When food is ingested it travels along the digestive tract where it is broken down into its component

nutrients in order to be absorbed into the bloodstream. One such nutrient is glucose a simple sugar
glucose gets absorbed by the stomach and intestines and then enters the bloodstream it travels through
the circulation to all body cells, once absorbed into the bloodstream glucose circulates causing the blood
sugar level to rise an increased level of blood sugar sends a signal to the pancreatic beta cells which
responsed by secreting the hormone insulin into the circulation. Insulin is necessary for glucose to reach
and be used by several important target tissues throughout the body these include th liver mucle and
adipose tissue insulin is necessary to keep blood glucose levels stable in the body. Lucas enters the cell
through a process called facilitated diffusion..

Insulin into s a polypeptide hormone, insulin has in storing excess energy as in storing fats lipids,
carbohydrates and protein such as during a phase state. Instatnt has a major effect during the fed state
so basically just after we eat because after we eat we would have many macromolecules running
through our intestines such. Glucose will be absorbed by the blood and the pancreases will secrete
insulin and insulin will promote the uptake of glucose from the blood into the liver insulin will also
promote the conversion of glucose to glycogen the storgae unit of glucose insulin will promote the
conversion glucose to pyruvate an then to a silk away by glycolysis insulin will promote a silk away to
transyl glycerols and then transfer glycerols can the be package up imto very low density lipoproteins
which can then be stored as a trance of glycerol in adipose tissue so insulin does all these things
initiateve also has effective amino acids will be absorbed by the blood in turn will promote the ptake of
amino acids from the bloodstream to the liver and then in turn will promote our protein approach
persue genesis therefore promoting protein synthesis insert also has effects on facts but fats absorbed
through the lymphatic circulation up to the blood and insulin will promote our the storage of fats within
skeletal muscle up as fatty acids insulin also promote the synthesis of trials or glycerol from fat in the
liver.

Regulation insulin :

Pancreas is both an exocrine and endocrine gland exocrine because it make enzymes for the digestion of
fats carbohydrates and protein that are secreated into the lumen of the duodenum. Endocrine because
it produces glucagon from alpha cells and amylin and insulin from beta cells that all gets secreated into
theblood., langerhans the function of these cells is to produce insulin. Insulin released from the beta
cells of the pancreas, glucose levels in the blood are ,onitored by the beta cells this happens as glucose
enters the beta cells from the blood through glue to transporters one inside the cells glucose is
metabolized to produce ATP the more glucose that has entered the beta cell the more ATP that is
produced ATP will bind to ATP sensitive potassium channels in the membrane and close them this
causes depolarization since the potential for potassium to leave is decreased the level of depolarization
will cause a corresponding number of calcium voltage-gated channels to open calcium enters the beta
cell and causes exocytosis a pre synthesized vesicles containing insulin and outlet when enter the blood
it is important to remember that this process is not an all-or-none response the level of glucose in the
blood will result in a corresponding amount of insulin and emelin release from the beta cell to
summarize glucose enters the beta cells of the pancrease through glue to chanels which brings about
the release of insulin which then enters the blood, insulin that leaves the pancreas and travels
throughout the body it will bind to insulin receptors located on muscle and fat cells the binding of insulin
to its receptor leads to activation of a second messenger system which ultimately causes translocation
of the transporter glute 4 into the cell membrane glute 4 allows glucose to leave the blood to enter the
muscle and fat cells so the glucose can be converted to fat stored as glycogen or be utilized to make ATP

Video 4 :

In the pancreas this is the cell but type thats going to release insulin if we have elevated blood glucose
now in the membrane of these beta cells we have a glucose transporter this is a different type of glucose
transporter than once found in skeletal muscle that would be glueck 4 this is actually glue to and glue to
can trigger the import of glucose into the beta cell and through basically glycolysis as shown right here
the citric acid cycle and then oxidative phosphorylation your ultimately end up producing ATP now one
of the things about this pathway thats a little bit different than normal glycolytic pathways and so forth
is the is the nature of the first enzyme hexokinase this is actually hexokinase 4 and if you actually try to
find this youll find more easily under glucokinase this is related its homoogous to the other hexokinase is
that you wouldnt find in most cell types however this hexokinase is not allosteric ly regulated . glucose
will be converted basically ultimately to ATP and so the level of ATP in the cell is going to be directly
proportional to the amount glucose thats in the cell and the glucose proportional to the glucose in the
blood so in other words the more glucose that we have in the blood the more ATP thats going to be
produced in this part of the pathway. If low blood glucose then gonna have low ATP in this beta cell the
glucose in the blood will be proportional to the glucose in the pancreatic beta cell which will therefore
be proportional to the amount of the ATP in the cell so before we go any further in the case of low low
blood glucose we mention this ATP level is going to be low in the beta cell, theres another protein in the
membrane of the cell its an ATP gated potassium channel, ATP what it will normally do when it becomes
elevated is it will inhibit this potassium channel so this ATP has an inhibitory effect on this potassium
channel in the case of low blood glucose theres ATP so theres no inhibition on this potassium channel so
potassium channel will continue to be a fluxed out of the cell so in the case of low blue glucose we have
increased potassium efflux and the membrane of this beta cell will be hyperpolarized that generally
result in inactivation of voltage dependent ion channels so when we have hyper polarization of this
membrane we actually will have decreased calcium influx into the cell and thats important because its
actually calcium influx that will trigger the release of insulin and so if we have low calcium influx thats
going to trigger a low degree of insulin secretion and really this is a response that can be graded you can
have some blood glucose levels that are lower than others so the lower blood glucose the less insulin
thats secreted, so low blood glucose low ATP we have increased potassium efflux into the or out of the
cell and then hyper polarization which in activates this voltage-gated calcium channel and then lower
calcium influx which means lower insulin secretion okay now as we increase blood glucose these
parameters are going to change in their opposite diretions so lets consider a case where we just ate a
carbohydrate rich meal we have elevatde blood glucose transiently that means lots of glucose out here
glute 2 is going import that glucose so the import of glucose is going to be proportional to the amount in
the blood so we end up with a lot of initiakky in the beta cell and then we go through this pathway,
glucokinase its not regulated its not inhibited by feedback inhibition from glucose 6-phosphate so the
amount of glucose in here is gonna be proportional with this ATP so in the case of elevated blood
glucose we now have an increased level of ATP thats because remember this ATP gated potassium
channel channel is inhibited by high levels of ATP so when this ATP starts to build up in the case of
elevated blood glucose that ATP is going to be able to inhibit this potassium efflux so we have a lower
degree of potassium efflux and thats gonna cause the cessation of the hyperpolarization we could more
easily say that is it triggers depolarization because thats the opposite of hyperpolarization so i probably
should have put that here but we do have as you can see here depolarization because by default were
inhibiting that potassium channel this dipolarization along the membrane of the beta cell activates the
voltage dependent or voltage gated calcium channel and now you have increased potassium channel
efflux also there are other ways to get calcium influx into into the cell we can actually trigger the release
of calcium from the endoplasmic reticulum right here but in any case when theres elevated blood
glucose were gonna have an increased degree of calcium in the cell increased concentration of calcium
whether it be from the extracellular fluid or the endoplasmic reticulum, that calcium is gonna then
trigger insulin exocytosis which basically means these granules that are loaded with insulin are going to
be dumped into the blood and thats how insulin is secreted into the blood.