents in the AM.
Hence, the performance of AM is very poor in presence of noise .