STUDY OF MECHANICAL AND ACOUSTIC

PROPERTIES OF FLAX -KENAF- TAMARIND

SEED FIBER REINFORCED HYBRID
COMPOSITES: EFFECT OF FLAX FIBER
HYBRIDIZATION
A PROJECT REPORT

Submitted by

S. RAHUL KUMAR (711317114124)

R.THAMARAI KHANNAN (711317114172)

M.VASANTH (711317114175)

J. REMIGIUS MARIOE (711317114317)

in partial fulfilment for the award of the degree

of

BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING

in

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

KPR INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

COIMBATORE

ANNA UNIVERSITY: CHENNAI 600 025

1
MARCH 2021

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 ANNA UNIVERSITY: CHENNAI 600 025

BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that this project report “STUDY OF MECHANICAL AND

ACOUSTIC PROPERTIES OF FLAX -KENAF- TAMARIND SEED
FIBER REINFORCED HYBRID COMPOSITES: EFFECT OF FLAX
FIBER HYBRIDIZATION” is the bonafide work of “S.RAHUL KUMAR
(711317114124),R.THAMARAI KHANNAN (711317114172),M.VASANTH
(711317114175), J.REMIGIUS MARIOE (711317114317)” who carried out
the project work under my supervision.

SIGNATURE OF HOD SIGNATURE OF THE SUPERVISOR

Dr. S. RAMESH BABU L.PRABHU
Professor and Head Assistant Professor (Sl.G)

Department of Mechanical Engineering, Department of Mechanical Engineering,

KPR Institute of Engineering & Technology KPR Institute of Engineering & Technology

Arasur, Coimbatore-641 407. Arasur, Coimbatore-641 407.

Submitted for the project Viva-Voce Examination held on .

INTERNAL EXAMINER EXTERNAL EXAMINER

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We wish to convey our sincere thanks and gratitude to

Dr.K.P.Ramasamy, Chairman, KPR Institute of Engineering and Technology
who has provided all the facilities to us.

We would like to express our sincere thanks to Dr.A.M.Natarajan, Chief

Executive and Dr.M.Akila, Principal for their continuous support and
encouragement throughout the project.

We are grateful to Dr.S.Ramesh Babu, Professor and Head, Department

of Mechanical Engineering for providing constructive suggestions and
encouragement during the project.

With a deep sense of gratitude, we extend our earnest and sincere thanks
to our project guide Mr.L.Prabhu, Assistant Professor (Sl.G), Department of
Mechanical Engineering for his guidance and encouragement during this
project.

We wish to place our deep sense of thanks to all the teaching and non-
teaching faculty of department of Mechanical Engineering for their cooperation
and suggestions during the project work.

We also express our sincere thanks to our parents, friends and everyone
who has helped us generously for completing the project.

Name & Signature (Student 1) Name & Signature (Student 2)

Name & Signature (Student 3) Name & Signature (Student 4)

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CHAPTER NO TITLE PAGE NO

ABSTRACT 8

LIST OF FIGURES 9

LIST OF TABLES 11

1 INTRODUCTION 12

1.1 OVERVIEW OF COMPOSITES 12

1.2 CLASSIFICATION OF COMPOSITES 14

1.2.1 Based on Reinforcement 14

1.2.1.1 Fiber reinforced composites 15

1.2.1.2 Particulate Composites 15

1.2.1.3 Structural Composites 15

1.2.2 Based on matrices 16

1.2.2.1 Ceramic matrix composites 17

1.2.2.2 Organic matrix composites 17

1.2.2.3 Metal matrix composites 17

1.3 Types of natural fibres 17

1.3.1 Flax 17

1.3.2 Hemp 18

1.3.3 Jute 19

1.3.4 Kenaf 19

1.3.5 Sisal 20

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1.3.6 Abaca 21

1.3.7 Banana 22

1.3.8 Pineapple 23

1.3.9 Ramie 23

1.3.10 Coir 24

1.3.11 Bamboo 24

1.3.12 Bagasse 25

1.4 Application of natural fibres 26

2 LITERATURE SURVEY 29

3 PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION 34

4 METHODOLOGY 35

5 CHEMICAL TREATMENT 36

5.1 Types of chemical treatment 36

5.1.1 Alkaline treatment 36

5.1.2 Silane treatment 37

5.1.3 Acetylation treatment 38

5.1.4 Benzolation treatment 38

5.1.5 Peroxide treatment 39

5.1.6 Isocynate treatment 39

5.1.7 Permanganate treatment 40

5.1.8 Triazine treatment 40

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5.1.9 Fatty acid derivative treatment 41

5.1.10 Fungal treatment 41

6 COMPOSITE PLATE 42

MANUFACTURING

6.1 Selection of fibres 42

6.1.1 Flax fibres 42

6.1.2 Kenaf fibres 43

6.1.3 Tamarind seed powder 44

6.1.4 Epoxy resin 45

6.2 Compression moulding process 46

7 EXPERIMENTAL ANALYSIS 48

7.1 Experimental setup 48

7.2 Tensile test 49

7.3 Flexural test 50

7.4 Impact test 52

7.5 Hardness test 54

7.6 SEM Analysis 57

7.7 Sound absorption test 57

8 RESULT AND DISCUSSION 60

8.1 Tensile properties 60

8.2 Flexural properties 61

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8.3 Impact properties 63

8.4 Moisture absorption 64

8.5 Hardness analysis 65

8.6 FTIR analysis 65

8.7 SEM analysis 67

8.8 Sound absorption test 67

9 CONCLUSION 69

10 REFERENCES 70

11 LIST OF PUBLICATIONS

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 ABSTRACT

Over the last thirty years composite materials, plastics ,ceramics have been

the dominant emerging materials. The volume and the number of applications of

composite materials have been steadily, penetrating and conquering new

markets relentlessly. Modern composite materials constitute a significant

proportion of the engineered materials market ranging from everyday products

to sophisticated applications. While the composites have already proven their

worth as weight saving materials, the current challenge is to cost effective.

Studies on natural fibers as replacement to man-made fiber in fiber reinforced

composites has increased and opened up further industrial possibilities. Natural

fibers have the advantage of low density , low cost and bio degradability. The

main disadvantages of fibers in composites are the poor compatibility between

fiber and matrix , the relative high moisture absorption and poor dimensional

stability. In the present research studying the mechanical and acoustic

properties of flax-kenaf -tamarind seed powder hybrid composite .

KEY WORDS: Natural fiber, Mechanical properties, Mechanical

testing,SAT(sound absorption testing), FTIR Analysis(Fourier transform infra

red)

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 LIST OF FIGURES

TABLE TITLE PAGE

NO NO

1.1 Based on Reinforcement 14

1.2 Based On Matrices 16

1.3 Use of Composites in Industries 28

5.1 Alkaine treatment in natural fibers 37

6.1 Flax Fiber 43

6.2 Kenaf fiber 44

6.3 Tamarind seed powder 45

6.4 Epoxy resin 46

6.5 Compression Moulding Machine 47

7.1 Experimental setup 48

7.2 Tensile test samples 49

7.3 Flexural testing machine 50

7.4 Flexural test samples 52

7.5 Impact test machine 53

7.6 Impact test sample 54

7.7 Shore D hardness testing machine 55

7.8 Hardness test sample 56

7.9 SEM analysis machine 57

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7.10 SAP test sample 58

8.1 Tensile strength comparison of different samples 60

8.2 Tensile modulus comparison of different samples 60

8.3 Flexural strength comparison of different samples 61

8.4 Flexural modulus comparison of different samples 62

8.5 Impact strength comparison of different samples 63

8.6 Impact energy comparison of different samples 63

8.7 Moisture absorption comparison of different samples 64

8.8 Hardness comparison of different composite materials 65

8.9 FTIR tesing of different samples 66

8.10 SEM analysis of different samples 67

8.11 Comparison of sound absorption of different samples 68

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 LIST OF TABLES

TABLE TITLE PAGE

NO NO

1.1 Properties of Natural Fibers 26

1.2 Advantages of Natural Fibers 26

7.1 Tensile strength comparison of different samples 49

7.2 Flexural strength comparison of different samples 51

7.3 Impact strength comparison of different samples 53

7.4 Hardness comparison of different samples 56

7.5 Comparison of sound absorption values 59

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 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 OVERVIEW OF COMPOSITES

The increase in environmental consciousness and community interest, the
new environmental regulations and unsustainable consumption of petroleum,
led to thinking of the use of environmentally friendly materials. Natural fiber is
considered one of the environmentally friendly materials which have good
properties compared to synthetic fiber. A late current industry research
identified that the worldwide natural fiber reinforced polymer composites
industry sector reached U$2.1 billion in 2010. Current pointers are that interest
in NFPCs industry will keep on growing quickly around the world. The
utilization of NFPCs has expanded considerably in the shopper merchandise as
developing industry sectors throughout the last few years. As indicated by
evaluations, over 5 years (2011–2016), the NFPCs industry is estimated to grow
10% worldwide. Natural fibers in simple definition are fibers that are not
synthetic or manmade. They can be sourced from plants or animals. Use of
natural fiber from both resources, renewable and non-renewable such as oil
palm, sisal, flax, and jute to produce composite materials, gained considerable
attention in the last decades, so far. The plants, which produce cellulose fibers
can be classified into bast fibers (jute, flax, ramie, hemp, and kenaf ), seed
fibers (cotton, coir, and kapok), leaf fibers (sisal, pineapple, and abaca), grass
and reed fibers (rice, corn, and wheat), and core fibers (hemp, kenaf, and jute)
as well as all other kinds (wood and roots). The most common and
commercially natural fibers in the world and world production have been shown
in Table 1. Fiber reinforced polymer matrix got considerable attention in
numerous applications because of the good properties and superior advantages
of natural fiber over synthetic fibers in term of its relatively low weight, low

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cost, less damage to processing equipment, good relative mechanical properties
such as tensile modulus and flexural modulus, improved surface finish of
moulded parts composite, renewable resources, being abundant, flexibility
during processing, biodegradability, and minimal health hazards. NFPCs with a
high specific stiffness and strength can be produced by adding the tough and
light-weight natural fiber into polymer (thermoplastic and thermoset). On the
other hand, natural fibers are not free from problems and they have notable
deficits in properties. The natural fibers structure consists of (cellulose,
hemicelluloses, lignin, pectin, and waxy substances) and permits moisture
absorption from the surroundings which causes weak bindings between the fiber
and polymer. Furthermore, the couplings between natural fiber and polymer are
considered a challenge because the chemical structures of both fibers and matrix
are various. These reasons for ineffectual stress transfer during the interface of
the produced composites. Accordingly, natural fiber modifications using
specific treatments are certainly necessary. These modifications are generally
centered on the utilization of reagent functional groups which have ability for
responding of the fiber structures and changing their composition. As a result,
fiber modifications cause reduction of moisture absorption of the natural fibers
which lead to an excellent enhancement incompatibility between the fiber and
polymer matrix.
The wide applications of NFPCs are growing rapidly in numerous
engineering fields. The different kinds of natural fibers reinforced polymer
composite have received a great importance in different automotive applications
by many automotive companies such as German auto companies (BMW, Audi
Group, Ford, Opel, Volkswagen, Daimler Chrysler, and Mercedes), Proton
company (Malaysian national carmaker), and Cambridge industry (an auto
industry in USA). Beside the auto industry, the applications of natural fiber
composites have also been found in building and construction industry, sports,
aerospace, and others, for example, panels, window frame, decking, and bicycle

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frame. In a review of chemical treatments of natural fibers, Kabir and co-
workers concurred that treatment is an important factor that has to be considered
when processing natural fibers. They observed that fibers loose hydroxyl groups
due to different chemical treatments, thereby reducing the hydrophilic
behaviour of the fibers and causing enhancement in mechanical strength as well
as dimensional stability of natural fiber reinforced polymer composites.

1.2 CLASSIFICATION OF COMPOSITES

The Composites can be classified based on matrixes and reinforcement.
They are
1.2.1 Based On Reinforcement

Composite material
(Based on reinforcement)

Fiber reinforced Particulate Structural

composites composites composites

Glass Fiber Carbon Fiber Sandwich Laminated

composite composite composite composite

Figure 1.1 Based on Reinforcement

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1.2.1.1 Fiber Reinforced Composites
A fiber-reinforced composite (FRC) is a composite building material that
consists of three components:
(i) The fibers as the discontinuous or dispersed phase,
(ii) The matrix as the continuous phase, and
(iii) The fine interphase region, also known as the interface.
This is a type of advanced composite group, which makes use of rice husk, rice
hull, and plastic as ingredients. This technology involves a method of refining,
blending, and compounding natural fibers from cellulosic waste streams to form
a high-strength fiber composite material in a polymer matrix. The designated
waste or base raw materials used in this instance are those of waste
thermoplastics and various categories of cellulosic waste including rice husk
and saw dust.

1.2.1.2 Particulate Composites

Particulate composites are other class of particle-reinforced composites.
These contain large amounts of comparatively coarse particles. These
composites are designed to produce unusual combinations of properties rather
than to improve the strength. Mechanical properties, such as elastic modulus, of
particulate composites achievable are in the range defined by rule of mixtures.

1.2.1.3 Structural Composites

The structured composite is a special class of composite materials that is
fabricated by attaching two thin but stiff skins to a lightweight but thick core.
The core material is normally low strength material, but its higher thickness
provides the composite with high bending stiffness with overall low density.

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1.2.2 Based On Matrices

Composite material
(Based on matrices)

Ceramic matrix Organic matrix Metal matrix

composites composites composites

Polymer matrix Carbon matrix

composites composites

Thermo plastic matrix Thermo set matrix

composites composites

Figure 1.2 Based 0n Matrices

1.2.2.1 Ceramic Matrix Composites

Ceramic matrix composites (CMCs) are a subgroup of composite
materials as well as a subgroup of ceramics. They consist of ceramic fibres
embedded in a ceramic matrix. The matrix and fibres can consist of any ceramic
material, whereby carbon and carbon fibres can also be considered a ceramic
material.

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1.2.2.2 Organic Matrix Composites
A polymer matrix composite (PMC) is a composite material composed of
a variety of short or continuous fibers bound together by an organic polymer
matrix. PMCs are designed to transfer loads between fibers through the matrix.
Some of the advantages with PMCs include their lightweight, high stiffness and
their high strength along the direction of their reinforcements. Other advantages
are good abrasion resistance and good corrosion resistance

1.2.2.3 Metal Matrix Composites

A metal matrix composite (MMC) is composite material with at least two
constituent parts, one being a metal necessarily, the other material may be a
different metal or another material, such as a ceramic or organic compound.
When at least three materials are present, it is called a hybrid composite.

1.3 TYPES OF NATURAL FIBERS

There are six basic types of natural fibers. They are: bast fibers (jute,
flax, hemp, ramie and kenaf), leaf fibers (abaca, sisal and pineapple), seed fibers
(coir, cotton and kapok), core fibers (kenaf, hemp and jute), grass and reed
fibers (wheat, corn and rice) and all other types (wood and roots).

1.3.1 Flax
Flax, Linum usitatissimum, belongs to the bast fibers. It is grown in
temperate regions and is one of the oldest fiber crops in the world. The bast
fiber flax is most frequently used in the higher value-added textile markets.
Nowadays, it is widely used in the composites area. The static and dynamic
mechanical properties of nonwoven based flax fiber reinforced PP composites
were studied considering the effect of zein coupling agent. Zein is a protein,

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extracted from corn and used as solution. Composites containing zein coupling
agent were found to possess improved mechanical properties.
The storage modulus of composites was found to increase with zein
coupling agent coating due to enhanced interfacial adhesion. The tensile
mechanical properties of flax fibers are estimated according to their diameter
and their location in the stems. The large scattering of these properties is
ascribed to the variation of the fiber size along its longitudinal axis. The higher
values of the mechanical properties of the fibers issued from the middle of the
stems are associated with the chemical composition of their cell walls. The
mechanical properties of unidirectional flax fiber/epoxy matrix composites are
studied as a function of their fiber content. The properties of the composites are
lower than those expected from single fiber characteristics.

1.3.2 Hemp
Another notable bast fiber crop is hemp, which belongs to the Cannabis
family. It is an annual plant that grows in temperate climates. Hemp is currently
the subject of a European Union subsidy for non-food agriculture, and a
considerable initiative in currently underway for their further development in
Europe. Composites of PP with hemp fibers, which were functionalized by
means of melt grafting reactions with glycidyl methacrylate (GMA) and
prepared by batch mixing, were examined. The modification of fibers and the
PP matrix, as well as the addition of various compatibilizers were carried out to
improve the fiber–matrix interactions. Compared to the unmodified system, a
modified composite showed improved fiber dispersion in the PP matrix and
higher interfacial adhesion as a consequence of chemical bonding between the
fiber and the polymer (PP/Hemp). The thermal stability and phase behaviour of
the composites was largely affected by the fiber and matrix modification.
Changes in the spherulithic morphology and crystallization behaviour of PP
were observed in the composites due to the nucleating effect of the hemp fibers.

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Moreover, a marked increase in the PP isothermal crystallization rate (in the
range 120–138 ◦C) was recorded with increasing content of modified hemp. All
composites displayed a higher tensile modulus (about 2.9 GPa) and lower
elongation at break as compared to plain PP; compatibilization with modified
PP (10 phr) resulted in an increased stiffness of the composites as a result of
improved fiber–matrix interfacial adhesion.

1.3.3 Jute
Jute is produced from plants of the genus Corchorus, which includes
about 100 species. It is one of the cheapest natural fibers and is currently the
bast fiber with the highest production volume. Bangladesh, India and China
provide the best condition for the growth of jute. The dynamic, mechanical,
thermal, and impact fatigue behavior compared to that of untreated jute fiber–
vinyl ester composites.
Longer alkali treatment removed the hemicelluloses and improved the
crystallinity, enabling better fiber dispersion. The dynamic, mechanical, thermal
and impact properties were superior owing to the alkali treatment, comprising
treatment time, concentration and conditions. The effects of hybridization on
the tensile properties of jute–cotton woven fabric reinforced polyester
composites were investigated as functions of the fiber content, orientation and
roving texture. It was observed that tensile properties along the direction of jute
roving alignment (transverse to cotton roving alignment) increase steadily with
fiber content up to 50% and then show a tendency to decrease. The tensile
strength of composites with 50% fiber content parallel to the jute roving is
about 220% higher than pure polyester resin.

1.3.4 Kenaf
Kenaf belongs to the genus Hibiscus and there are about 300 species.
Kenaf is a new crop in the United States and shows good potential as a raw

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material for usage in composite products. Latest advances in decortications
equipment which separates the core from the bast fiber combined with fiber
shortages, have renewed the interest in kenaf as a fiber source. Thermoforming
has proven to enable the successful fabrication of kenaf fiber reinforced PP
sheets into sheet form. The optimal fabrication method found for these materials
was at the compression moulding process, which utilizes a layered sifting of a
micro-fine PP powder and chopped kenaf fibers. The fiber content (30 and 40
Wt %) provided adequate reinforcement to increase the strength of the PP
matrix. The kenaf–PP composites compression moulded in this study proved to
have superior tensile and flexural strength when compared to other compression
moulded natural fiber composites such as other kenaf, sisal, and coir reinforced
thermoplastics. With the aid of the elastic modulus data, it was also possible to
compare the economic benefits of using kenaf composites instead of other
natural fibers and E-glass.
The manufactured kenaf maleated PP composites have a higher
modulus/cost and a higher specific modulus than sisal, coir, and even E-glass.
Thus, they provide an option for replacing existing materials with a higher
strength, lower cost alternative that is environmentally friendly. Hybrid
composites of wood flour/kenaf fiber and PP were prepared to investigate the
hybrid effect on the composite properties. The results indicated that while non-
hybrid composites of kenaf fiber and wood flour exhibited the highest and
lowest modulus values respectively, the moduli of hybrid composites were
closely related to the fiber to particle ratio of the reinforcements. With the help
of the hybrid mixtures equation it was possible to predict the elastic modulus of
the composites better than when using the Halpin–Tsai equation.

1.3.5 Sisal
Sisal is an agave (Agave sisalana) and commercially produced in Brazil
and East Africa. Between 1998–2000 and 2010, the global demand for sisal

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fiber and its products is expected to decline by an annual rate of 2.3% as
agricultural twine. The traditional market for fibers continues to be eroded by
synthetic substitutes and by the adoption of harvesting technologies that utilizes
less or no twine. Magnesium hydroxide and zinc borate were incorporated into
sisal/PP composites as flame retardants.
Adding flame retardants into sisal/PP composites reduced the burning
rate and increased the thermal stability of the composites. No synergistic effect
was observed when both magnesium hydroxide and zinc borate were
incorporated into the sisal/PP composites. In addition, the sisal/PP composites
exhibited insignificant differences in shear viscosity at high shear rates
indicating that the types of flame retardants used in this study had no impact on
the process ability of the composites. The sisal/PP composites which flame
retardants were added to, exhibited tensile and flexural properties comparable to
those of the sisal/PP composites, which flame retardants had not been added to.
Sisal /PP composites were investigated regarding the environmental
effects on the degradation behaviour, the influence of coupling agents on the
abrasive wear and the effect of ageing on the mechanical properties. The
degradation tests demonstrated that the prepared sisal/plasticized wood flour
composites were fully biodegradable. To accelerate the decomposition process,
both cellulose and lignin in the composites should be considered. The
hydrophobicity and flame resistance of composites is important when regarding
practical applications.
1.3.6 Abaca
The abaca fiber, which comes from the banana plant, is durable and
resistant to seawater. Abaca, the strongest of the commercially available
cellulose fibers, is indigenous to the Philippines and is currently produced there
and in Ecuador. It was once the preferred cordage fiber for marine applications.
When abaca fiber PP composites were compared with jute and flax fiber PP
composites, abaca fiber composites had the best notched Charpy and falling

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weight impact properties. Abaca fiber composites also showed higher odor
concentration compared to jute and flax fiber composites. A dynamic
mechanical analysis of, polarity parameters of banana fiber reinforced polyester
composites were carried out by Thomas and co-workers with special reference
to the effects of fiber loading, frequency and temperature. The storage modulus
was found to be highest for composites with 40% fiber loading, indicating that
the incorporation of abaca fiber in the polyester matrix induces reinforcing
effects at higher temperatures. Increased dynamic modulus values and low
damping values verified improved interactions between the fiber and the matrix.

1.3.7 Banana
Banana is the second most consumed fruit in Malaysia. It is estimated
that about 10 million banana trees are cut down every year to produce enough
banana to meet the demand in Malaysia. These banana trees are left to rot in the
banana plantation and by product of the rotting process is methane gas which is
one of the greenhouse gases (a pollutant). It is worth to utilize fibre from banana
trees since it is considered as one of the renewable resources in Malaysia and
in the future the demand for banana stem fibre based will increase as green
materials. Utilization of the banana stem fibre not only benefits the
environment, but it will also reduce the overall resource consumption while
sustaining national economic growth and introduction of green technology to
the rural areas. Over the years, a lot of work had been done on the utilization of
banana stem fibre1-15. Most of the work concentrated on making bio
composites based on banana stem fibre. Banana stem fibre based bio composites
were made by mixing banana stem fibre with other materials as the matrix.
Different strategies were employed to produce bio composites for different
possible applications. Most work claimed that the resulting bio composites were
biodegradable. The method of making banana stem fibre based bio composites
involved extracting the fibre from the banana Stem. The fibre was then cleaned

23
and processed based on the type of bio composites to be produced. Sometimes
the fibre surface was modified to ensure better interaction between the fibre and
the matrix. One of the problems encountered in making bio composites is
homogeneity. Homogeneity is important to ensure that the fibre is uniformly
dispersed in the composites. If the fibre is not uniformly dispersed in the bio
composites, the properties of the fibre-rich areas will be different from other
areas in the bio composites

1.3.8 Pineapple
Pineapple (Ananas comosus) is a tropical plant native to Brazil. Pineapple
leaf fiber is rich in cellulose, relatively inexpensive and abundantly available.
Furthermore, it has the potential for polymer reinforcement. At present
pineapple leaf fibers are a waste product of pineapple cultivation and therefore
these relatively inexpensive pineapple fiber can be obtained for industrial
purposes. Pineapple leaf fiber was reinforced with polycarbonate to produce
functional composites. The silane treated modified pineapple leaf fibers
composite exhibited the highest tensile and impact strengths. The thermo
gravimetric analysis showed that the thermal stability of the composites is lower
than that of neat polycarbonate resin. In addition, the thermal stability decreased
with increasing pineapple leaf fiber content. The thermal conductivity and
thermal diffusivity of pineapple leaf fiber reinforced phenol formaldehyde
composites were studied using the Transient Plane Source (TPS) technique. It
is found that the effective thermal conductivity and effective thermal diffusivity
of the composites decrease, as compared with pure phenol formaldehyde as the
fraction of fiber loading increases.

1.3.9 Ramie
Ramie belongs to the family Urticaceae (Boehmeria), which includes
about 100 species. Ramie’s popularity as a textile fiber has been limited largely

24
by regions of production and a chemical composition that has required more
extensive pre-treatment than is required of the other commercially important
bast fibers. Ramie fiber reinforced PP composites were fabricated using a
hybrid method of melt-blending and injection moulding processes. Different
ramie fiber/PP composites were fabricated by varying the fiber length, fiber
content and method of fiber pre-treatment. The results exhibited increases in
fiber length and fiber content also show increased tensile strength, flexural
strength and compression strength noticeably in turn.
Yet, they also result in negative influences on the impact strength and
elongation behaviour of the composites. Thermoplastic biodegradable
composites consisting of ramie fibers and a PLA/PCL matrix were
manufactured using the in situ polymerization method. The effects of fiber
length and content on the tensile and impact strengths of this natural-fiber-
reinforced biodegradable composite were discussed, including the influence of a
silane coupling agent for improved interfacial adhesion.

1.3.10 Coir
Coir husk fibers are located between the husk and the outer shell of the
coconut. As a by-product of the production of other coconut products, coir
production is largely determined by demand. Abundant quantities of coconut
husk imply that, given the availability of labor and other inputs, coir producers
can adjust relatively rapidly to market conditions and prices. It is estimated that
approximately 10% of all husks are utilized for fiber extraction, satisfying a
growing demand for fiber and coir products.

1.3.11 Bamboo
Bamboo (Bambusa Shreb.) is a perennial plant, which grows up to 40 m
in height in monsoon climates. Generally, it is used in construction, carpentry,
weaving and plaiting etc. Curtains made of bamboo fiber can absorb ultraviolet

25
radiation in various wavelengths, making it less harmful to human body. The
development of composites for ecological purposes (eco-composites) using
bamboo fibers and their basic mechanical properties were evaluated. The steam
explosion technique was applied to extract bamboo fibers from raw bamboo
trees. The experimental results showed that the bamboo fibers (bundles) had a
sufficient specific strength, equivalent to that of conventional glass fibers. The
tensile strength and modulus of PP based composites increased about 15 and
30% when using steam-exploded fibers. This increase was due to good
impregnation and a reduction of the number of voids, in comparison to
composites using fibers that were mechanically extracted.

1.3.12 Bagasse
Bagasse is the fibrous residue which remains after sugarcane stalks are
crushed to extract their juice. It is currently used as a renewable natural fiber for
the manufacture of composites materials. The compression and injection
moulding processes were performed in order to evaluate which is the better
mixing method for fibers (sugarcane bagasse, bagasse cellulose and benzylated
bagasse) and PP matrixes. The injection moulding process performed under
vacuum proved to work best. Composites were obtained with a homogeneous
distribution of fibers and without blisters. Although, the composites did not
have good adhesion between the fiber and the matrix according to their
mechanical properties.

26
 Table 1.1 Properties of Natural Fibers
Name Density Tensile Young’s Elongation
of Fibers (g/cm3) Strength (MPa) modulus (GPa) at break (%)

Jute 1.3-1.4 393-773 13-26.5 1.16-1.5

Flax 1.50 345-1100 27.6 2.7-3.2

Hemp 1.14 690 30-60 1.6

Ramie 1.50 400-938 61.4-128 1.2-3.8

Sisal 1.45 468-640 9.4-22.0 3-7

Palf 1.52 413-1627 34.5-82.51 1.6

Table 1.2 Advantages of Natural Fibers

Properties Natural Fiber Glass Fiber
Density Low Twice that of natural fiber
Cost Low Low, but higher than natural Fiber
Renewability Yes No
Recyclability Yes No
Energy Consumption Low High
CO 2 Neutral Yes No
Abrasion to Machines No Yes
Health risk when No Yes
inhaled
Disposal Biodegradable Non-Biodegradable

27
1.4 Applications of Natural Fibers
Composite materials provide design engineers with superior quality and
long life span. Higher strength, lower weight and less maintenance have led to
many engineering applications, in particular in the transport sector for
significantly reduced energy consumption and impact to the environment
(CO2). Generally speaking, three types of composite materials are developed
and widely used in numerous kinds of engineering applications. Although it is
hard to find statistics of the total global composites production, it was estimated
with an output of 7 million tonnes in 2000 and could have reached 10 million in
2006. For all types of composite materials, polymer–matrix is dominating the
market, among which thermosets composites account for more than two thirds,
however the thermoplastics composites are growing more rapidly in recent
years.
Two major application sectors (based on value) are automotive industry
(over 30%) and aerospace industry (over 20%). Figure. 1 shows the application
areas of composite materials according to the estimate for the year 2000.
Defence & aerospace industry pioneered the use of composite materials: most
defence aircrafts today have greater than 50% weight from composites.
Composites have recently become a primary material for the new generation of
commercial aircrafts such as the Boeing 787 “Dreamliner” (50%) and the
Airbus A380 (25%) and the future A350 (53%). Weight saving technology in
automobiles is crucial for improved fuel efficiency. As the largest application
sector, use of composite materials in automotive industry is increasing very
rapidly (construction of body, interiors, chassis, hoods and electrical
components). Furthermore, composite materials are also used in sports and
recreation facilities, boat and shipbuilding, in wind energy generation for wind
turbines blades, as well as in oil and gas offshore exploration.. As can be seen,
Germany takes the largest share, followed by Italy and France. These 3 nations

28
account for more than 60% of the total. This can also be connected to the major
automotive and aerospace industries in these 3 countries.

Figure 1.3 Use of Composites in Industries

29
 CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

This chapter outlines some of the recent reports published in literature on

composites with special emphasis on erosion wear behaviour of flax, kenaf
,tamarind powder fiber reinforced polymer composites.

N. Venkateshwaran AND A. Elayaperumal The use of banana fiber as

reinforcing agent in cement and polymer based composites were reviewed from
the point of view of status, structure, physical, and mechanical properties and
different surface treatments of banana fiber based composites. Due to low
density, high tensile strength, high tensile modulus, and low elongation at break
of banana fibers, composites based on these fibers have very good potential use
in the various sectors like construction, automotive, machinery, etc., As India is
one of the largest banana producing countries in the world the use of its fiber
and its wastes for producing useful components would be very attractive for the
economy. Banana fiber and its composites can be further attractive if a suitable
cost-effective design method of fiber separation and its composite production
may increases its application to a greater extent. Thus we conclude that the
systematic and persistent research in the future will increase the scope and
better future for banana fiber and its composites.

S Ragavendra (2013) explained Natural fibers reinforced bio-degradable

composites are good alternative for conventional materials. Natural fibers are
cheaper in cost, environmental friendly and biodegradable. In the present work
composites are made using short Banana fibres and natural rubber. Composites
are prepared using vulcanizing technique at 1500c. And composites obtained
were determined for mechanical properties like tensile strength, tear strength

30
were studied. The effect of different lengths of fiber content with natural rubber
were determined .also matrix fiber interface were studied using SEM.

Marissa Pagicawan (2005) In this preliminary study, the potential of loofah

fiber as reinforcement material for polymer-bonded composites was
investigated. Tensile and flexural properties of loofah fiber reinforced plastic
were characterized and evaluated. The mechanical properties of the composite
have been determined as a function of different method of loofah fiber
preparation. The fiber-matrix interaction and fiber/matrix volume were also
determined using a stereomicroscope. Results of mechanical properties, at least
in this study showed that loofah fiber reinforced with unsaturated polyester are
typical anisotropic material since the loofah is generally controlled by the
network of fibers in multi-directions. The concentration of fibers in the loofah
itself has a significant effect on the mechanical properties as shown from the
results of transverse and longitudinal direction. The tensile and flexural
modulus varied depending on the sample preparation of the composite and the
direction of loading.

P. Mani (2014) Interest in natural fibers as composite reinforcements has grown

in recent years. A survey of recent literature shows a significant increase in the
number of articles and patents relating to the use of natural fibers. Natural fibers
are reported to have advantages of lower cost and better stiffness per unit
weight compared to glass. For environmental concern on synthetic fibers (such
as glass, carbon, and ceramic fiber.etc), natural fibers such as banana, jute, coir,
hemp, etc., are widely used. In this paper, the untreated luffa fiber reinforced
epoxy resin matrix composites have been developed by hand lay-up technique
with varying process parameters, such as different type of luffa fibers
(discontinuous fiber mat and chopped single fibers) and with different volume
fraction of fibers (30%, 40% and 50% by weight).The developed luffa fiber

31
reinforced composites were then characterized by tensile and flexural test. The
results are taken and graphically represented.

J. R. M., and Silva, F. A. (2019) Sponge gourd (Luffa cylindrica L.) fiber-
reinforced cement composites were developed and analyzed. Dried sponge
gourd fruit’s fibrous vascular system forms a natural 3D network that can
reinforce matrices in composite materials, diverting cracks along the complex
array of 3D interfaces between the fibers and the cementitious matrix. To avoid
fiber deterioration, the cement paste was modified by incorporating pozzolanic
materials. The fibers were mechanically characterized by tensile testing of strips
of the 3D natural fiber array and of single fibers extracted from the array. The
fibers had an average tensile strength of 140 MPa and an average Young’s
modulus up to 28 GPa. Image analysis showed that the fiber spatial distribution
inside the 3D network was random. The modified cement paste was
characterized by its workability (flow table test) and mechanical behavior
(compression and three-point bending tests), with average results of 430 mm,
62.7 MPa, and 6.2 MPa, respectively. Under bending, the cement matrix
collapsed after the first crack. The sponge gourd-cement composite
manufactured with 1 wt% of fibers showed an average flexural strength of 9.2
MPa (approximately 50% greater than the unreinforced matrix). Importantly,
the composite also presented a limited deflection-hardening behavior. These
results support sponge gourd’s possible use as reinforcement in cement matrix
composites.

J.Santhosh(2014) et.al analysed the natural fiber composites are nowadays

being used in various engineering applications to increase the strength and to
optimise the weight and the cost of the product. Various natural fibres such as
coir, sisal, jute, coir and banana are used as reinforcement materials. In this

32
paper both treated and untreated banana fiber are taken for the development of
the hybrid composite material.
The untreated banana fiber is treated by sodium hydroxide to increase the
wettability. The untreated banana fiber and sodium hydroxide treated banana
fiber are used as reinforcing material for both Epoxy resin matrix and Vinyl
ester resin matrix. Coconut shell powder is used along with both untreated and
treated banana fiber as a reinforcing material. In this process the banana fiber is
treated with 5% of sodium hydroxide for one hour and the specimen is
fabricated by hand moulding process. The mould used for fabricating the hybrid
composite material is made up of aluminium with a debonding agent applied on
the inner side. The banana fiber content is kept constant to 30% of weight
fraction of entire composite material. The variation in mechanical properties are
studied and analyzed. Here, the tensile strength has calculated by universal
testing machine, impact strength has calculated by pendulum impact tester and
flexural strength has calculated by universal testing machine with flexural test
arrangement of the specimen. Then the treated and untreated specimens are
analyzed and compared through Scanning Electron Microscope to study about
its adhesion between fiber and resin matrix and surface morphology

V. Arumuga Prabu(2017) et.al investigated the of Abrasive Water Jet

Machining (AWJM) on banana fiber reinforced polyester composite. The
composite is prepared with 20 wt. % of fiber through hand layup method
followed by compression molding. Experiments are conducted to assess the
influence of each input parameters on the output responses namely surface
roughness (Ra) and kerf angle. The study is performed by varying the water
pressure, traverse speed (TS), and standoff distance (SD). From the
experiments, it is observed that the standoff distance contributes more on
affecting Ra by 60.63% and kerf angle by 74.80%. The suitable cutting

33
parameters are suggested for achieving quality output and the cut surface
morphology is observed through Scanning Electron Microscopic (SEM) images.

N. M. Barkoula
The present study focuses on short flax fiber, as well as long flax fiber-
reinforced polypropylene (flax/PP) composites, manufactured by the injection
molding method. Compounding of flax with two different grades of PP (with
and without maleic anhydride (MA-PP) grafting) is carried out by four methods:
kneading process, Henschel kinetic mixer, extrusion compounding, and
production of long fiber thermoplastic (LFT) granules through pultrusion. The
effect of the compounding method and injection molding on the fiber length and
mechanical properties of the composites is being investigated. Furthermore, the
effect of fiber–matrix adhesion on the mechanical response is being discussed.
It can be concluded that the reduction in fiber length, associated with injection
molding, did not affect the tensile properties significantly for the studied
systems due to improvements in fiber orientation along the polymer flow
direction and increased fiber efficiency through dimensional changes due to
fiber opening. The addition of MA-PP led to improvements in the tensile
strength of injection-molded composites. Kneader compounded composites
showed maximum tensile strength as well as stiffness when compared with
other compounding methods

34
 CHAPTER 3

PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION

The steel, which are used in the automobiles and aerospace industries are
heavy, so they consumes large amount of fuel. In order to reduce the fuel
consumption in the automobiles and space vehicles, the industries switched to
composites from steels. This use of composites reduced the fuel consumption of
automobile and space vehicle, so the composites parts used in this vehicle are
increased. The composites are low density materials, so they are less in weight,
when compared to metals.
Due to this usage of synthetic composites the wastes of the composites
are increased when compared to previous years. The disposal of synthetic
composites produces some hazardous effects to the environment like pollution
and the release of carbon when it is burned. So the natural fibers reinforced
hybrid composites emerged as an alternative of this synthetic composites.
Though the natural fibers does not possess high strength as synthetic
composites. The strength of the natural fibers is improved by the hybrid
composites. It replaces the synthetic composites and reduces the pollution in the
environment.
This natural fiber reinforced hybrid composite is bio-degradable and they
are easily available in nature at low cost. In our project we have fabricated
banana, tea and glass reinforced epoxy based hybrid composites and evaluated
the mechanical (tensile, flexural, impact and hardness) and thermal properties
(FTIR, TGA and DSC) of the composite.

35
 CHAPTER 4

METHODOLOGY

SELECTION OF FIBERS Flax, Kenaf and Tamarind powder

CHEMICAL TREATMENT ALKALINE TREATMENT (5% NaOH)

COMPRESSION MOULDING
2
PREPARATION (35 N/mm and 130°C for 30 minutes)

Tensile, Flexural, impact, Sound absorption, FTIR and SEM analysis,Tribology

TESTING OF COMPOSITE

RESULT AND DISCUSSION

36
 CHAPTER 5

CHEMICAL TREATMENT

5.1 TYPES OF CHEMICAL TREATMENT

 Alkaline Treatment

 Silane Treatment

 Benzoylation Treatment

 Acrylation Treatment

 Permanganate treatment

 Peroxide Treatment

 Isocyanate Treatment

 Triazine Treatment

5.1.1 Alkaline Treatment

The treatment on natural fibres by sodium hydroxide (NaOH) is widely
being used to modify the cellulosic molecular structure. This provides more
access to penetrate chemicals. In the amorphous region, cellulose micro
molecules are separated at large distances and the spaces are filled by water
molecules. Alkali sensitive hydroxyl (OH) groups present among the molecules
are broken down, which then react with water molecules (HAOH) and move out
from the fibre structure.
The remaining reactive molecules form fibre–cell–O–Na groups between
the cellulose molecular chains. Due to this, hydrophilic hydroxyl groups are
reduced and increase the fibres moisture resistance property. It also takes out a
certain portion of hemicelluloses, lignin, pectin, wax and oil covering materials.
As a result, the fibre surface becomes clean. In other words, the fibre surface

37
becomes more uniform due to the elimination of micro voids and thus the stress
transfer capacity between the ultimate cells improves.
In addition to this, it reduces fibre diameter and thereby increases the
aspect ratio (length/diameter). This increases effective fibre surface area for
good adhesion with the matrix. Mechanical and thermal behaviours of the
composite are improved significantly by this treatment.

Fibre-cell-OH + NaOH →Fibre cell-O-Na+ + H2O + impurities

Figure 5.1 Alkaine treatment in natural fibers

5.1.2 Silane Treatment
Silane is a multifunctional molecule which is used as a coupling agent to
modify fibre surfaces. The composition of silane forms a chemical link between
the fibre surface and the matrix through a siloxane bridge. It undergoes several
stages of hydrolysis, condensation and bond formation during the treatment
process of the fibre. Silanols form in the presence of moisture and hydrolysable
alkoxy groups.
During condensation process, one end of silanol reacts with the cellulose
hydroxyl group and other end reacts (bond formation) with the matrix (Si-
Matrix) functional group. This co-reactivity provides molecular continuity
across the interface of the composite. It also provides the hydrocarbon chain
that restrains the fibre swelling into the matrix. As a result, fibre matrix

38
adhesion improves and stabilizes the composite properties. Natural fibres
exhibit micro-pores on their surface and silane coupling agents act as a surface
coating. This penetrates into the pores and develops mechanically interlocked
coatings on fibre surface. Silane treated fibre composites provide better tensile
strength properties than the alkali treated fibre composites

CH2CHSi (OC2H5)3 → CH2CHSi (OH)3 + 3C2H5OH

CH2CHSi (OH3) + Fiber -OH → CH2CHSi (OH)2O-Fiber+H2O

5.1.3 Acetylation Treatment

Acetylation treatment is known as esterification method for plasticizing
of natural fibres. Acetyl group (CH3CO) reacts with the hydrophilic hydroxyl
groups (OH) of the fibre and takes out the existed moisture. As a result,
hydrophilic nature of the fibre is decreased and improves dimensional stability
of the composites. Moreover, this treatment provides rough surface topography
with less number of void contents that give better mechanical interlocking with
the matrix. Fibres are acetylated with and without an acid catalyst to graft acetyl
groups onto the cellulose structure. In general, acetic acid and acetic anhydride
individually does not react sufficiently with the fibres. To accelerate the
reaction, fibres are initially soaked in acetic acid and consequently treated with
acetic anhydride between the time periods of 1–3 h with higher temperature.

Fiber-OH + CH3-C(=0)-O-C)=O)-CH3 → Fiber-OCOCH3+CH3COOH

5.1.4 Benzoylation Treatment

Benzoylation treatment uses benzoyl chloride to decrease hydrophilic
nature of the fibre and improves interfacial adhesion, thereby increasing
strength of the composite. It also enhances thermal stability of the fibre. During
benzoylation treatment alkali pre-treatment is used. At this stage, extractable

39
materials such as lignin, waxes and oil covering materials are removed and
more reactive hydroxyl (OH) groups are exposed on the fibre surface. Then the
fibres are treated with benzoyl chloride. OH groups of the fibre are further
replaced by benzoyl group and it attached on the cellulose backbone. This
results more hydrophobic nature of the fibre and improves adhesion with the
matrix.
Fiber-OH + CH2=CHCN → Fiber-OCH2CH2CN

5.1.5 Peroxide Treatment

Interface properties of fibre and matrix can be improved by peroxide
treatment. The peroxide-induced grafting of polyethylene adheres onto the fibre
surface. Additionally, peroxide initiated free radicals react with the hydroxyl
group of the fibre and with the matrix. As a result, good fibre matrix adhesion
along the interface occurs. This treatment also reduced moisture absorption
tendency by the fibre and improves thermal stability.

RO-OR → 2RO
RO + PE-H → RAOH + Cellulose
PE + cellulose → PE-Cellulose

5.1.6 Isocyanate Treatment

Isocyanate works as a coupling agent for fibre surface modification. The
functional group (AN@C@O) of isocyanate reacts with the hydroxyl groups of
cellulose and lignin constituents of the fibres and therefore a urethane linkage is
formed. This chemical linkage provides strong covalent bonds between the fibre
and matrix.
In addition to this, isocyanate also reacts with the moisture present on the
fibre surface and forms urea which can further react with the hydroxyl groups of
the celluloses. This secondary reaction results in higher moisture resistance

40
properties of the fibre and provides better bonding with the matrix to enhance
composite properties.
HO
R-N=C=O + HO-Fiber → R-N-C-O-Fiber

5.1.7 Permanganate Treatment

Permanganate treatment on natural fibres is conducted by potassium
permanganate (KMnO4) in acetone solution. This treatment forms highly
reactive permanganate (Mn3+) ions to reacts with the cellulose hydroxyl groups
and forms cellulose–manganite for initiating graft copolymerization. This
treatment enhances chemical interlocking at the interface and provides better
adhesion with the matrix. Formation of cellulose–manganate is responsible for
higher thermal stability of the fibre. It also reacts with the lignin (hydrophilic
AOH groups) constituents and separates from the fibre cell wall. It reduces the
hydrophilic nature of the fibre. Higher concentrations of KMnO4 (more than
1%) cause excess delignification (removal of cementing materials) within the
cellulosic structure and degrade fibre properties.
O
Cellulose-H+KMnO4 → Cellulose-H-O-Mn-OK+
O

5.1.7 Triazine Treatment

Triazine treatment is used for surface modification of the natural fibres. A
triazine (C3H3N3) derivative (e.g. C3H3N3Cl3) has multifunctional groups in its
structure. The reactive chlorines are presented in the heterocyclic ring reacts
with the hydroxyl groups of the fibre by esterification and provide linkage
between the cellulose phase and coupling agent. The carbonAcarbon double
bonds (C@C) form covalent bonds with the matrix by grafting. It also provides

41
a secondary reaction with the hydrophilic hydroxyl groups of cellulose and
lignin that provides better moisture resistance properties. This modification
provides crosslinking between the cellulose (through hydrogen bond) and
matrix. This results strong adhesion at the interface and improves composite
properties.

5.1.8 Fatty acid Derivate (oleoyl chloride) Treatment

Fatty acid derivative is used as a coupling agent to modify fibre surface to
improve wettability and interfacial adhesion characteristics. Oleoyl chloride is a
fatty acid derivate which reacts with the hydroxyl groups (esterification) and
grafted on the cellulose backbone of the fibre. During esterification, the
molecules are penetrating inside the cellulose structure and reacts with the
hydroxyl groups of the fibre and the matrix.
Additionally, hydrophilic hydroxyl groups present on the external surface
are removed by this treatment and make the fibre more hydrophobic. This
improves the wetting and adhesion of fibre surface into the matrix and provides
improved composite properties. Modification on jute fibre with
dichloromethane and pyridine solvent under a dry nitrogen atmosphere results
in more hydrophobic characteristics and increases composite properties.

5.1.9 Fungal Treatment

Fungal treatment has been recently considered as a promising alternative
for surface modification of natural fibres. This Biological treatment is
environment friendly and efficient. Fungi treatment is used to remove non-
cellulosic components (such as wax) from the fibre surface by the action of
specific enzymes. White rot fungi produces extracellular oxidases enzymes that
reacts with lignin constituents (lignin peroxidase). This causes the removal of
lignin from the fibre. It also increases hemicelluloses solubility and thus reduce
hydrophobic tendency of the fibre.

42
 CHAPTER 6

COMPOSITE PLATE MANUFACTURING

6.1 SELECTION OF FIBERS

The fiber that are selected for the current work are given below.
 Flax Fiber
 Kenaf Fiber
 Tamarind fiber
 Epoxy Resin
The Selection and properties of the fibers are discussed as follows.

6.1.1 Flax fiber

Flax fibers, along with a number of other natural fibers, are being
considered as an environmentally friendlier alternative of synthetic fibers in
fiber-reinforced polymer composites. A common feature of natural fibers is a
much higher variability of mechanical properties. This necessitates study of the
flax fiber strength distribution and efficient experimental methods for its
determination. Elementary flax fibers of different gauge lengths are tested by
single fiber tension in order to obtain the stress-strain response and strength and
failure strain distributions. The applicability of single fiber fragmentation test
for flax fiber failure strain and strength characterization is considered. It is
shown that fiber fragmentation test can be used to determine the fiber length
effect on mean fiber strength and limit strain. The effect of mechanical damage
in the form of kink bands and of diameter variability on the strength of
elementary flax fibers is considered. Stiffness and strength under uniaxial
tension of flax fiber composites with thermoset and thermoplastic polymer
matrices are studied. The applicability of rule of mixtures and orientational
averaging based models, developed for short fiber composites, to flax reinforced
polymers are evaluated. Both the quasi-static and time dependent mechanical
properties of flax fiber/thermoplastic starch based composites are analyzed. The

43
effect of temperature and relative humidity is investigated. It is found that
microdamage accumulation in this type of composites is not significant. Results
show that the composite elastic modulus and failure stress are linearly related to
the maximum stress reached by the matrix in tensile tests. Simple material
models are suggested to account for the observed nonlinear viscoelasticity and
viscoplasticity

Figure 6.1 Flax Fiber

6.1.2 Kenaf Fiber
Kenaf belongs to the genus Hibiscus and there are about 300
species. Kenaf is a new crop in the United States and shows good potential as a
raw material for usage in composite products. Latest advances in decortications
equipment which separates the core from the bast fiber combined with fiber
shortages, have renewed the interest in kenaf as a fiber source. Thermoforming
has proven to enable the successful fabrication of kenaf fiber reinforced PP
sheets into sheet form. The optimal fabrication method found for these materials
was at the compression moulding process, which utilizes a layered sifting of a
micro-fine PP powder and chopped kenaf fibers. The fiber content (30 and 40
Wt %) provided adequate reinforcement to increase the strength of the PP
matrix. The kenaf–PP composites compression moulded in this study proved to

44
have superior tensile and flexural strength when compared to other compression
moulded natural fiber composites such as other kenaf, sisal, and coir reinforced
thermoplastics. With the aid of the elastic modulus data, it was also possible to
compare the economic benefits of using kenaf composites instead of other
natural fibers and E-glass.
The manufactured kenaf maleated PP composites have a higher
modulus/cost and a higher specific modulus than sisal, coir, and even E-glass.
Thus, they provide an option for replacing existing materials with a higher
strength, lower cost alternative that is environmentally friendly. Hybrid
composites of wood flour/kenaf fiber and PP were prepared to investigate the
hybrid effect on the composite properties. The results indicated that while non-
hybrid composites of kenaf fiber and wood flour exhibited the highest and
lowest modulus values respectively, the moduli of hybrid composites were
closely related to the fiber to particle ratio of the reinforcements. With the help
of the hybrid mixtures equation it was possible to predict the elastic modulus of
the composites better than when using the Halpin–Tsai equation.

Figure 6.2 Kenaf fiber

45
6.1.3 Tamarind seed powder

Figure 6.3 Tamarind seed powder

6.1.4 Epoxy resin

Epoxy resins are low molecular weight pre-polymers or higher molecular

weight polymers which normally contain at least two epoxide groups. The
epoxide group is also sometimes referred to as a glycidyl or oxirane group. A
wide range of epoxy resins are produced industrially. The raw materials for
epoxy resin production are today largely petroleum derived, although some
plant derived sources are now becoming commercially available (e.g. plant
derived glycerol used to make epichlorohydrin). Epoxy resins are polymeric or
semi-polymeric materials, and as such rarely exist as pure substances, since
variable chain length results from the polymerisation reaction used to produce
them. High purity grades can be produced for certain applications, e.g. using a
distillation purification process. One downside of high purity liquid grades is
their tendency to form crystalline solids due to their highly regular structure,

46
which require melting to enable processing. An important criterion for epoxy
resins is the epoxide content. This is commonly expressed as the epoxy
equivalent weight, which is the number of epoxide equivalents in 1 kg of resin
(Eq./kg), or as the equivalent weight, which is the weight in grammes of resin
containing 1 mole equivalent of epoxide (g/mol). The equivalent weight or
epoxide number is used to calculate the amount of co-reactant (hardener) to use
when curing epoxy resins. Epoxies are typically cured with stoichiometric or
near-stoichiometric quantities of curative to achieve maximum physical
properties

Figure 6.4 Epoxy resin

6.2 COMPRESSION MOULDING PROCESS

Compression Moulding is a method of moulding in which the moulding

material, generally preheated, is first placed in an open, heated mould cavity.
The mould is closed with a top force or plug member, pressure is applied to
force the material into contact with all mould areas, while heat and pressure are
maintained until the moulding material has cured. The process employs
thermosetting resins in a partially cured stage, either in the form of
granules, putty-like masses, or preforms. Compression moulding is a high-
volume, high-pressure method suitable for moulding complex, high-

47
strength fiberglass reinforcements. Advanced composite thermoplastics can also
be compression moulded with unidirectional tapes, woven fabrics, randomly
oriented fiber mat or chopped strand. The advantage of compression moulding
is its ability to mould large, fairly intricate parts. Also, it is one of the lowest
cost moulding methods compared with other methods such as transfer
moulding and injection moulding; moreover it wastes relatively little material,
giving it an advantage when working with expensive compounds.

However, compression moulding often provides poor product consistency

and difficulty in controlling flashing, and it is not suitable for some types of
parts. Fewer knit lines are produced and a smaller amount of fiber-length
degradation is noticeable when compared to injection moulding. Compression-
moulding is also suitable for ultra-large basic shape production in sizes beyond
the capacity of extrusion techniques. Materials that are typically manufactured
through compression moulding include: Polyester fiberglass resin systems
(SMC/BMC), Torlon, Vespel, Poly (p-phenylene sulfide) (PPS), and many
grades of PEEK.

Figure 6.5 Compression Moulding Machine

48
 CHAPTER 7

EXPERIMENTAL ANALYSIS

7.1 EXPERIMENTAL SETUP

The experiments are conducted in the universal testing machine with load
capacity up to 200 KN shown in Figureure. The universal testing machine
consists of two jaws. The upper jaw is fixed while the lower is given
displacement and load applied in the lower jaw is calibrated and recorded in
computer. The failure load was taken as load level at which the first significant
irregularity or significant change in the scope of the load displacement curve
occurred.

Figure 7.1 Experimental setup

49
7.2 TENSILE TEST

The series of ASTM tests were carried out on the angle ply [0/90] 2s glass
reinforced hybrid composite using computerised universal testing machine. The
cross head speed of the loading member is tension, compression, and bolted
joint tests were 2mm/min. tensile properties of the composite is determined
experimentally according to ASTM D3039. The ultimate tensile strength,
young’s modulus and poison’s ratio was determined from load displacement
curve

S.No Material Combination Tensile Tensile Tensile

(Flax_Kenaf_Tamarind Load Modulus Strength
seed_Epoxy) (kN) (GPa) (MPa)

1 10%_25%_5%_60% 4.99 9.31 44.40

2 10%_20%_10%_60% 6.30 4.47 56.00

3 10%_15%_15%_60% 6.15 4.62 53.93

4 10%_10%_20%_60% 5.91 4.84 52.53

5 10%_5%_25%_60% 5.45 4.63 48.90

Table 7.1 Tensile strength comparison of different samples

50
 Figure 7.2 Tensile test samples

7.3 FLEXURAL TEST

The flexural test specimens are tested according to ASTM D790-03

standards. The flexural strength of the unidirectional fiber composites are
observed for the cross head speed of 10mm/min

51
 Figure 7.3 Flexural testing machine

Table 7.2 Flexural strength comparison of different samples

S.No Material Combination Flexural Flexural Flexural

(Flax_Kenaf_Tamarind seed Load Modulus Strength
_Epoxy) (kN) (GPa) (MPa)
1 10%_25%_5%_60% 0.47 22.43 307.00
2 10%_20%_10%_60% 0.49 25.40 328.00
3 10%_15%_15%_60% 0.42 21.07 283.67
4 10%_10%_20%_60% 0.42 24.07 281.67
5 10%_5%_25%_60% 0.35 18.87 241.00

52
 Figure 7.4 Flexural test samples

7.4 IMPACT TEST

The specimen is tested on the Izad impact testing machine. The test
specimen is clamped upright in an anvil with a V notch at a level of top of the
clamp. The test specimen will be hit by a snicker carried on a pendulum which
is allowed to fall freely from a fixed height to give a blow of nearly 120 ftlb
energy.

53
 Figure 7.5 Impact test machine

Table 7.3 Impact strength comparison of different samples

S.No Material Combination Impact Impact

(Flax_Kenaf_Tamarind Energy (J) Strength
seed_Epoxy) (KJ/m2)
1 10%_25%_5%_60% 3.05 73
2 10%_20%_10%_60% 2.85 69
3 10%_15%_15%_60% 2.85 69
4 10%_10%_20%_60% 2.48 63
5 10%_5%_25%_60% 2.05 58

54
 Figure 7.6 Impact test sample

7.5 HARDNESS ANALYSIS

The hardness testing of plastics is most commonly measured by shore

(Durometer) test. The two shore Durometer methods measure the resistance of
the plastic towards indentation. Both scales provide an empherical hardness
value that doesn’t correlate to other properties or fundamental characteristics.

55
 Figure 7.7 Shore D hardness testing machine

`The ASTM test number is ASTM D2240 while the analogous ISO test method
is ISO 868. The results obtained from this tests are a useful measure of relative
resistence to indentation of various grades of polymers. However the shore
Durometer hardness test does not serve as a predictor of other properties such as
strength or resistance to scratches, abrasion.

56
 Table 7.4 Hardness comparison of different samples

S.No Material Combination Hardness

(Flax_Kenaf_Tamarind seed_Epoxy)

1 10%_25%_5%_60% 75

2 10%_20%_10%_60% 88

3 10%_15%_15%_60% 81

4 10%_10%_20%_60% 79

5 10%_5%_25%_60% 77

Figure :7.8 Hardness test sample

57
7.7 SEM ANALYSIS

A scanning electron microscope analysis was conducted in the specimen to

analyze the morphological behavior of the specimen. The sample was fixed in
the aluminum stub using a conductive silver coating and coated with gold
coating for morphological examination of the sample.

Figure 7.9 SEM analysis machine

7.11 Sound Absorption Test

The sound absorption coefficients of the snippets were measured using

the sound impedance test tube apparatus with a standard of ASTM E-1050 [19].
The following relationship is used to calculate the sound absorption coefficient
with help of standing wave ratio (SWR) as shown in Figure.5.

(𝑆𝑊𝑅−1)2
Sound absorption coefficient = 1 -
(𝑆𝑊𝑅+1)2

58
Figure 7.10 SAT test sample

59
 Table 7.5 comparison of sound absorption values

Sound absorption coefficient

S.No Frequency (HZ)
Sample 1 Sample 2 Sample 4
1 16.00 0.00 0.05 0.00
2 20.00 0.00 0.00 0.01
3 25.00 0.16 0.16 0.15
4 31.50 0.02 0.07 0.02
5 40.00 0.03 0.08 0.00
6 50.00 0.05 0.08 0.04
7 63.00 0.02 0.04 0.02
8 80.00 0.05 0.07 0.04
9 100.00 0.05 0.08 0.05
10 125.00 0.02 0.04 0.01
11 160.00 0.04 0.06 0.04
12 200.00 0.05 0.06 0.04
13 250.00 0.05 0.06 0.04
14 315.00 0.05 0.06 0.05
15 400.00 0.06 0.06 0.06
16 500.00 0.09 0.06 0.08
17 630.00 0.18 0.07 0.14
18 800.00 0.23 0.10 0.20
19 1000.00 0.19 0.23 0.18
20 1250.00 0.16 0.15 0.15
21 1600.00 0.14 0.14 0.16
22 2000.00 0.21 0.20 0.27
23 2500.00 0.38 0.33 0.40
24 3150.00 0.51 0.49 0.53
25 4000.00 0.39 0.45 0.38
26 5000.00 0.40 0.41 0.29
27 6300.00 0.68 0.63 0.57

60
 CHAPTER 8

RESULT AND DISCUSSION

8.1 TENSILE PROPERTIES

Tensile Strength (MPa)

60.00

50.00

40.00
Tensile strength

30.00

20.00

10.00

0.00

FKTPE1 FKTPE2 FKTPE3 FKTPE4 FKTPE5

Specimen Name

Figure 8.1 Tensile strength comparison of different samples (MPa)

Tensile Modulus (GPa)

5.4

5.2

5
Tensile Modulud

4.8

4.6

4.4

4.2
FKTPE1 FKTPE 2 FKTPE 3 FKTPE 4 FKTPE 5
4

Figure 8.2 Tensile modulus comparison of different samples

61
 The five different snippets were prepared for each concoction for tensile
test by Universal testing machine was operated at cross-head speed of 2.03
mm/rev. The Figure.2 clearly shows the variations in tensile strength of each
snippet. The tensile strength range varies from 44 MPa to 56 MPa. This happens
due to blending of Luffa fibers interlocked well with the other natural fibers.
The addition of banana fiber up to 20% shows comparatively high tensile
strength than the other specimen considered. Hence it also proves that the equal
volume fraction of unidirectional fiber with same amount of particulate fibers
will enhance the increment in tensile strength.

8.2 FLEXURAL PROPERTIES

FLEXURAL STRENGTH (MPa)

60.00

50.00

40.00
Flexural Strength

30.00

20.00

10.00

0.00
FKTPE1 FKTPE2 FKTPE3 FKTPE4 FKTPE5
Specimen Name

Figure 8.3 Flexural strength comparison of different samples

62
 Flexural Modulus (GPa)
30

25

20
Flexural Modulud

15

10

0
FKTPE1 FKTPE 2 FKTPE 3 FKTPE 4 FKTPE5

Figure 8.4 Flexural modulus comparison of different samples

The flexural strength varies from 240 to 310 Mpa. It shows that snippet of
S2 shows better flexural strength of 307 MPa and flexural modulus of 25.40
GPa. This happens due to well interlocking of particulate Luffa Sfibers with the
unidirectional ramie fibers. The addition of more banana fibers up to 20%
shows comparatively high flexural strength than the other specimen considered.
Hence it also proves that the higher volume fraction of unidirectional fiber with
particulate fibers will enhance the increment in tensile strength.

63
8.3 IMPACT PROPERTIES

Impact Strength (kJ/m2)

80
70
60
50
40
Impact Strength

30
20
10
0

FKTPE1 FKTPE 2 FKTPE 3 FKTPE 4 FKTPE5

Figure no 8.5 Impact strength comparison of different samples

The impact energy is found be from 2.05 Joules to 3.05 Joules .The
impact strength are seems to be from 55 kJ/m 2 to 75 kJ/m2. It is generally
accepted that the toughness of a fibre composite is mainly depend upon the fibre
stress-strain behaviour especially the unidirectional fibres. This is because
unidirectional fibre composites containing varying volume fractions of strong
cellulosic microfibers of different lengths.

Impact Energy (J)

3.5

2.5
Impact Energy

1.5

0.5
FKTPE1 FKTPE 2 FKTPE 3 FKTPE 4 FKTPE 5
0

Figure no 8.6 Impact energy comparison of different samples

64
 The composite can withstand fast impact load, the fibre tends to slip from
the matrix and leaving weak points or stress concentrated area. It is found that
2nd snippet (S2) with 20% volume fraction (Vf) of unidirectional jute fiber is
maximum about 73 kJ/m2 and also having absorbing energy up to 3.05 Joules. It
has reported that the energy-absorbing mechanism of fracture built in the
composites includes utilization of energy required to de-bond the fibres and pull
them completely out of the matrix using a weak interface between fibre and
matrix. In practical interest, a significant part of energy absorption during
impact takes place through the fibre pull out process.

8.4 MOISTURE ABSORPTION

Flax:Kenaf:Tamarind powder composition

Figure no 8.7 Moisture absorption comparison of different samples

The water absorption test is performed in the samples of different volume

fractions in normal water according to the ASTM D570 standard. From the
results it is observed that the sample with volume fraction 30:10 has higher
water absorption than the other samples of different volume fractions. The
sample with volume fraction of 0:40 have minimum water absorption.

65
8.5 HARDNESS TEST

Hardness
90

85

80
Hardne

75

70

65

FKTPE1 FKTPE 2 FKTPE 3 FKTPE 4 FKTPE 5

Figure 8.8 Hardness comparison of different composite materials

Hardness may be defined as the material resistance to permanent

indentation. The term Durometer is often used to the measurement as well as the
instrument itself. It is typically used to measure the hardness in polymers
elastomers and rubbers. Hardness test is carried out according to ASTM
D22240-00 standards in which specimens were cut in to 20mm2.

8.6 FTIR ANALYSIS

The infrared spectra of the alkali treated samples used to identify the
chemical compounds by using TRFTIR spectroscopy. KBr disk sample
preparation method was followed in taking infra spectrum. Fibers are mixed
with KBr at the defined ratio then the mixer is pressed under vacuum to form
pellets. FTIR spectra are recorded between 4000 cm-1 and 400 cm-1.

66
Sample 1 Sample 2

Sample 3 Sample 4

Sample 5

Figure 8.9 FTIR testing of different samples

67
8.7 SEM ANALYSIS
A scanning electron microscope analysis was conducted in the
specimen to analyse the morphological behaviour of the specimen. The sample
was fixed in the aluminium stub using a conductive silver coating and coated
with gold coating for morphological examination of the sample.

Figure 8.10 SEM analysis of different samples

68
8.8 Sound Absorption Test

The measuring amplifier directly produces the sound absorption

coefficient for scale of 0–1. The results of sound absorption coefficients in the
frequency range from 600 to 6300 Hz are tabulated in Table.4 and analyzed for
the alternate sound proof materials

0.80
0.70
0.60
0.50
0.40
0.30
0.20
Sample 1
Sample 2
Sample 4

0.10
0.00

Figure 8.11 Comparison of sound absorption of different samples

69
 CHAPTER 9

CONCLUSION

The mechanical properties such as tensile and flexural of flax-kenaf-

tamarind seed fibre reinforced hybrid composites were studied by different
weight ratios of flax-kenaf-tamarind seed fibre . The tensile strength, tensile
modulus, flexural strength, flexural modulus of the composite were found to be
increasing kenaf content with Flax fibre.

 This values were found to be maximum at 20:10 percentage by

weight of flax and kenaf fibre.
 The overall increase in strength of the hybrid composite
considering tensile and flexural strength.
 The micrographs of the SEM images also proven that alkali
treatment and hybridization increases more interfacial bonding
between fibre and matrix phase.

The increase in properties of the studied material could make this applicable in
automobile interiors, film theatres, sound recording studios.

70
 LIST OF PUBLICATIONS

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“Mechanical, chemical and sound absorption properties of flax/kenaf/Tamarind
powder reinforced hybrid epoxy Composites’. Paper Selected in International
Conference on Materials Research in Science and Engineering at Kumaraguru
College of Technology, Coimbatore.

71
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