Environ. Sci. Technol.
2008, 42, 2805–2811
Fate of Pharmaceutical and Trace
Organic Compounds in Three Septic
System Plumes, Ontario, Canada
CHERILYN CARRARA,†
C A R O L J . P T A C E K , * ,†
WILLIAM D. ROBERTSON,†
DAVID W. BLOWES,†
M I C H A E L C . M O N C U R , †,‡
ED SVERKO,‡ AND SEAN BACKUS‡
Department of Earth Sciences, University of Waterloo, 200
University Ave W., Waterloo, ON, N2L 3G1, and Environment
Canada, 867 Lakeshore Rd., P.O. Box 5050,
Burlington, ON, L7R 4A6
Received February 10, 2007. Revised manuscript received
January 4, 2008. Accepted January 10, 2008.
Three high volume septic systems in Ontario, Canada, were
examined to assess the potential for onsite wastewater treatment
systems to release pharmaceutical compounds to the
environment and to evaluate the mobility of these compounds
in receiving aquifers. Wastewater samples were collected
from the septic tanks, and groundwater samples were collected
below and down gradient of the infiltration beds and analyzed
for a suite of commonly used pharmaceutical and trace
organic compounds. The septic tank samples contained elevated
concentrations of several pharmaceutical compounds. Ten
of the 12 compounds analyzed were detected in groundwater
at one or more sites at concentrations in the low ng L-1 to
lowµgL-1 range.Largedifferencesamongthesiteswereobserved
in both the number of detections and the concentrations of
the pharmaceutical compounds. Of the compounds analyzed,
ibuprofen, gemfibrozil, and naproxen were observed to be
transported at the highest concentrations and greatest distances
from the infiltration source areas, particularly in anoxic
zones of the plumes.
Introduction
Wastewater is a major source of pharmaceutical compounds
and their metabolites to the environment because they often
pass through the human body and are excreted into the
environment at elevated concentrations (1, 2). Often, these
compounds are not effectively removed by wastewater
treatment processes and have been detected in sewage
treatment plant effluents in many parts of the world (3–5).
In suburban and rural areas, wastewater is often treated
using on-site treatment systems such as septic systems. In
North America, on-site wastewater disposal systems account
for the largest volume of contaminated water discharged to
the subsurface (6). In the United States, this volume equates
to approximately 3.8 trillion L a- (7). Septic system plumes
can extend tens to hundreds of meters downgradient of tile
beds and are often tens of meters wide and several meters
thick (8, 9). Frequently, areas that rely on septic systems also
* Corresponding author e-mail: ptacek@sciborg.uwaterloo.ca.
†
University of Waterloo.
‡
Environment Canada.
10.1021/es070344q CCC: $40.75  2008 American Chemical Society
Published on Web 03/05/2008
rely on local water wells as a drinking water source. In a
recent study in Nebraska, 13 of 26 wells examined showed
evidence of contamination of drinking water by septic waste
(10).
Few studies have been conducted to assess the potential
for septic systems to release pharmaceutically active com-
pounds (PhACs) into the environment. Godfrey et al. (11)
detected 18 of 22 drugs studied in septic tank effluent in
Montana, and Swartz et al. (12) observed transport of caffeine,
estrogens, and other PhACs in groundwater up to 6 m down
gradient of septic system leachate pits. Conn et al. (13)
detected several PhACs at concentrations in the 10s of µg/L
range in wastewater collected from residential and nonresi-
dential on-site treatment systems. The current study involves
a detailed sampling program carried out at three septic system
sites in Ontario, Canada. Samples from septic tanks, ground-
water directly below the tile beds, and groundwater down-
gradient from the tile beds, including groundwater from areas
in different oxidation–reduction zones, were collected from
each site to assess the fate and transport of 11 drugs and 1
antiseptic (Table 1), in the subsurface in relation to geochem-
ical conditions. The occurrence of the selected compounds
has been studied previously (Table 1), but not in a manner
to allow direct comparison of within- and between-site
transport potential. Chemical structures and CAS numbers
are available in the Supporting Information (Table SI-1).
Site Descriptions. The Point Pelee study area is located
within Point Pelee National Park near Leamington, Ontario
(Table 2). This park receives approximately 500 000 day
visitors per year, primarily between April and October. One
of the highest volume tile beds in the park was selected for
study. This tile bed has a dosing pump that feeds wastewater
from a septic tank to a distribution bed which discharges
directly into a 7 m thick medium-coarse-grained sand unit.
The water table is approximately 2 m below the distribution
lines. A dense clay unit underlies the sand unit. Samples
were collected from a previously installed monitoring network
of bundle piezometers (9, 14). The tile bed was in use for
over 20 years, and because of heavy loading rates, wastewater
has penetrated the entire thickness of the sand unit, and has
spread in all directions from the infiltration bed above the
clay unit (14).
The Long Point study area is located in Long Point
Provincial Park, on the north shore of Lake Erie near Port
Rowan, Ontario (Table 2). The tile bed services approximately
200 campsites which operate in the summer only. The tile
bed is installed directly into a fine-medium-grained sand
unit. Groundwater flow is generally southward, but at times
when loading rates are high, the water table mounds below
the tile bed, resulting in flow in all directions from the
infiltration pipes (15). Samples for this study were collected
from a previously installed monitoring network (16).
The Canadian National Institute for the Blind Lake Joseph
Centre is located near MacTier, Ontario (Table 2). The
seasonal campground services approximately 2000 guests
annually. The tile bed, installed in a medium-grained sand
unit, has been in use for over 10 years, and samples for this
study were collected from a network of previously installed
piezometers (17). The septic system plume is migrating
southward, toward Lake Joseph.
Materials and Methods
Field Methods. Sampling locations for each site were selected
based on the results of previous studies, with samples taken
from the most concentrated area of the plume, at varying
depths and distances from the tank, and in different
VOL. 42, NO. 8, 2008 / ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 9 2805
 Measurements of Eh, pH, alkalinity, and dissolved O2 and
TABLE 1. Summary of Previous Research on the 12 Pharma- H2S were made in the field following standard procedures
ceutical Compounds Evaluated in Septic Tank and (18). Water samples were collected for laboratory analysis of
Groundwater Systems in This Study CH4, Fe, Mn, Cl, SO4, nitrate (NO3sN), and ammonia
(NH3sN). Samples for pharmaceutical analyses were col-
presence in
lected in 1 L amber glass bottles, and acidified to pH < 2 with
groundwater/septic
compound pKa Kow systems 18 N H2SO4. All groundwater samples were filtered with 0.45
µm cellulose-acetate filters, and septic tank samples from
clofibric acid 2.84 2.57 • detected in deep Long Point were also filtered. All samples were refrigerated
groundwater up to 290 until analysis.
ng/L (22) Analytical Methods. Samples were analyzed for trace
• nearly conservative
metals using inductively coupled plasma optical emission
transport in column
experiment (24) spectrometry (ICP-OES) and for dissolved concentrations
• mobile in leaching of Cl and SO4 using ion chromatography. Concentrations
experiments (25) of NO2, NO3, NH3, PO4, and DOC were determined using
• detected up to 7300 automated colorimetric procedures.
ng/L near contaminated Pharmaceutical compounds and triclosan were extracted
surface waters (3) from the samples using a method accredited by the Canadian
ibuprofen 4.9 3.79 • attenuated in soils (25)
Association of Environmental Analytical Laboratories ac-
• observed in cording to the International Standard Organization criteria
groundwater up to 200 17025 (19). The procedure involved liquid/liquid extraction
ng/L (26) with dichloromethane as the solvent. The extract was
evaporated, and the analytes derivitized by heating the
salicylic acid 2.98 2.24 • observed in residue with 5% (v/v) pentafluorobenzyl bromide (PFBBr),
groundwater up to to form PFB esters. Silica gel columns were used for sample
1225 ng/L at bank
cleanup. The PFB esters were eluted and measured using
infiltration site (3)
gas capillary chromatography with negative ion chemical
gemfibrozil n/a 4.77 • observed in ionization-mass spectrometry detection (GC-NICIMS) (19).
groundwater up to 340 Recovery of the target compounds using this analytical
ng/L at bank filtration procedure was assessed by spiking groundwater samples with
site (3) the complete suite of the target compounds plus four isotope
labeled surrogate compounds. The groundwater used for
fenoprofen 7.3 3.9 • analyzed for, but not
detected in septic tanks
these analyses was collected from the plume core (bundle
(11) location 121, 1 m depth) and from two of the most
contaminated downgradient locations (bundle locations 124
naproxen 4.15 3.18 • no data available and 138, 1 m depth) from the Long Point site, the most
contaminated of all sites investigated (Supporting Informa-
triclosan 7.9 4.66 • detected in the most tion Table SI-2, Figure 2). All groundwater samples were
concentrated area of a
collected and analyzed in duplicate. Recoveries for all of the
landfill leachate plume
at 210 ng/L (27) target compounds, with the exception of salicylic acid,
were between 90 and 128%. For salicylic acid, recoveries were
ketoprofen 4.8 3.0 • observed in substantially lower, ranging from 44 to 62%, indicating
groundwater up to 30 greater errors associated with quantification of this
ng/L at bank filtration compound. The four isotope labeled surrogates also
site (3) showed good recoveries (Table SI-2). In addition to this
• detected in 1 of 12
recovery study, duplicate external standards and a labora-
septic tanks in the ng/L
range (11) tory blank were analyzed together with each set of 12 field
samples using the same procedure (Table SI-3). The
diclofenac 4 4.02 • detected in deep laboratory blank consisted of double deionized water, and
groundwater up to 50 the external standard consisted of double deionized water
ng/L (22) spiked with 50 ng/L of each target compound, both
• retarded in column analyzed using the complete procedure. These analyses
experiments (Rf ) 2) resulted in mean recoveries between 79 and 104%. For
(24)
• observed in each field sample, an isotope labeled surrogate standard,
groundwater near d3-ibuprofen, was added prior to extraction. Sample
contaminated surface recoveries of d3-ibuprofen were between 70 and 130% for
water up to 75% of the groundwater samples (Tables SI-4 to SI-6). For
380 ng/L (3) the remaining 25% of groundwater samples, the recoveries
of d3-ibuprofen were more variable (Tables SI-4 to SI-6).
indomethacin 4.5 4.27 • no data available Method detection limits reported are based on instrument
bezafibrate 3.6 4.25 • no data available signal-to-noise ratio only. For the septic tank samples,
which were subjected to a prestep using Waters Oasis HLB
fenofibrate n/a 5.19 • observed in cartridges according to Lee et al. (20), sample recoveries
groundwater up to 45 of d3-ibuprofen were poor (20%). Recoveries of the suite
ng/L (26) of unlabeled spike standards were also poor (ranging from
0 to 35%). The poor recoveries observed in the tank
samples, in comparison to the good recoveries observed
geochemical zones of the plume. Water samples were for the groundwater samples, may be due to the additional
collected from septic tanks and piezometers using dedicated step in the analytical procedure or to the tank matrix. The
tubing. reported concentrations for the target compounds were

2806 9 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY / VOL. 42, NO. 8, 2008

TABLE 2. Properties of the Aquifer and Septic System at the Study Sitesa
Point Pelee Long Point Lake Joseph
unconfined poorly sorted unconfined homogeneous unconfined homogeneous
aquifer properties med-coarse grained calcareous med. grained calcareous med. grained noncalcareous
% foc 0.10 0.06 not available
wt. % CaCO3 34.5 18.5 <0.5
surface area (m2 g-1) 1.07 0.56
septic effluent blackwater blackwater and graywater blackwater and graywater
groundwater flow rate (m a-1) 10–60 40 70
effluent discharge rate (L a-1) 3 600 000 2 300 000 2 500 000
area of tile bed (m2) 800 260 1500
effluent loading rate (L m-2 a-) 4500 8800 1700
population served >100 000 visitors day–1 200 campgrounds 2000 visitors
seasonal use year-round seasonal seasonal
depth to water table (m) 2 1.5 3
a
Point Pelee data from ref 14, Long Point data from refs 15, 16, 28, 29, Lake Joseph data from ref 17.

Groundwater Plumes. The extent of transport of septic-

TABLE 3. Concentrations of Pharmaceutical Compounds (ng system derived wastewater was evaluated through monitoring
L-1) for Wastewater Samples Collected at Different Times of piezometers for bulk wastewater parameters at the same
from the Septic Tanksa time as the sampling for the trace organic compounds. Quality
assurance and quality control (QA/QC) steps taken during
Long Long Lake Lake
analysis of the samples for the trace wastewater compounds
Compound Point 1 Point 2 Joseph 1 Joseph 2
indicated that, in contrast to results observed for the tank
clofibric acid ND ND ND ND samples, matrix influences were generally minimal for the
ibuprofen 1470 2150 630 340 groundwater samples.
ibuprofen (corrected) 6800 2400 2850 2800 Point Pelee Groundwater. Groundwater sampling indi-
salicylic acid 480 ND 4 6 cated near neutral pH conditions (6.8–7.1) and elevated
gemfibrozil 430 15 620 240 concentrations of bulk wastewater contaminants, including
fenoprofen ND ND ND ND
NO3, PO4 and Cl, in groundwater below and adjacent to the
naproxen 160 300 10 9
triclosan 10 70 ND ND infiltration tile lines. Delineation of redox zones at this site,
fenofibrate ND ND ND ND following the approach described by Christensen et al. (21),
ketoprofen ND ND ND ND based on concentrations of dissolved O2, NO3sN, Mn, Fe,
diclofenac ND ND ND ND SO4,H2S, and CH4 measured at the time of pharmaceutical
indomethacin 4 3 ND ND sampling, indicates the presence of a NO3-reducing zone
bezafibrate 12 3 ND ND close to the tile bed where infiltration rates are the highest.
d3-ibuprofen 21% 89% 22% 12% Below and around the main infiltration area, an Fe(III)
a
For tank samples, the recoveries of the internal reducing zone is present. For the delineation of these zones,
standard d3-ibuprofen were generally low, indicating it was assumed that total Fe and Mn were in the Fe(II) and
underestimation of actual concentrations. Additions of Mn(II) forms. The more oxidizing zone close to the infiltration
spike standards to tank samples collected at a later date lines is likely due to the higher rates of infiltration of partially
also indicate poor recoveries for all compounds (0–35% oxidized wastewater relative to the somewhat stagnant
recoveries). Reported values were not corrected for
reduced background groundwater (Figure 1).
recoveries of d3-ibuprofen, with the exception of the
results for ibuprofen where indicated. ND represents not Only two pharmaceutical compounds, salicylic acid and
detected. diclofenac, were detected in groundwater at Point Pelee
(Figure 1). Detection of these compounds was limited to one
based on calibration using analysis of the external shallow sampling point, at the edge of the tile bed with
standards, with the exception of ibuprofen. For this concentrations near 30 ng L-1. QA/QC results indicate good
compound only, the reported concentrations were cor- recoveries for samples collected from Point Pelee (Table SI-
rected using the measured recoveries. 4), thus the low concentrations are not likely due to analytical
error, but rather to hydrogeochemical and microbiological
Results processes that are contributing to the removal of these
Septic Tanks. Poor recoveries of standards during analysis compounds at this site.
of the samples of septic tank effluent, indicate that the Long Point Groundwater. Groundwater below and
analyses were strongly influenced by the sample matrix, downgradient of the Long Point tile bed is also near neutral
therefore the results can be considered as qualitative only. in pH (6.7–7.2). Concentrations of Cl, a conservative tracer,
Six drugs and an antiseptic (triclosan) were detected in the were greater than 30 mg L-1 more than 30 m down gradient
Long Point septic tank wastewater, and four drugs in the from the edge of the tile bed, indicating that the septic system
Lake Joseph septic tank wastewater (Table 3). Because of plume extends at least that distance from the tile bed (Figure
the low recoveries, actual concentrations likely were higher 2). Aerobic conditions exist directly below the tile bed,
than the reported concentrations. There is also a strong becoming more reduced with depth and distance from the
likelihood that additional drugs were present in the tank tile bed. The dominant terminal electron accepting processes
wastewaters, but were not detected because of matrix in the vicinity of the tile bed are NO3-, Mn(IV)-, and Fe(III)-
suppression. Despite this high analytical uncertainty, the reduction (Figure 2).
results indicate that there is potential for release of a number The QA/QC analysis of samples collected from the Long
of drugs from the septic tanks, consistent with findings by Point site indicate that the analyses were more variable than
Godfrey et al. (11). Due to a processing error, results for the at the Point Pelee site, with several samples showing
Point Pelee septic tank were not obtained. recoveries as high as 168%, suggesting the reported con-

VOL. 42, NO. 8, 2008 / ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 9 2807


FIGURE 1. Concentration of diclofenac and salicylic acid (ng
L-1) in shallow (and deep) wells at Point Pelee.
centrations may be overestimated by close to a factor of 2
(Table SI-5). The spatial changes in concentrations at this
site, however, are much larger than these analytical uncer-
tainties, thus the results provide an indication of pharma-
ceutical persistence and transport at this site. Nine trace
organic compounds, including ibuprofen, salicylic acid,
gemfibrozil, naproxen, triclosan, ketoprofen, diclofenac,
indomethacin, and bezafibrate were detected in the plume
(Figure 2). Concentrations of ibuprofen were the highest, in
the thousands of ng L-1 range. Concentrations of naproxen
and gemfibrozil were observed in the hundreds and thou-
sands of ng L-1 in the plumes, and salicylic acid, ketoprofen,
diclofenac, and indomethacin were present at concentrations
ranging mostly from 1 to 30 ng L-1. Elevated concentrations
of several pharmaceutical compounds far from the tile bed
indicate groundwater transport is occurring. Salicylic acid
and ketoprofen were both observed 20 m down gradient of
the tile bed, whereas diclofenac and indomethacin were
observed 10 m down gradient of the edge of the tile bed.
Gemfibrozil, naproxen, and ibuprofen were detected through-
out almost the entire depth of the aquifer and extend 20 m
or more down gradient of the edge of the tile bed.
Seven of the nine target compounds detected in ground-
water at Long Point also were detected in the septic tank at
the time of groundwater sampling. Ketoprofen and diclofenac
were present in the plume, but were not detected in the tank
at the time of the groundwater sampling, but they were
detected in the 10s of ng/L range at a later date.
Lake Joseph Groundwater. The groundwater down
gradient from the Lake Joseph infiltration bed had slightly
depressed pH conditions (∼5.9). Aerobic conditions, observed
below the tile bed become more reducing down gradient
along the groundwater flow path. The presence of an aerobic
zone upgradient of the tile bed suggests that aerobic
2808 9 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY / VOL. 42, NO. 8, 2008
groundwater is refreshing the wastewater plume at its
upgradient edge. The majority of samples were collected in
NO3-reducing zones, with some samples collected in Mn(IV)-
reducing and methanogenic areas (Figure 3). No clear Fe(III)-
reducing zone was observed according to the method that
was used to delineate the zones.
The QA/QC analysis of data from the Lake Joseph site
indicates good recoveries of internal standards. Five phar-
maceutical compounds, including ibuprofen, salicyclic acid,
gemfibrizol, naproxen, clofibric acid, and triclosan were
detected in groundwater collected from the Lake Joseph
plume (Figure 3). Ibuprofen was observed at the highest
concentrations and was detected most frequently. Clofibric
acid and ibuprofen were detected in groundwater as far as
15–20 m downgradient of the edge of the tile bed and
approximately 2 m below the water table. Triclosan was
detected in groundwater at only one sampling point, and
gemfibrozil and naproxen were detected in groundwater at
one or two sampling points below the tile bed.
Concentrations of Cl indicate that the septic system plume
extends much further down gradient than the pharmaceutical
compounds, indicating attenuation of even the most highly
transported organic compound. Four of the organic com-
pounds detected in the groundwater were also detected in
the two septic tank samples at Lake Joseph.
Discussion
Sampling of groundwater in the vicinity of three tile beds
shows that a number of pharmaceutical compounds and
triclosan were present in groundwater at elevated concen-
trations as the result of infiltration of septic system wastewater
into the subsurface. The results also indicate that, based on
the long distances from the infiltration lines, a number of
compounds are mobile in the subsurface. Striking differences
were observed between the number of detections, the
concentrations, and the transport distances both within a
given site and from site to site. The highest number of
detections and highest concentrations were observed at Long
Point (e.g., ibuprofen, naproxen, and gemfibrozil), compared
with Point Pelee where virtually no compounds were
detected. At Long Point, several compounds, including
ibuprofen, salicylic acid, naproxen, and bezafibrate, were
present in groundwater at concentrations similar to those
observed in raw and partially treated effluent from Canadian
municipal wastewater treatment plants (5). Many of the
concentrations are similar to and, in many cases, several
orders of magnitude higher than pharmaceutical concentra-
tions observed in surveys of surface water in Canada (22)
and elsewhere (2, 22, 23). Some pharmaceutical compounds
are known to degrade through photolysis reactions (1), a
process that would be limited in the subsurface environment,
possibly contributing to the relatively high persistence in
this setting.
For pharmaceutical compounds in their neutral form,
organic partitioning may affect their transport in ground-
water. However, the pKa values of the compounds range from
2.8 to 7.9 (Table 1), indicating that under the pH values
observed at all three field sites, all of the compounds except
triclosan, and fenofibrate will be completely dissociated. The
anionic nature of these compounds suggests that mecha-
nisms other than hydrophobic sorption are likely influencing
their attenuation.
The extent of transport of the pharmaceutical compounds
was observed to be correlated to the oxidation–reduction
conditions that developed in the wastewater plumes (Table
4). At Point Pelee, two compounds, salicylic acid and
diclofenac were detected at one sampling point where NO3-
reducing conditions are present. Of the five compounds
detected at Lake Joseph, none were present in aerobic zones,
FIGURE 2. Cross-section at Long Point showing sampling points and contours of redox conditions, pH, and concentrations of
pharmaceutical compounds (ng L-1). The plume boundary is delineated by dashed lines for Cl concentrations of 30 mg L-1. The
location of the water table is represented by the upper dashed line.

all were present in NO3-reducing zones, and three were
detected in more reduced areas. Finally, at Long Point, all
of the pharmaceuticals detected were observed in NO3-,
Mn(IV)-, and Fe(III)-reducing zones. No pharmaceuticals
were detected in groundwater at the one sampling point
where SO4-reducing conditions prevailed, and only triclosan
was detected in aerobic zones. The results are similar to those
reported by Swartz et al. (12), where preferential removal of
estrogenic and other organic wastewater compounds was
observed in oxic zones of a plume relative to suboxic/anoxic
zones, suggesting enhanced degradation under oxidizing
conditions.
In addition to differences in oxidation–reduction condi-
tions in the plumes, differences in properties of the aquifer
material at each site may also contribute to the transport of
the pharmaceutical compounds. The Point Pelee aquifer sand
has a higher surface area and higher organic carbon content
than the other tile bed sites (Table 2), suggesting surface
reactions also may be contributing to the limited transport
of pharmaceuticals at this site.
Various aspects of system design may be contributing
to variations in the degree of attenuation. The effluent
loading rate is highest at Long Point, and lowest at Lake
Joseph (Table 2). The higher loading rates at Long Point
would result in faster flow rates and decreased residence
times relative to the other two sites. This difference may
account for the limited degree of attenuation observed at
Long Point. In addition, the depth to the water table is
least at Long Point (Table 2), further contributing to
reduced transport times in the vadose zone, where much
aerobic oxidation takes place.
The mobility and persistence of the compounds analyzed
in this study suggest that there may be a concern for their
unintended human ingestion if drinking water is obtained
from water supply wells located close to septic system
infiltration beds. Typically, separation distances between
wells and tile beds are based on the distances required for
the removal of pathogens, such as E. coli, and do not consider
the transport of other pathogens, pharmaceutical com-
pounds, or other trace substances.

VOL. 42, NO. 8, 2008 / ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 9 2809

FIGURE 3. Cross-section at Lake Joseph showing sampling points, and contours of redox conditions, pH, and concentrations of
pharmaceutical compounds (ng L-1). The plume boundary is delineated by Cl concentrations of 30 mg L-1. The location of the water
table is represented by the upper dashed line.

TABLE 4. Presence of pharmaceutical compounds in different oxidation–reduction zones at the septic system sitesa, (+)
indicates that the compound was observed, and (-) indicates that it was not observed
Point Pelee Long Point Lake Joseph
NO3 Fe- NO3- Mn- Fe- SO4- NO3- Mn-
reducing reducing aerobic reducing reducing reducing reducing aerobic reducing reducing methanogenic
clofibric acid - - - - - - - - + - +
ibuprofen - - - + + + - - + + +
salicylic acid + - - + + - - - - - -
gemfibrozil - - - + + + - - + - -
naproxen - - - + + + - - + + -
triclosan - - + - - - - - + - -
ketoprofen - - - + + + - - - - -
diclofenac + - - + + + - - - - -
indomethacin - - - + + + - - - - -
bezafibrate - - - + + + - - - - -
a
Zones defined according to Christensen et al. (21).

Similarly, there is potential for unmonitored release of
PhACs to natural ecosystems at locations where septic system
plumes containing elevated concentrations of pharmaceuti-
cal compounds are discharging to surface water bodies. Many
nontarget species have the potential to be exposed to
pharmaceutical compounds in these settings, and may be
susceptible to adverse effects at very low concentrations.
These effects may be magnified in settings where there are
multiple tile beds, such as in intensely developed lakeshore
settings.
The field observations suggest that the persistence of
pharmaceutical compounds is closely related to the
oxidation–reduction conditions that are established in the
wastewater disposal area. Optimization of septic system
designs that will promote wastewater oxidation may assist
in minimizing persistence of these compounds.
Acknowledgments
Funding for this project was provided by Environment
Canada, NSERC, the Canadian Water Network, and Ontario
and NSERC graduate scholarships. The authors thank the
Canadian National Institute for the Blind, Long Point
Provincial Park, and Point Pelee National Park for access
to the sites. We thank H. Steer, J. Schachtschneider, S.
Cagampan, J. Birks, J. Voralek, and C. Ardau for their
support in the laboratory and field. This manuscript
benefited greatly from the comments of an anonymous
reviewer.

2810 9 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY / VOL. 42, NO. 8, 2008

Supporting Information Available
Tabulated quality control data and field results. This material
is available free of charge via the Internet at http://
pubs.acs.org.
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