Proceeding Paper
Parametric Analysis of Rib Pillar Stability in a Longitudinal
Sublevel Open Stoping Operation in an Underground Copper
Mine in Southern Africa †
Kostas Kaklis 1, * , Zach Agioutantis 2 , Munyindei Masialeti 1 , Jerome Yendaw 1 and Thierry Bineli Betsi 1






Citation: Kaklis, K.; Agioutantis, Z.;
Masialeti, M.; Yendaw, J.; Betsi, T.B.
Parametric Analysis of Rib Pillar
Stability in a Longitudinal Sublevel
Open Stoping Operation in an
Underground Copper Mine in
Southern Africa. Mater. Proc. 2021, 5,
11. https://doi.org/10.3390/
materproc2021005011
Academic Editor: Evangelos Tzamos
Published: 9 November 2021
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral
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Copyright: © 2021 by the authors.
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Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
Mater. Proc. 2021, 5, 11. https://doi.org/10.3390/materproc2021005011
1 Department of Mining and Geological Engineering, Botswana International University of Science and
Technology, Palapye 10071, Botswana; masialetim@biust.ac.bw (M.M.); yendawj@biust.ac.bw (J.Y.);
binelit@biust.ac.bw (T.B.B.)
2 Department of Mining Engineering, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40506, USA;
zach.agioutantis@uky.edu
* Correspondence: kaklisk@biust.ac.bw
† Presented at International Conference on Raw Materials and Circular Economy, Athens, Greece,
5–9 September 2021.
Abstract: The pillar stability factor (PSF) is calculated in three different mining stages for a sublevel
open stoping mining project located in northern Botswana. Several three-dimensional finite element
models were developed by varying the stope span. Pillar strength was estimated using the Lunder
and Pakalnis equation and pillar stress was obtained from the numerical models. As mining pro-
gresses, both the first and second mining stages meet the rib pillar stability factor requirement for
safe extraction. Geometrical improvements are suggested in the mining layout for the third mining
stage to achieve the required PSF, which is based on international practices.
Keywords: sublevel open stoping; 3D numerical modeling; pillar stability; metalliferous mining
1. Introduction
The choice of an underground mining method is mainly influenced by the stability
of the rock mass. Stable rock masses allow for self-supported (or unsupported) openings,
in which the induced stresses are carried by the side walls and the pillars. Then, the ore
can be extracted from the underground opening without the application of any supporting
system. The main self-supporting mining methods are sublevel stoping and room and
pillar [1].
Sublevel stoping is an open stoping, high-production, bulk mining method that is
widely used in underground (hard-rock) metalliferous mining. This method allows for low
cost, high recovery, and productivity, while providing operational safety to personnel and
equipment. The most commonly used sublevel stoping mining methods are sublevel open
stoping, long-hole open stoping, and vertical crater retreat (VCR). It is applicable to large,
steeply dipping, regular competent ore bodies surrounded by competent host rock in both
the hanging wall and the footwall. It has been used in ore bodies with a minimum strength
of 50 MPa [2], a minimum width of 6 m [3] and a minimum dip of 50◦ [4].
Stopes are developed along the strike when the ore thickness is less than 15 m. Trans-
verse stopes are used in wider (thicker) ore bodies which are aligned perpendicularly to
the strike of the deposit with pillars left between the primary stopes [5].
In the absence of consolidated mine fill, sublevel stoping employs pillars to separate
the individual stopes. The stopes, generated by the ore exploitation process, are bounded
by crown, rib and sill pillars that serve as natural supports. The crown pillar provides
support to the surrounding workings. The rib pillar separates adjacent stopes and thus
limits the size of the stope along its length. The sill pillar serves as a base for the muck and
for development of the ore extraction system.
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/materproc
Mater. Proc. 2021, 5, 11 2 of 8

Since the ore is extracted progressively from open stopes generated between pillars,
the stability of large (mainly unreinforced) stope walls and crowns, as well as the stability
of any exposed fill masses is critical to the success of the method [5].
Many researchers [6–9] have investigated and analyzed the design of the crown and
the rib pillars numerically in 2D space, to evaluate the required geometrical dimensions for
safe operation and to estimate the ore and rock mass response in underground metalliferous
mines. The major factors which contribute to pillar stability are: (1) the depth of cover;
(2) the excavation size; (3) the horizontal stresses; (4) rock mass properties; (5) backfilling;
(6) reinforcement of the hanging wall; and (7) the orebody inclination (dip) [10,11].
This paper mainly focusses on the variation of the stope span dimension in a longi-
tudinal sublevel open stoping (SLOS) operation, while the dimensions of the crown and
rib pillars remain constant. The rib pillar stability of different SLOS layouts was analyzed
and assessed with the aid of a three-dimensional finite element analysis software by Roc-
Science. A parametric analysis is presented whereby the stope span parameter is varied
and the resulting orebody rib pillar stresses are calculated at different depths and stages of
mining sequence. The numerical results for each SLOS layout are compared to evaluate the
proposed mining layouts, based on the required pillar stability factor (PSF), as suggested
by international practices.

2. Geology
The study area is located within the Neoproterozoic-to Early Paleozoic Pan-African
Ghantsi-Chobe Belt (GCB), which is part of the Kalahari Copper Belt (KCB) [12], extending
from western Namibia into the northern part of Botswana along the north-western edge of
the Paleoproterozoic Kalahari Craton [13]. Stratigraphically, the Late Mesoproterozoic [14]
Kgwebe Volcanic Formation (KVF) forms the basement of the KCB in Botswana. The KVF
comprises of inter-bedded meta-volcanic and meta-sedimentary rocks of about 2 km to
2.5 km thick. Overlying the KVF, is a 5000 m thick sequence of meta sedimentary rocks
referred to as the Ghanzi Group [15]. The Ghanzi Group is comprised (from the oldest)
of: (i) the Kuke Formation consisting of 500 m grey quartz arenite and red sandstone with
a basal conglomerate [15]; (ii) the Ngwako Pan Formation (2 km thick), made up of a
mudstone-rich matrix sandstone, which grades into a red sandstone with interbedded gran-
ular units [15]; (iii) the D’Kar Formation consisting of fine-grained sandstones, siltstones,
mudstones with limestones [16], and; (iv) the Mamuno Formation, which is the youngest
in the sequence, is a red sandstone with occasional mudstone and minor limestone [15].
Overlying the Mamuno Formation is the Cenozoic to recent Kalahari Group [14].
The Botswana portion of the KCB is host to numerous strata-bound Cu–Ag de-
posits/occurrences, which occur at the redox boundary between the oxidized Ngwako Pan
and the reduced D’kar formations. The copper–silver mineralization, essentially comprises
Ag-bearing Cu sulphides and Pb-Zn sulphides as accessories [17].

3. Case Study
3.1. Description
This case study considers a copper orebody, dipping at 60◦ , with an average thickness
of 10 m, at an underground copper mine. In the area of interest, the orebody presents an
excellent strike and depth continuity of mineralization and the whole thickness is mined.
The footwall consists of a limestone unit, while the hanging wall is a thick unit of sandstone.
The conventional SLOS mining method (Figure 1a) is used at an overburden depth of 85 m.
The mining area has been divided into three blocks (Figure 1b), based on the initial
mine design; each block has a vertical height of 105 m. Each such block is mined by four
sublevels, utilizing ore drives of 5 m height. The sublevel stopes are separated by rib pillars
of 5 m strike length in a staggered pattern. Each stope has a dip height of 23.1 m and a
width of 10 m, while the strike length (stope span) is under investigation and varies. The
three blocks are separated by crown pillars of 11.5 m dip height and 10 m width.
 sublevels, utilizing ore drives of 5 m height. The sublevel stopes are separated by rib pil-
lars of 5 m strike length in a staggered pattern. Each stope has a dip height of 23.1 m and
Mater. Proc. 2021, 5, 11 3 of 8
a width of 10 m, while the strike length (stope span) is under investigation and varies. The
three blocks are separated by crown pillars of 11.5 m dip height and 10 m width.

Overburden

Mining Sequence
Rib pillar

Rib pillar
Rib pillar

Rib pillar

Rib pillar
Stope advance

Slot
Stope Stope Stope Stope Stope

Ore drive
Rib pillar

Rib pillar
Rib pillar

Rib pillar

Stope advance

Slot
Stope Stope Stope

Ore drive
Production
Production Rib pillar

Sub-Level Sub-Level
drilling

Stope Stope Stope advance

Ore drive
Rib pillar

drilling

Stope advance

Ore drive
Crown pillar
Ore drive

Development advance

(a) (b)
Figure
Figure 1. (a)1.Section
(a) Section
viewview along
along strike
strike inSLOS
in the the SLOS mining
mining method.
method. (b) The
(b) The 3D layout
3D layout ofmining
of the the mining
area.area.

3.2.3.2. Numerical
Numerical Modeling
Modeling
In this study,
In this study, thethenumerical
numericalmodeling
modelingwas wasconducted
conducted using (developedand
using RS3 (developed anddis-
distributed
tributed by RocScience), assuming homogeneous isotropic rock materials
assuming homogeneous isotropic rock materials and no discon- and no dis-
continuities.
tinuities. Several numerical
numerical models
modelswere werecreated
createdbased
basedonon the same
the sameinitial
initialSLOS
SLOS layout.
layout.
All All
the the
SLOS SLOSgeometrical
geometrical parameters
parameters were thethe
were samesamein each model,
in each model,except
exceptfor for
the the
stopestope
span which
span varied
which to investigate
varied to investigateits effect on the
its effect rib pillar
on the stability.
rib pillar stability.
TheThe numerical
numerical modelmodelheight is 600
height m and
is 600 m andthe the
width is 700
width m. The
is 700 length
m. The lengthalongalongthe the
strike depends on the stope span and varies between 90 m and
strike depends on the stope span and varies between 90 m and 120 m (Figure 2a). The 120 m (Figure 2a). The
elastic–plastic
elastic–plastic Mohr–Coulomb
Mohr–Coulomb model
modelis used for for
is used thethe
copper orebody,
copper orebody,while the the
while other
otherrockrock
layers were considered as elastic materials. The bottom of the numerical
layers were considered as elastic materials. The bottom of the numerical model is fixed, model is fixed,
while the the
while sideside
boundaries
boundaries are roller-supported
are roller-supported to allow only vertical
to allow movement.
only vertical The in-situ
movement. The in-
stress
situfield
stresswasfielddefined by theby
was defined gravity field stress
the gravity option,
field stress while
option, the horizontal
while the horizontal stresses
stresses
were set set
were equal
equalin all
in directions.
all directions.TheThehorizontal
horizontalto vertical stress
to vertical ratio
stress waswas
ratio set set
equal to 0.33.
equal to 0.33.
TheThemodel was meshed utilizing a graded mesh with 10-node
model was meshed utilizing a graded mesh with 10-node tetrahedral elements tetrahedral elements which which
resulted
resultedto atototal of 433,389
a total of 433,389 elements
elements andand
595,900 nodes.
595,900 TheThe
nodes. initial mesh
initial meshwaswas improved
improved
by increasing
by increasing thethe
element
element density around
density aroundthethe
mining
mining area, utilizing
area, the the
utilizing meshmesh refinement
refinement
procedure available in RS3. The RS3 models were solved in
procedure available in RS3. The RS3 models were solved in four stages: (1) the four stages: (1) the geostatic
geostatic
stage,
stage, in which the pre-mining in-situ stresses were initialized; (2) the Block 1stage,
in which the pre-mining in-situ stresses were initialized; (2) the Block 1 mining mining
in which
stage, all ore drives
in which all oreand stopes
drives were
and excavated
stopes in the Block
were excavated 1 mining
in the Block 1area;
mining(3) the
area;Block
(3) the
2 mining
Block 2stage;
mining (4) stage;
the Block 3 mining
(4) the Block 3stage.
mining stage.
The stope deformability and the pillar stability for each model were evaluated at
The stope deformability and the pillar stability for each model were evaluated at spe-
specific selected stopes (Stope 2b, Stope 6b, and Stope 10b) and rib pillars (Pillar 3b, Pillar
cific selected stopes (Stope 2b, Stope 6b, and Stope 10b) and rib pillars (Pillar 3b, Pillar 7b,
7b, and Pillar 11b), in each Block at the middle vertical plane of the model, presented in
and Pillar 11b), in each Block at the middle vertical plane of the model, presented in Figure
Figure 2b.
2b.
Mater.Proc.
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2021,5,5,11
11 44 ofof88

(a) (b)
Figure
Figure 2. (a) The 2. (a) The numerical
numerical model formodel for the
the three threeblocks
mining mininginblocks in the
the SLOS SLOS method.
method. (b) Theand
(b) The stopes stopes and ribunder
rib pillars pillars
under
investigation investigation
in each in each mining block.
mining block.

4.4. Pillar
Pillar Design
DesignBackground
Background
Pillar design
Pillar design isis one
one ofof the
the most
most important
important issues
issues inin the
the field
fieldof ofground
groundcontrol
controlin in
undergroundself-supported
underground self-supportedminingminingoperations.
operations. Traditional
Traditionalstrength-based
strength-basedpillar pillardesign
design
requires
requiresestimates
estimatesof ofpillar
pillarstress
stressand
andpillar
pillarstrength
strength[1].[1].The
Thepillar
pillarstability
stabilityfactor
factor(PSF)
(PSF)isis
then
thencalculated
calculatedby bydividing
dividing pillar strength
pillar strengthby by
pillar stress.
pillar TheThe
stress. strength of a of
strength pillar is related
a pillar is re-
to both its volume and its geometric shape. The effect of volume on strength
lated to both its volume and its geometric shape. The effect of volume on strength can be can be readily
understood in terms of
readily understood in aterms
distribution of miningof
of a distribution induced
miningcracks,
induced natural fractures
cracks, naturaland other
fractures
defects
and otherin the rock in
defects mass.
the rock mass.
The
Thedesign
designof ofhard-rock
hard-rockpillars
pillarshas
hasnot
notreceived
receivedthe thesame
sameresearch
researchattention
attentionas ascoal
coal
pillar
pillardesign.
design.This
Thisisispartly
partlybecause
becausefewer
fewermines
minesoperate
operateat atdepths
depthssufficient
sufficientto toinduce
inducethe the
stresses required to cause hard rocks to fail, and in hard-rock mining
stresses required to cause hard rocks to fail, and in hard-rock mining pillar and mining pillar and mining
geometries
geometriesmay maybe beirregular
irregularmaking
makingititdifficult
difficulttotoestablish
establishactual
actualloads.
loads.
There have been several attempts to establish
There have been several attempts to establish hard-rock pillar hard-rock pillar strength
strength formulas,
formulas, us-
using
ing thethe“back-calculation”
“back-calculation”approachapproach[18–22].
[18–22]. The
The empirical
empirical formulation
formulation by by Lunder
Lunderand and
Pakalnis
Pakalnis[23][23](Equation
(Equation(1)),(1)),which
whichisisbased
basedon onaadetailed
detailedpillar
pillarstability
stabilitystudy
studycombined
combined
with
with an extensive database of published pillar case histories (178), was utilizedfor
an extensive database of published pillar case histories (178), was utilized forpillar
pillar
strength calculation in the present
strength calculation in the present study: study:

Ps𝑃==((0.44 ∙ 𝑈𝐶𝑆)(0.68
0.44·UCS )(0.68 ++0.52
0.52 ∙ 𝑘𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑎)
·kappa (MPa)
) (MPa ) (1)
(1)

where: 𝑈𝐶𝑆 isisthe

where:UCS theuniaxial
uniaxialcompression
compressionstrength
strengthand
and
 1 − 𝐶 
𝑘𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑎 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠
1 1 − C pav

(2)
kappa = tan cos 1+𝐶 (2)
1 + C pav
.
𝑤 (3)
𝐶 = 0.46 ∙ 𝑙𝑜𝑔w + 0.75 ( w )
h  i 1.4
C pav = 0.46· log ℎ 0.75
+ h (3)
h
and 𝑤 is the square pillar width, ℎ is the pillar height. For a rectangular pillar with une-
and w is the square pillar width, h is the pillar height. For a rectangular pillar with unequal
qual side lengths (𝑤 , 𝑤 ), the square pillar dimension in Equation (3) is substituted by the
side lengths (w1 , w2 ), the square pillar dimension in Equation (3) is substituted by the
equivalent dimension 𝑤 given by:
equivalent dimension we given by:
2𝑤1 𝑤2
𝑤 =2w1 w2 (4)
we = 𝑤1 + 𝑤2 (4)
w1 + w2
Mater. Proc. 2021, 5, 11 5 of 8
Mater.Proc.
Mater. Proc.2021,
2021,5,5,1111 55ofof8 8

In this study the pillar strength was calculated to be equal to 34.94 MPa, by applying
InInthis
Equationsthis studyand
(1)–(4)
study thepillar
the pillarstrength
strength
utilizing wascalculated
calculated
the geometrical
was totobe
beequal
parameters equaltoto34.94
presented34.94 MPa,by
inMPa,
Figureby applying
3a.
applying
Equations (1)–(4) and utilizing the geometrical parameters presented in Figure
Equations (1)–(4) and utilizing the geometrical parameters presented in Figure 3a. 3a.

(a) (b)
(a) (b)
Figure 3. (a) Rib pillar geometrical dimensions. (b) Stress transformation along the line query.
Figure 3. (a)
Figure 3. Rib pillar
(a) Rib geometrical
pillar dimensions.
geometrical (b) Stress
dimensions. transformation
(b) Stress along
transformation the the
along lineline
query.
query.
The pillar stress was numerically determined in each model. Consider a set of reference
The
axes, The
x, pillar
y,pillar
and z, stress
withwas
stress was numerically
thenumerically
x-axis parallel determined inineach
to the strike,
determined each model.in
as shown
model. Consider
Figure 3b.
Consider aaset
set
Inofof reference
this study
reference
axes,
the
axes, x,x,y,y,
pillar andz,𝜎
stress
and z,with
with
is thethex-axis
x-axisparallel
calculated paralleltotoplane
assuming thethestrike,
strike,
problemasasshown
shown
state by ininutilizing
Figure3b.
Figure 3b. InInthis
thisstudy
transformation study
thepillar
the pillar(5),
Equation stress
stress along𝜎
0 is
σyy is calculated
calculated
the line query assuming
assuming
normal planetoplane problem
theproblem
dip of the state
state bybyutilizing
orebody, utilizing transformation
at thetransformation
middle of the
Equation
Equation (5),
pillar. (5), along
along the line query query normal
normaltotothe thedipdipofofthetheorebody,
orebody,atat thethe middle
middle of of
the
the pillar.
pillar. 𝜎 +𝜎 𝜎 −𝜎
0𝜎 =σyy𝜎+ σ zz +σyy − σzz cos 2𝜃 + 𝜏 sin 2𝜃 (5)
σyy = 2+ 𝜎+ 𝜎 2− 𝜎cos 2θ + τyz sin 2θ (5)
𝜎 = 2 + 2 cos 2𝜃 + 𝜏 sin 2𝜃 (5)
2 2
5. Results
5. Results and and Discussion
Discussion
5. Results
In this
In and Discussion
this study
study three
threenumerical
numericalmodelsmodelswere weredeveloped,
developed,based based ononthethesame
same SLOSSLOS mining
min-
layout
ing Inwith
layout this variations
withstudy threeinnumerical
variations the stope
in the stope span
models
span (25
were
(25m,m, 3030m,m,and
developed, and35 35m).
basedm).This
on
This section
the same SLOS
section discusses
min-
discusses
the
the influence
inginfluence
layout with of the
of the stope span
variations
stope span
in theonstope
on the stope
the stope deformability
spandeformability
(25 m, 30 m, and and35
and the
them).ribThis
rib pillar stability.
section
pillar The
discusses
stability. The
extraction
the influence
extraction ratioofin
ratio inthethe
the cases
stope
cases of 25
span
of 25
onm,m, 30stope
the30 m, and
m, and 35
35 mm stope
deformability stopeandspan
spanthearerib82.1%,
are 83.8%,
83.8%, and
pillar stability.
82.1%, The
and
85.1%,
85.1%, respectively.
extraction ratio in the cases of 25 m, 30 m, and 35 m stope span are 82.1%, 83.8%, and
respectively.
Therespectively.
85.1%,
The mechanical characteristics
mechanical characteristics of of the
the selected
selected stopes
stopes andand pillars
pillars (Figure
(Figure 2b) 2b) were
were
evaluated along
The along
evaluated mechanicalthe line
the line queries
characteristicspresented
queries presented in Figure
of theinselected
Figure 4. 4. More
stopes
Moreand specifically the
pillars (Figure
specifically stope’s
the stope’s 2b) line
were
line
query
query lies at
evaluated
lies atalong
the hanging
the hanging
the linewallwall parallel
queries to the
presented
parallel to the strike,
strike,
in Figureat the
at middle
4. More
the middle of
of the
the dip
specificallydipthe height, while
stope’s
height, line
while
the
the pillar’s
query line
lies line
pillar’s at the query
hanging
query is normal to
wall parallel
is normal the
to the dipdip
to theof the
of the orebody,
strike, at
at theat
orebody, the
middle middle
of theof
the middle ofdipthe pillar.
theheight, The
pillar.while
The
length
length of stope’s
the pillar’s
of stope’s line query
line query
line query is equal
is normal
is equal
to thetodip
to stope
stope span
of the
span in each
orebody,
in each atmodel and
and the
the middle
model of length
the of
of the
the pillar.
length The
the
pillar’s line query is equal to the orebody thickness (10 m).
lengthline
pillar’s of stope’s
query isline equalquery is equal
to the orebody to stope
thickness span(10 inm).
each model and the length of the
pillar’s line query is equal to the orebody thickness (10 m).

Figure
Figure 4.
4. Location
Location of
of the
the line
line queries
queries at
at the
the hanging
hanging wall
wall of
of the
the stope
stope and
and the
the middle
middle of
of the
the rib
rib pillar.
pillar.
Figure 4. Location of the line queries at the hanging wall of the stope and the middle of the rib pillar.
Mater.
Mater. Proc. 2021,5,5,11
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of 88

5.1. Stope Deformability

Figure
Figure 5a presents
presents the
the variation
variation of
of the
the total
total displacement
displacement along
along the
the Stope
Stope 6b6b hanging
hanging
wall
wall line
linequery
queryininthetheBlock
Block3 3mining
miningstage,
stage,forfor
three different
three stope
different spans,
stope while
spans, Figure
while 5b
Figure
shows
5b showsthe variation of the
the variation oftotal displacement
the total with respect
displacement to the stope
with respect to thespan
stopeforspan
eachfor
mining
each
stage.
miningIt stage.
is evident
It is that the total
evident displacement
that the increases increases
total displacement with respect torespect
with the stopeto span and
the stope
the mining stage.
span and the mining stage.

0.018 Block 1 Block 2 Block 3

0.020
0.016
Total Displacement (m)

Total Displacement (m)

0.014 0.015
0.012

0.010 0.010

0.008 Stope 6b span 25 m

Stope 6b span 30 m 0.005
0.006
Stope 6b span 35 m
0.004 0.000
0.0 17.5 35.0 25 30 35
Stope span (m) Stope span (m)

(a) (b)
Figure 5.
Figure 5. Variation
Variationofofthe
thetotal
totaldisplacement
displacement(a)(a)along
along
thethe Stope
Stope 6b6b hanging
hanging wall
wall lineline query
query in the
in the Block
Block 3 mining
3 mining stage,
stage, for
for three
three different
different stope
stope spansspans
andand (b)the
(b) at at middle
the middle of Stope
of the the Stope 6b hanging
6b hanging wallwall for each
for each mining
mining stage
stage vs. the
vs. the stope
stope span.
span.

5.2. Rib
5.2. Rib Pillar
Pillar Behavior
Behavior and
and Stability
Stability
Figure 6a presents the variation of of normal
normal stress
stress σ 𝜎yy
0 along
alongthe
thethickness
thickness of of Pillar
Pillar 7b
7b
(0–10 m)
(0–10 m)andandclearly
clearlyshows
shows that
that thethe pillar
pillar stressstress increases
increases as theasmining
the mining
sequencesequence pro-
progresses.
gresses.
In In addition,
addition, the maximum 0 value
the maximum
σyy 𝜎 is observed
value is observed at theof
at the middle middle of the
the pillar forpillar
miningfor
mining2 stages
stages and 3. 2Pillar
and strength
3. Pillar was
strength was calculated
calculated using (1).
using Equation Equation
The PSF (1).was
Thecalculated
PSF was
calculated
utilizing utilizing
the maximum the value
maximum value
for each such 0
forσeach such 𝜎 curve.
yy curve.
0 at the middle of the pillars as well as the
Table summarizes the normal stress σ𝜎yy
Table 11 summarizes at the middle of the pillars as well as the
PSF calculated
calculated by byEquation
Equation(1) (1)for
foreach
eachmining
mining stage
stage andand stope
stope span.
span. As expected,
As expected, the
the PSF
PSF values decrease as the stope span increases and the mining sequence
values decrease as the stope span increases and the mining sequence progresses. The max- progresses. The
0
imum 𝜎 σstress
maximum yy stress at the
at the middle
middle of the
of the pillar
pillar increases
increases withwith respect
respect to theto mining
the mining
stage stage
and
and the stope span (Figure 6b). This induced stress increases as the
the stope span (Figure 6b). This induced stress increases as the depth of the pillar under depth of the pillar
under investigation
investigation increases
increases (Figure(Figure
6c). 6c).

Table1.1.Summary
Table SummaryofofPSF
PSFfor
foreach
eachmining
miningstage
stageand
andstope
stopespan.
span.

Stope Span PillarStope

3b Span PillarPillar
3b 7b Pillar 7b PillarPillar
11b 11b
(m) 𝝈𝒚𝒚 (MPa) PSF
(m) σyy𝝈(MPa)
0
𝒚𝒚 (MPa)
PSF
0
PSF
σyy (MPa) 𝝈
PSF𝒚𝒚 (MPa)
0
σyy (MPa) PSF PSF
25 13.78 2.54
25 13.783.09 2.54 11.28
3.09 11.284.17 4.17 8.38
8.38
Block 1 30 15.10
Block 1 2.31
30 15.103.10 2.31 11.27
3.10 11.274.17 4.17 8.38
8.38
35 16.22 35
2.15 16.223.10 2.15 3.10
11.27 11.274.17 4.17 8.38
8.38
25 18.04 1.94
25 18.0421.08 1.94 1.66
21.08 1.664.32 4.32 8.09
8.09
Block 2 30 Block 2
20.28 30
1.72 20.2822.82 1.72 22.82
1.53 1.534.34 4.34 8.05
8.05
35 22.21 1.57 24.37 1.43 4.34 8.05
35 22.21 1.57 24.37 1.43 4.34 8.05
25 18.85 25
1.85 18.8525.36 1.85 25.36
1.38 1.3828.23 28.23 1.24
1.24
Block 3 30 21.32 1.64 27.98 1.25 30.86 1.13
Block 3 30 21.32 1.64 27.98 1.25 30.86 1.13
35 23.48 1.49 30.37 1.15 32.83 1.06
35 23.48 1.49 30.37 1.15 32.83 1.06
Mater. Proc. 2021, 5, 11 7 of 8
Mater.
Mater. Proc. 2021,5,
Proc. 2021, 5,11
11 77 of
of 88

Block 1 Block 2 Block 3 Block 1 Block 2 Block 3

35 35
Block 1 Block 2 Block 3 Block 1 Block 2 Block 3
3035 3035

2530 2530

σ'yy (MPa)
σ'yy (MPa)

2025 2025

σ'yy (MPa)
σ'yy (MPa)

1520 1520

1015 1015

510 510

05 05
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 25 30 35
0 Pillar thickness (m) 0 Stope span (m)
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 25 30 35
Pillar thickness (m) Stope span (m)
(a) (b)
(a) Pillar 3b Pillar 7b Pillar 11b
(b)
35
Pillar 3b Pillar 7b Pillar 11b
35

30

30
σ'yy (MPa)

25
σ'yy (MPa)

25

20

20

15
25 30 35
15 Stope span (m)
25 30 35
Stope span (m)
(c)
(c)
Figure 6. Variation of the normal stress 𝜎 (a) along Pillar 7b for 35 m stope span and each mining stage, (b) at the middle
of Pillar6.
Figure
Figure 7bVariation
6. for each mining
Variation of the
of stage vs.
the normal
normal stress
stress 𝜎0 (a)
the σstope span.
(a) (c)
along
along Variation
Pillar
Pillar 7b forof
7bfor 35 the
35 normal
mmstope
stopespan
span and𝜎each
stress
and atmining
each the middle
mining of(b)
stage,
stage, theat
(b) three
at pillars
the middle
the middle
yy
for
of Block 7b
Pillar 3 mining
for stage
each vs. stage
mining stope vs.
span.
the stope span. (c) Variation of the normal stress 𝜎 0 at the middle of the three
of Pillar 7b for each mining stage vs. the stope span. (c) Variation of the normal stress σyy at the middle of the three pillars pillars
for Block 3 mining stage vs. stope span.
for Block 3 mining stage vs. stope span.
6. Conclusions
6. Conclusions
The objective of this study was to numerically investigate the effect of the stope span,
the mining depth and
The objective the study
of this mining to numerically
sequence
was investigate
on the stability of rib
thepillars
effectinofatheSLOSstope span,
copper
the mining
mining depth
system, as and
wellthe mining
as to sequence
evaluate the three on the stability
proposed of
SLOS rib pillars
mining in a
layouts SLOS
stability of rib pillars in a SLOS copper copper
based on
mining
the
mining system,
required
system,PSF. asThis
as wellas
well astotoevaluate
evaluate
investigation the
was
the three
completed
three proposed
proposed using
SLOSSLOS mining
three-dimensional
mining layouts
layouts based
models
based on
in
on the
the required
RS3.
required PSF. PSF.
This This investigation
investigation was completed
was completed using using three-dimensional
three-dimensional modelsmodelsin RS3.in
RS3.AsAsexpected,
expected,the theextraction
extractionratioratioincreases,
increases, while
while the the PSF
PSF decreases
decreases as as the
the stope
stope span
span
As expected,
increases
increases inall
in the extraction
all mining
mining stages ratio 7).
stages (Figure
(Figure increases,
7). Given
Giventhat while
that the
the the PSF decreases
required
required as the stope
pillar stability
pillar stability factorspan
factor for
for
increases
the
the entire in all mining
entire mining
mining sequence
sequence stagesis 1.40
is 1.40 ±±0.05,
(Figure 7).itGiven
0.05, that the
itisisobvious
obvious required
that
that pillar stability
thisrequirement
this requirement factorfor
isissatisfied
satisfied for
for
both Block
the entire
both 1 and
BlockminingBlockBlock 2
sequence mining stages
is 1.40stages
2 mining (Figure
± 0.05,(Figure 7a).
it is obvious In the
7a). Inthat Block
thethis 3 mining
requirement
Block stage
3 mining is (Figure
satisfied
stage 7b),
for
(Figure
the
7b), PSF
boththe in Pillars
Block
PSF 1inand 7b and
Block
Pillars 211b
7b and doesdoes
mining
11b not meet
stages
not the requirement
(Figure
meet the7a). In the of
requirement PSF
Block ≥mining
of 3PSF1.40.
≥ 1.40.stage (Figure
7b), the PSF in Pillars 7b and 11b does not meet the requirement of PSF ≥ 1.40.
Pillar 3b Pillar 7b Extraction ratio Pillar 3b Pillar 7b Pillar 11b Extraction ratio
2.2 86 2.0 86
Pillar 3b Pillar 7b Extraction ratio Pillar 3b Pillar 7b Pillar 11b Extraction ratio
2.2
2.0 8586 2.0 86
1.8 85
(%) (%)

(%) (%)

2.0
1.8 8485 1.8 85
ratioratio

1.6 84
ratioratio
PSF PSF
PSF PSF

1.8
1.6 8384 1.6 84
Extraction

1.4 83
Extraction

1.6 8283
Extraction

1.4 1.4 83
Extraction

1.2 82
1.4
1.2 8182 1.2 82
1.0 81
1.2
1.0 8081 1.0 81
0.8 80
25 30 35 25 30 35
1.0 80 0.8 80
Stope span (m) Stope span (m)
25 30 35 25 30 35
Stope span (m) Stope span (m)
(a) (b)
(a) (b)
Figure
Figure 7.7.Variation
Variationofof
PSF andand
PSF extraction ratioratio
extraction withwith
the stope span for
the stope spanthefor
three
thepillars
three in (a) Block
pillars 2 and
in (a) (b)2Block
Block 3 mining
and (b) Block
stage.
Figure 7. Variation
3 mining stage. of PSF and extraction ratio with the stope span for the three pillars in (a) Block 2 and (b) Block 3 mining
stage.
Mater. Proc. 2021, 5, 11 8 of 8

An increase in both the rib pillar’s strike length and the crown pillar’s height in Blocks
2 and 3, is recommended. Further numerical investigation is necessary to define these
geometrical parameters for obtaining the required PSF. The results and conclusions drawn
from this work should be extended by considering the stability of the stope roof. Pillar
stability factors and roof stability characteristics should be jointly evaluated.

Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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