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FIRE AND EFFECT OF MODERN ARTILLERY
Author(s): C. Beard
Source: Professional Memoirs, Corps of Engineers, United States Army, and Engineer
Department at Large , JULY-AUGUST, 1919, Vol. 11, No. 58 (JULY-AUGUST, 1919), pp.
447-494
Published by: Society of American Military Engineers
Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/44697732
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FIRE AND EFFECT OF MODERN ARTILLERY.
Prepared by
Capt. C. Beard,
Training Section, Office Chief of Engineers.
To properly design and construct field works of whatever char-

acter necessitates a certain knowledge of the methods and ma-
teriel that will be used by an enemy in his efforts to destroy them
as a preliminary to taking possession of the terrain. That is, the
Engineer must be skilled, not only in so organizing a terrain that
the defensive and offensive power of troops will be increased, but so
that the destruction of his works by an enemy will be made difficult,
if not impossible.
The principal means employed by all armies today, for the
destruction of fortifications, both ' ' field ' ' and ' ' permanent, ' ' is the
extensive, and highly scientific use of artillery of all calibres, firing
projectiles of many types and methods of employment. The skillful
Engineer Officer must possess a general knowledge of the artillery
material, its fire possibilities, its fire effect, and the means by which
its fire effect can be reduced with respect to the works he is con-
structing. He must also understand the use of the artillery in the
preparation for attack, and in cooperation with the infantry. The
following chapter is designed to impart the minimum essentials of
the above knowledge, but should be supplemented by independent
reading in the field of artillery practice.
BRIEF CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION OF ARTILLERY MATERIAL.
Classification by Calibre and Weight of Projectile.

( 1 ) Light : Including all calibres up to 90 mm. ;
(2) Medium: Including all calibres from 90 mm. up to
155 mm. ;
(3) Heavy : Including all calibres from 155 mm. upward.
The smallest calibre in use in land warfare is the light 37 mm.
gun which is now considered an infantry weapon. The largest gun
used is a development of the present conflict, and is of 520 mm.
calibre (about 20 inches) . This tremendous bore was unsuccessfully
447

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448 FIRE AND EFFECT OF MODERN ARTILLERY.
tried by the Germans, a successful piece being later developed by

the French.
The pieces of most frequent employment, and of most interest
are those of the first and second classes. The heavy artillery is of
course restricted in use owing to its lack of mobility, its high cost -
both for the material and ammunition, and its short life. It is.
used only under special conditions and for important destructions.
The light artillery has been developed, by the adoption of motor
traction, to an exceedingly high degree of mobility, though it must
not be understood that animal traction has been entirely abandoned.
Of the heavier matériels, those up to 210 mm. (8-inch), may
be considered as mobile without resort to special roads or tracks
upon which to move them. This large calibre material is all truck
or tractor drawn when moved over ordinary roads, and for moving
on soft ground caterpillar tractors are employed, in connection with
"ped rail" equipment on the wheels of the gun carriage itself.
The 210 mm. material, and up, is frequently mounted on special
trucks, designed to run sometimes upon the 60 cm. railroads, and
for the larger calibres, upon standard gauge roads. A wide diver-
sity in type of mounting, equipment, accessory rolling stock, etc.,
has been developed, but the employment of all kinds in the same
class follows the same general needs.
Classification by Relation of Length and Calibre .

( 1 ) Guns : 25 calibres and upward in length.
(2) Howitzers: 15 to 25 calibres in length and capable of
fire at a higher angle in general, than guns.
(3) Mortars under 15 calibres in length and capable of
being fired at very high angles of elevation, to pro-
duce lines of fall nearly vertical.
The principal tendency with regard to increase in mobility of

the artillery is toward complete motorization of all the field ma-
terial. It is claimed that a great saving in expense, in auxiliary
personnel, in forage, stores, and complication is effected, while for
service in countries where the road resources are well developed,
the scope of action of the artillery is not seriously diminished.
Units -
The units of angular measure used in artillery practice are:

(1) The degree, and its common subdivisions.

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FIRE AND EFFECT OF MODERN ARTILLERY. 449
TiS. 2
Fig. 4.

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(2) The grade (French), which is the 400th part of the circum
ference. Thus 90°=100 G. One giade is equal to 10 décigrade
(3) The mil, which is the 6,400th part of the circumferen
(For certain material, the mil has other values.) The mil has a
distinct advantage over the other units, owing to its approximately
even relation to the numerical value of 2?r.
Let AB=L, be a small (relative to the range R) objective,

observed from 0. Assume AB perpendicular to 0B, and that the
angular parallax of AB at 0 is the angle m (mils). Draw MN
L R
parallel to AB at a unit distance from 0 (1), then - -
MN I
Since m is small the arc PN is very closely equ

Qi»n <yy'¡
MN=2tt - :
circum.
(2) L=2irR
circum.
Now, if m is expressed in degrees
(3) L=m°R - =0.0175m°R

360
In grades
(4) 7 L=mGR =0.0157mGR.

7 400
In mils
(5) L=mmR-^-
6400
=0.001 ramR (nearly)
In the last expression if L is in meters and R in kilometers
we have (6) L=mmR.
That is, 1 meter subtends an angle of 1 mil at a distance of 1
kilometer. The same is true of course for 1 yard at a distance of
1,000 yards.
Definitions Relative to the Trajectory -

The trajectory is the path followed by the center of gravity of
the projectile during its course in the air.
The origin of the trajectory is at the center of the mouth of
the piece.
The line of site is the straight line adjoining the gun and the
target.
The range is the distance, gun-point of fall, measured along the
line of site to the point of fall.

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The distance of fire is the distance, gun target measured alon

the line of site to the target.
The angle of fall is the angle formed with the terrain at the
point of fall, by the terminal element of the trajectory.
The line of fire is the indefinite prolongation of the axis of th
gun when the gun is laid.
The line of departure is the indefinite prolongation of the di
rection of the projectile at the moment it leaves the muzzle of
piece.
The angle of jump is the very small angle between the line of
v/.Jy
// ¡< - Drop intK« TV»joctary
!
/ / Hornanfcū Velocity
/ / I Tf- , *""»| * -v- VMtcHv
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/^.}-*ssesc ' ' «CLimmoCTir«. ļi **1
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¿o*™* / I 1 BASE OF ^PAJECTOBV« Ra|n
4 POINT or FAUL
Trajectory in Air Projected

upon the Plane of Fire
Not« This is the trajectory of the rtntfe i/
Hg- 3
fire and the line of departure. (This angle is usually a matter of a

few minutes of arc, and is a fixed quantity for a certain gun and
ammunition.)
I=Angle of inclination of trajectory at point of fall ;

A= Angle of arrival of projectile ;
D=Angle of departure of projectile ;
E=Angle of elevation above line of site ;
P=Angle of projection of projectile ;
Q=Quadrant L angle or inclination of line of fire ;
F= Angle of fall with respect to the ground ;
/= Angle of fall given by range tables.

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Range Tables -
In order to facilitate the calculations upon which artillery fire
is based, and to make possible the rapid and accurate computation
which is very often necessary in the field, Range Tables for the
different material have been prepared. These Tables are the result
of both experiment at the proving ground, and of ballistic calcu-
lations. They show for the various ranges, and types of charge and
projectile, the elevation to be given the piece, and certain corrections
to be applied thereto.
The elements given in the range tables are based upon a theoretic
trajectory, or ideal trajectory, as shown by Fig. 3. This trajectory
is based on the following assumptions :
(1) That the piece is new, and true to type.
(2) That the initial velocity of the table is produced by well
averaged propellant, at a temperature of 15° C.
(3) That the projectiles have the proper definite weight, and
are provided with a fuse of the model determined. It is further
assumed by the tables:
(1) That there is no wind blowing.
(2) That the weight of a given volume of the air at the level of
the piece, is equal to the standard of the tables.
(3) That the fire is done upon a horizontal plane through the
mouth of the piece.
The elements of fire as taken from the range tables are corrected
for all deviations of the existing conditions from diagram
upon which the tables are based. These corrections fall in three
classes.
(a) Topographic . (1) The point of fall is not in the horizontal
plane through the mouth of the piece.
(b) Atmospheric. (1) The weight of the air is not that of the
standard of the range tables. (2) The temperature varies also from
the above standard. (3) The projectile is influenced by wind, to a
degree dependent upon its velocity and direction.
(c) Ballistic. (1) The weight of the shell does not conform
exactly to the standard. (2) The powder lot is not precisely similar
to the type lot upon which the elements of the table are determined.
(3) The temperature of the powder is not 15° C. (4) The piece is
worn, and therefore not true to type.
For the 75 mm. gun, probably now the most extensively em-
ployed field piece in the world, the following ballistic formulae ex-

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TABLE No. 1.
USUAL TYPES, MODERN A]
UNITED STATES. PRANCE.
¿©
Common descriptive name © « 4-2 ®
for each class of matériel. ö ļjfd ä© ® ifs a©
ùùS «
(H 5 03 «f,
<S«4H a a®,£ © ®©¿© «e
«w ® S CC+H
f-l CC+H «s «4-1«s -s
-s -t->
.o '. . O © o© _Q . o©
5 á á ķ ķ ^5ggs So ¿.Ã
s s £
1 © • Yds. ° Lbs. Lbs. mm. m. ° kss.
Light Field Gun
o '-S
Light Field Howitzer

-ÍÍ ©
Heavy Field Howitzer
Long-Range Gun High Power

Light Trench Mortar
Medium Trench Mortar

öS
„„Heavy
rn Trench
Trench rn v v
tuttut Mortar
Mortar * ...... J ft*¡d240mm
' 2,300 ' 80 175 79 240 1,025 75 87
bJD
Mobile Mortar
'
TT ph. vy Mobile Howitzer. ... Pí § 240mm 16,500 65 356 44 280 10,950 60 205
S
Heavy R.R. Howitzer

O.S-
Naval Gun, R.R
c8 2
Heavy R. R. Mortar

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TABLE No. 1.
XTES, MODERN ARTILLERY.
PRANCE. ENGLAND. [ GERMANY.
h «S k i!. O«MW
«S «MW S S i ÍH fi Cö «+H ' »H +2 1 1! «M , S I »H h «łH k -M I it «W
ÍH Cö «+H »H
o O O 0) S ÍH . »H O O O « ,0 . • 00 O 4)
+2 «M
® O . 0) > £ X . X*S ..® . > ,0 -3 X . X*g • . ® . £
S »H «łH -M «W
i grrsaifge'saa**
0 kss. kss. " Yds. 0 Lbs. Lbs. mm. m. 0 kss. kss.
►0 18 6.125 6.5 3.3 9,500 36 18.5 1.6 77 10,000 30 7.4 1
►0 43 18.7 2.6 4.5 7,000 45 35 4.5 105 8,400 45 15.5 2
>0 42 43 10.2 6 10,100 44 100 13 150 8,600 42 41.5 6
►0 35 42 7.1 6 17,800 42 100 12 150 11,000 35 41.5 6
.5 80 40 10.5 3 800 75 11 2.1 91 450 80 4 13/16

►0 75 18 5.3 6 1,420 77 52 11 170 1,160 77 46 12
¡5 75 87 46 9.45 2,400 80 152 80 250 97C 80 94 47
>0 65 100.5 25
,0 60 205 63.6 9.2 13,000 45 290 47 280 12,000 45
>0 65 900 90 12 14,400 45 750 90 305 12,800 65 383 37

►0 40 348 30 14 35,400 44 1586 156 380 38,000 45
►0 65 500 150

75.86.98.41 on Thu, 22 Apr 2021 08:51:55 UTC
press very closely the values given by the range tables, under t
standard conditions. For the purposes of the rough computation
made by the Engineer, based upon assumed probable locations o
enemy artillery, they will suffice, and all corrections may be n
lected.
The relation between range and elevation of the piece is approx-
imately given by
(7) E=4R (R+4)

in which E=angle of elevation of gun in mils
R=range in kilometers.
The angle of fall with the horizontal is given by
3
(8) w=- 2 E (approximately)
The variation in elevation corresponding to a variation of range

by increments of 100 meters from the range R is given by R-^l.
The summit of the trajectory is approximately on the bisector
of the quadrant elevation.
In the calculation of probable angles of fall with the aid of the
above formulae, which are for a horizontal plane through the mouth
of the piece, the following four cases arise, as shown by Fig. 4.
These four cases represent the possible combinations of glacis
and reverse slope with a positive and negative angle of site. Now if
w=angle of arrival of the projectile
s=angle of site of the objective
w=slope of the ground
The angle of fall with respect to the ground is given by

W =w-s~'-n when the angles are taken with their proper signs.
This will be sufficiently exact, with the small angles of site com-
monly encountered. The angle of site for any actual or hypotheti-
cal battery position with respect to its target can be computed from
the topographical map, the range and difference in elevation being
known therefrom.
Classification of Projectiles.
Each type of artillery material makes use, according to the na-
ture of the target, object of the fire, and nature of the terrain, of a
variety of projectiles. Modern developments of warfare have pro-
duced the shell of special employment such as the gas shell, smoke

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shell, tracer shell, star shell, etc. Necessities of manufacture hav

proáuced the semi-steel shell. Ballistic considerations have chang
the form of the base of the shell, and consideration of effect at
point of impact have influenced the fusing. Thus a variety of typ
is now in existence, a classification and description of the most im
portant following:
I (1) High Explosive Shells.
The types of H. E. Shells in service are :
(A) Steel Shells.
(a) Fused in the ogival end, more than 3 calibres long, thin
walled, allowing use of large explosive charge. Con-
sequent light weight decreases range. 20 to 30 per cent
of weight of projectiles is in explosive.
(b) Fuse in base of projectile, making possible a massive
ogival head capable of profound penetration without
fracture due to impact. Capacity for explosive about
6 to 10 per cent of total weight of projectile.
(B) Steel cased, cast iron shells.
(a) Usually fused in the head. Give capacity for H. E. su-
perior to cast iron shell, are less expensive than all steel
shells and are ballistically superior. About 20 per cent
of total weight is in explosive. Are sometimes, in large
calibres, fused in the base to permit the destruction of
deep shelters.
(C) Trench mortar bombs.
(a) Usually made of sheet or drawn steel, very light in
character, and provided with guide vanes to steady the
flight. Countenance for explosive very high, varying
from 30 to 50 per cent of total weight.
The most modern development in form of projectiles has been

along the line of improving the ballistic qualities by tapering the
base of the projectile to give it approximately a stream line form.
The disadvantage of this type is that their capacity for H. E. is
reduced.
Detonation -
We distinguish
(1) Instantaneous fuses.
(2) Nondelayed action fuses (0 delay)..
(3) Delayed action fuses.
(4) Time fuses.

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The classes of burst then are
(1) Percussion or impact burst, with instantaneous, non-delay-

ed action, or delayed action fuse.
(2) Time fuse fire, producing burst while shell is still in its
trajectory.
By the term "fuse" is meant an assembly of mechanical units,

comprising in general an ignition, a communicating, and a deto-
nating element.
The instantaneous fuse is one in which the time of operation is
less than 1/100 of a second. Its burst is practically at the instant
of impact with the ground. There is also an instantaneous fuse of
the supersensitive type, which forms little or no crater on impact
with the ground. Both of these types act favorably against per-
sonnel and materiel without cover, and against entanglements.
Non-delay action fuses cause the explosion of a shell on impact,
to form a crater of moderate depth with but a slight zone of com-
pression downward. It materially localizes the effect of the burst.
In very resistant material such as concrete, the burst ta&es place at
or about the limit of the shell's penetration.
Delayed action fuses function in from five to thirty-five hun-
dredths of a second, are made in four durations of delay and are
used either to reach materiel protected by overhead cover, or as a
fuse against personnel, to cause a burst on richochet.
The time fuse is used with all types of shells, when the burst
is desired at some given point upon the trajectory. Most frequently
this is the case with H. E. shells or with shrapnel.
II. Shrapnel Shell.

Are of two general types -
A. Made of cast iron, containing a large number of spherical
bullets, agglomerated in melted sulphur.. The burst of
the shell is controlled by a fuse and is due to a small ex-
plosive charge in the base of the shell, or in the ogive.
B. Made of a resistant steel shell, designed to give way at
the ogive under the explosion of the bursting charge.
The group of spherical balls in the body of the shell is
propelled from the shell in a fairly narrow -.sheaf, with
a velocity about 100 m. per second, above the remain-
ing tangential velocity of the shell at the moment of
burst.

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ITI. Special or Gas Shells are of all the types of body in co

use, the shell itself being but a container for the gas p
ducing liquids of whatever kind. In all the projectile
there is a small amount of smoke-producing substance
facilitate the adjustment of fire. The bursting charge i
exceedingly light, and produces but a moderate amount
noise in explosion. In the 75-mm. shell the bursting cha
is but 25 grammes of Melanite, producing a bursting eff
hardly to be considered dangerous from the point of v
of fragmentation.
Gas shells are fused with instantaneous or supersensit
fuses to produce a burst at or above the surface of the
ground with a consequently more efficient distribution of
the toxic liquid they contain.
IV. Projectiles of Special Employment.

The smoke-producing shell is used to mask operations of any
kind from the enemy's observation. They are filled with
phosphorus compounds and fused accordingly. Star shells
are fused with the time fuse, carry a bursting charge which
releases one or several small parachutes carrying pyro-
technic illuminants. They are capable of lighting up the
terrain for several hundred meters, and last about a min-
ute. The use of the smoke-tracer shell is practically con-
fined to fire against air craft.
Projectiles intended to act against personnel -

I. Projectiles with narrow sheaf.
Principal calibers are the 75 mm., 105 mm., and 120 mm.
shrapnel, and the 120 mm. and 155 mm. case-bursting
shrapnel. Of the above, the 75 mm. and 155 mm. calibres
receive the most extensive employment.
The above projectiles are used with: (a) Time-fuse fire and
flat trajectory.
This case is illustrated by Fig. 5. The apex angle is always

less than 30° and in the case of the 75 mm. shrapnel is about 19°
The projectile bursting at E projects the balls which it contains
into the interior of the cone, in which they are uniformly distrib-
uted. The maximum effectiveness is obtained for a certain height

75.86.98.41 on Thu, 22 Apr 2021 08:51:55 UTC
fig. 5
Hg. 6
Fķ7

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458 FIRE and effect of modern artillery.
of burst, called the "type height," which is, for a giv

height of burst for maximum effect. For the 75 mm
proximately 3 mils for all ranges.
In the case of personnel sheltered behind an uncove
work as in Fig. 6 it is the practice to use a more curv
as then the lower element of the cone of balls is more
cal, and the objective is thus better reached. If the pe
hind the breastwork have even the lightest head cover, such as
boards covered with 6 inches of earth, the shrapnel balls become en-
tirely ineffective, and this type of fire is not used. Shrapnel are
also used with
(b) Percussion fire and richochet.

When fired so that the angle of fall with respect to the ground
is less than 15°, the projectile richochets, the burst taking place
after it starts to rise from the ground. This results in a cone of
balls having its axis inclined upward as shown in Fig. 7. The
angle of richochet is always greater than the angle of fall. The
sheaf sweeps the ground well as long as these angles remain small,
which necessitates fire at close range. Above a range of about 1,500
yards for the 75 mm. gun the angle of fall is such that the lower
element will pass above the target while the bullets still retain
effective velocity. Under general circumstances this type of fire
is not used for destructive effect against accessory defenses. Under
proper circumstances, it is used for fire in covering barrages.
Method of Action of Time-Fuse Shrapnel.

When the shrapnel bursts in the air at the type height the balls
are projected uniformly in the sheaf under the following influences :
(1) Remaining velocity of projectile at point of burst directed
along tangent to trajectory.
(2) Additional velocity due to explosion of bursting charge.
(3) Centrifugal force existing at moment of burst due to axial
rotation of projectile and tending to spread the sheaf.
The zone covered is the total pattern of the sheaf on the ground.
The zone effectively covered is the portion of the above total pat-
tern reached by balls having 180 m. per second remaining velocity,
and in sufficient quantity. That is, the density of balls per square
meter of pattern must not be too much reduced by increasing the
height of burst. Experience has fixed the most effective height as
above. Shrapnel balls, owing to their spherical form, lose velocity

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FÍRE AND EFFECT OF MODERN ARTILLERY. 459
very rapidly, and are considered ineffective when their velocit

below 180 m. per second.
A study of the patterns shown by Fig. 9 gives rise to t
following conclusions:
As the range increases:
(1) The depth and width of the total pattern of the sheaf
diminish rapidly.
(2) The depth and width of the effective zone diminishes also,
effective zone
but much more slowly, thus the ratio , i _
total , i _ patter
with the range. It follow
with the range.
rig- »
It is true, however, that with the increase in range comes increase

in angle of fall, which diminishes greatly the effectiveness of the
individual ball, whose effective zone is defined as the longitudinal
distance in which its trajectory falls within the limits of height of
a man standing. This is readily seen from Fig. 10.
The great density of effective balls upon* the plane of site should
not lead at once to the conclusion that shrapnel is more effective at
long ranges than at short It is the distribution of balls upon a
series of vertical planes echeloned in the depth of the pattern and
transverse to its axis, which should be considered, as this represents
the case of unsheltered personnel, standing or kneeling. In the
case of personnel lying down, or sheltered in uncovered trenches,
the long range fire would then be most effective.

75.86.98.41 on Thu, 22 Apr 2021 08:51:55 UTC
Consider an element of trench perpendicular to the axis of each

pattern. For the fire patterns shown, this trench, if as shown
would then receive a certain number of balls, between its parapet
and rear edge, considering only that portion of the sheaf include
by the "zone effectively covered. " The density of effective balls
not everywhere the same within this zone, nor is the zone of un
form width. It would thus take a fire regulated with the most ex
treme precision to place the pattern over the trench in such a man
ner that it would receive the maximum possible number of balls.
The most favorable case from this point of view is that of long
range fire when the trench of Fig. 11 would receive about 15 ball
over a length of 25 meters if the pattern could be properly regu
lated upon it. The foregoing discussion is intended to show the
high degree of protection afforded by an open trench against even
perfectly regulated shrapnel fire.
Projectiles With Open Sheaf.
High explosive shells, having delayed action percussion fuse,

bursting after richochet, and high explosive shells fired with time
fuse, have the characteristics of an open sheaf.
For the 75 mm. shell (initial velocity 550 m. per second) the
angle of fall at 4,300 meters or horizontal ground is about 15°,
which produces richochet. Thus up to this range, on horizontal
ground and at greater or less ranges according to the slope of the
terrain, the H. E. shell may be found to ricochet.
It bursts on ricochet at a height above the ground varying from
2 to 10 meters, giving
(1) An ogival sheaf, forward along new trajectory, containing
few fragments, and not very effective.
(2) A base sheaf, rearward toward point of richochet, contain-
ing a few large fragments.
(3) A lateral sheaf, very open, containing about 1,000 frag-
ments, the central part of which makes upon the ground a trace of
about seven-tenths meter in width. The barbed fragments cause
very dangerous wounds, because they fly at a great velocity (nearly
1,000 meters). Their radius of effectiveness never exceeds, as a
rule, 20 meters, but certain fragments may carry much farther ; for
this reason it is not advisable to. use explosive shells with delayed
action when the point of burst is too near friendly troops.
The foregoing type of burst is made clear by Fig. 12.

75.86.98.41 on Thu, 22 Apr 2021 08:51:55 UTC
Kg 9
at point of buartst .
B Point of bunst.
a Point of fall. shorWt
A a bftll.
P Point of fall.
u i Point of tail longest ^
u i effective ball. ^
o w Point oí* All extreme
o w ball.
w Aiigtoaf itili of IVojactílo

<t Half Opamiig of sKtitii*
h Àt^kofM flioHffjt Ml
y Anglo beiweenhorçonial
ami upper genérttirix .

75.86.98.41 on Thu, 22 Apr 2021 08:51:55 UTC
In case of time fuse fire with the H. E. shell, the burst is illus
trated by Pig. 13.
DISPEÎRSION.
When projectiles of the same model are fired from the same
piece, under conditions as nearly identical as possible, a number of
influences affect their movement, and tend to produce irregularities
between successive shots. It must be recognized that the ideal
theoretic conditions upon which firing calculations are based are
not realizable, and that a variety of causes always tends to produce,
in any group of shots, a variation between their points of impact,
which is known as their ' ' dispersion. ' ' This is bound to be the
case, no matter how extreme be the care which is taken to reduce
the causes of variation.
The principles causes of these irregularities are :

(1) Differences in weight and balance of projectiles.
(2) Differences in external finish of the projectiles.
(3) Differences in fusing (fuses, from the ballistic viewpoint,
must have not only the same weight but the same shape to be
identical) .
(4) Differences in the weight of powder charge.
(5) Differences in the nature and ballistic properties of the
powder.
(6) Difference in the seating of the projectile in the guide cone
of the piece and differences in the placing of the powder charge.
(7) Differences in the laying of the gun.
(8) Differences in the nature of the gun carriage and the plat-
form upon which it sets.
(9) Differences in atmospheric condition between successive
shots.
(10) Differences due to heating and fouling of the gun.
The above causes of irregularity in the trajectory can be re-

duced by care to a certain minimum. It is not possible to avoid
them entirely, therefore a certain amount of dispersion of points
of impact will always exist.
Study of Dispersion .
During the firing of a sufficiently large number of rounds from
the same piece, under conditions as nearly identical as possible, it
will be observed that the points of fall will group themselves ac-
cording to a certain law, the nature of which has been determined

75.86.98.41 on Thu, 22 Apr 2021 08:51:55 UTC
by extensive experiments at the proving grounds. This is true o

shots falling on a horizontal, an inclined or a vertical surface. Th
case for a horizontal surface at the same elevation as the mouth
of the piece is the one most studied, the relation thereto for inclined
and vertical surfaces being known.
When a sufficiently large number of rounds have been fired and
the grouping of their points of fall is examined it is seen that they
are densest around a certain centrally located point, which is called
the ' ť Center of Impact. ' '
Let us consider the case of a fire of 100 shots at the same range
under practically identical conditions. If we choose any set of
axes, XX and YY, see Fig. 14, and measure the coordinates of each
Fig. IO
point of impact with reference to these axes, finally taking their

mean, the coordinates thus obtained are those of the mean point of
impact or ť ť Center of Impact. ' '
Thus A1+A2+A8+A4+A"-A
n
01+02+03+04+0 n
and
n
From which we deduce the position of the center of impact with

respect to the shots fired, and in relation to the axis chosen.
If then we choose through the center of impact thus located,
a set of rectangular axes, one in the direction of the piece, one j_
to it, we will observe the following facts :

75.86.98.41 on Thu, 22 Apr 2021 08:51:55 UTC
(1) Dispersion in Range.

(a) Number of rounds falling "Over" the axis XX, Fig. 15,
ifc equal to number of rounds falling "short" of the same axis.
(b) 25 per cent of the "overs" will be in a zone, whose dept
parallel to the line of fire is one quarter of the distance to the mo
extreme shot. The same will be found true for 25 per cent of th
"short shots. The depth of this zone which is equal to one-eighth
of the total length of the zone of dispersion, is called the "probab
error. ' '
(c) In the succeeding three "probable error zones" of both

"overs" and "shorts" are found successively 16 per cent, 7 per
cent and 2 per cent of the rounds fired.
C 2) Dispersion in deflection.
(a) The dispersion in deflection occurs in zones which are
parallel to the line of fire. The distribution of rounds falling in
these eight zones follows the same laws as those of dispersion in
range, but the extent of the zones is much less.
It is seen then, that the total depth and width of the zone of
dispersion is eight times the probable error in range or deflection
for the particular range and materiel considered. The above laws
are general for all types of matériel. It will be readily understood
that the absolute value of the probable error differs according to
the range and piece employed, but for any given place the probable
error as defined above, is an index of its accuracy of fire.
The range tables for any matériel give, for the various tabular
ranges, the probable errors both in range and deflection under the
assumption that the firing is conducted upon a horizontal plane
through the mouth of the piece. These values may be taken with-
out noticeable error for planes above and below the one defined,
within the limits usually encountered in practice.
The probable error of the range tables is known as the "theo-
retic probable error," it being determined under the conditions -
as nearly ideal as possible - of proving ground fire. In the field,
however, elements enter into the firing which materially affect its
accuracy, and the "practical probable error" resulting is found to
be about 3/2 of the theoretic.
INFLUENCE UPON THE PROBABLE ERROR OF A TERRAIN NOT HORIZONTAL,
We distinguish two cases.

( 1 ) Probable error as affected by glacis or forward slope.

75.86.98.41 on Thu, 22 Apr 2021 08:51:55 UTC
AM=probable error=E. Let AM=value of probable error

corresponding to E, but on a forward slope where gradient is n°
and with an angle of inclination of the trajectory at point of fall
of w°. (This is the angle of fall of the Tables, or it may be calcu-
lated by approximate formula already given.)
MM=cos ([90° - (w-'-n)]-'-n) AM=AM cos (90°- w)

MM' MM'
a cos (90°- [w-'-n] ) sin
sin w
. * .aM=AM - - 7 - ¡- V
sin ( 7 w-'-n ¡- V )
XT , sin w
XT Now if we place , - - -, - ¡ - r=A
sin ( -, w-'-n ¡ )
We have a M=AMA (A being called the
ward slope).
(2) Probable error as affected by a revers

AM=one probable error=E
MM'=AM sin w
1 MM'
/7M=MM'r
cos (90° -w-{-n) cos [90o-(w;-n)]

MM' sin w
sin ( -, w-n ) sin {w-n) 7
Now placing . S^D W - r =A we have for average slope
sin . (w-n)
aM=AMA'
For the above two cases the following two Tables have been
prepared, from which the proper coefficients A and A' may be taken
knowing the slope of the ground and the inclination of the terminal
element of the trajectory. By means of these coefficients, the effect
of slope upon dispersion may be studied.

75.86.98.41 on Thu, 22 Apr 2021 08:51:55 UTC
466 fire and effect of modern artillery.
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75.86.98.41 on Thu, 22 Apr 2021 08:51:55 UTC
468 FIRE AND EFFECT OF MODERN ARTILLERY,
For the case of a vertical wall the table showing effect upon
probable error of fire upon a glacis is used, the last column bein
for surfaces making 90° with the horizontal.
The " angle of fall" is the angle of fall given by the firing
tables (angle between horizontal and tang to trajectory at points
of fall). The slope n may be obtained as a gradient by taking the
VI on the map at the target and dividing by the horizontal interval
between contours, multiplying by 100 to reduce to per cent. Or
VI
- =Tan slope angle.
xli
Dispersion in Time Fuse Fire.
"When the projection is used with the time fuse to cause it to

burst while still in its trajectory, the deviations of the fuse mechan-
ism from its theoretical operation, superposes upon the deviations
before discussed, an additional element causing increased disper-
sion of the bursts.
If we project upon the plane of fire the position of time fuse
bursts observed over a large number of shots we find that the
spot diagram so obtained follows the same laws as the dispersion of
percussion shots on a horizontal plane.
Let axis XX' and YY', Fig. 18, define the plane of fire on which
a sufficient series of bursts is projected.
Then. the probable error in height for this class of fire is one-
eighth of the vertical dimension of the rectangle and in range is
one-eighth of the length of the rectangle.
Zone of Security .
In the case of fire executed in the vicinity of friendly troops it
is important to establish a zone of security between the nearest
elements and the center of impact of the shots. This should be four
ť k practical probable errors ' ' plus the radius of the danger zone due
to the explosion of the shells.
In the case of woods near troops, where premature bursts are to
be expected, it may be necessary to augment the above zone limits.
For fire on reverse slopes where friendly troops are located
these zones of security may become very extended, particularly with
a flat trajectory. The above considerations are of utmost im-
portance when the artillery is cooperating with the infantry in the
attack, or when a protective barrage is laid down at the request of
the infantry.

75.86.98.41 on Thu, 22 Apr 2021 08:51:55 UTC
Dispersion , Slope and the Destruction of Accessory Defenses.

The foregoing study of dispersion has applications of marked
importance from the point of view of the location and design o
field works. The useful width of entanglements, and the distrib
ción of material in a series of entanglements, is much influenced
dispersion, as is their location with respect to slope. The position
ing of trenches with respect to the wire in front of them, the lo
tion of trenches with respect to slope and the size of the trench
itself, all should be considered, if time permits, with respect to t
fire liable to be brought to bear upon them, and the influence of
dispersion.
In a previous chapter certain general limits were set for the
proper distance between a trench and its accessory defenses. The
upper limit of 125 yards was set by considerations of the closeness
with which attacking troops can follow a creeping barrage. The
lower limit, of the magnitude of 60 yards, was shown to be some-
what governed by the effective range of bomb and flame throwers,
but largely by the interval necessary to prevent the destruction of
the trench by the same artillery fire as destroys the wire in front
of it. This controlling factor will now be considered.
In the destruction of trenches, and their accessory defenses,
protected machine gun emplacements, dugouts and miscellaneous
trench structures, the artillery material of most frequent employ-
ment is the 75 mm. class.
In the class mentioned will be found the German 77 mm. gun,
the French 75 mm. (employed by the French, British and the
United States), the U. S. 3-inch field gun, and the British 18-
pounder. These guns all have substantially the same characteris-
tics and employment, and for purposes of illustration, the French
75 mm. will be selected as the type of all, with reference when
necessary to the French 155 mm. howitzer.
For all matériel in general it may be said that the dispersion
increases with the range, and it is therefore the endeavor of the
hostile artillery, when selecting battery positions in preparation
for a destructive fire, to bring these positions as near to the ob-
jectives as possible. As a rule it is possible to place the light field
guns and also the 155 mm. howitzers within a distance of from
3,000 to 4,000 meters from the targets. This means that for the
destruction of the accessory defenses of a second position, the
hostile artillery is put in battery somewhere within the limits of its

75.86.98.41 on Thu, 22 Apr 2021 08:51:55 UTC
first position. The preparation of breaches in the wire entang

ments of the first position will usually be accomplished in pa
the nostile trench mortars, supplemented by the fire of ce
batteries located behind the hostile first position.
Adopting a mean range of 3,500 meters as the distance from
gun to objective in a destructive fire regulated upon a trench
or its accessory defenses, we have from the range tables for th
mm. and 155 mm. material the following data: Certain elem
of fire Will also be given at othęr ranges in order to show the
of variation in dispersion and angle of fall with variation in
range. It will be understood also from the table, that powder
charges of different weight are provided in order to reach ob-
jectives with a varying angle of fall for the same range.. The high
angle fire with reduced charge is of course useful against targets
well defiladed.
Distance between Trench and Wire .
Assume range of 3,500 meters, using the 75 mm. gun firing the
H. E. shell with normal propelling charge and the short instan-
taneous fuse. The fire of the battery of four guns is regulated so
that the center of impact of the shots from each gun coincides with
the axis of the entanglement. The planes of fire of each gun of the
battery are spaced from 4 to 6 meters apart at the entanglement.
With the above elements of fire, we find from the extract of the
range table for the 75 mm. material that the dispersion in range is
13.4 meters, in deflection is 1.5 meters, and the angle of fall is
10° 22'. The low angle of fall imposes the use of a non-richo-
ehet, or instantaneous fuse. The line of fire is so chosen that it is
approximately perpendicular to the wire under destruction.
Superpose upon the 10-meter entanglement the dispersion dia-
grams for the four guns, using the theoretic values of the disper-
sion, multiplied by 3/2 to reduce them to the practical values. This
is shown by Pig. 19. Thus each probable error zone is about 20
meters in depth.
At the range of 3,500 meters on a horizontal terrain, it will take
say 500 shots to open a breach of 25 meters in the entanglement.
In the first probable error zone will fall 25 per cent of these shots,
or 125, of which - assuming uniform distribution in the zone, the
entanglement will receive only 14 or about 32 shots. Consider the

75.86.98.41 on Thu, 22 Apr 2021 08:51:55 UTC
TABLE No. 4.
Extract From Range Tables for French 75 mm. Gun, Model 1897,
Firing French Ammunition. Revised to February 20, 1918.
Range at Angle . Probable Probable

Kind of Shell and Fusing. which of error error in
Fired. Fall. in Range. Deflection.
Meters. Degrees Meters. Meters.

Shrapnel with base bursting charge WT 2000 3° 32' 9.0 0.6
15.90 pounds. Initial velocity f. s. 3500 8° 37' 13.0 1.3
Time fuse. 8000 37°46' 40.0 5.4
High explosive shell with normal pro- 2000 4°2' 10.3 0.6
pelling charge. Initial velocity 180 3500 10°22' 13.4 1.5*
f. s. Using short percussion or in- 8000 50°25' 38.6 7.2
stantaneous fuses.
Same shell, etc., as above, with first re- 2000 7° 10' 8.5 0.4
duced charge. 3500 17° 10' 12.4 0.9
6000 45°40' 23.5 1.7
Same shell, etc., as above, with second 2000 9°0' 11.1 0.4
reduced charge. 3500 20° 15' 20.0 0.9
5000 38°50' 37.5 1.7
Semi-steel shell armed with instantané- 2000 4°28' 10.3 0.4
ous fuse. 3500 8°28' 12.1 0.8
8000 26°8' 24.8 3.0
11000 50°0' 45.0 5.8
TABLE No. 5.
Extract from
Range Tables for 155 mm. Howitzer
Model 1915 Schneider.
Projectiles.
The above gun fires four kinds of projectiles classed in three groups.
1st Group. Case shot , mean weight 40.8 kg. containing 416 shrapne
balls with bursting charge of 0.55 kg; black powder.
Shrapnel , mean weight 40.59 kg. containing 270 balls with
bursting charge of 0.45 kg. of black powder.
2nd Group. Long shell of steel, mean weight 43.0 kg. containing
approximately 10.2 kgs. high explosive.
3rd Group. Explosive shell of semi-steel, mean weight 43.75 kg. con
taining approximately 4.5 kg. of high explosive.
The above shells are fired with eight propellant charges according to t
range and angle of fall desired. These charges range from 0.88 kg. to 3
kg. in weight of special propellant.

75.86.98.41 on Thu, 22 Apr 2021 08:51:55 UTC
472 FIRE AND EFFECT ÓF MODERN ARTILLERY.
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75.86.98.41 on Thu, 22 Apr 2021 08:51:55 UTC
PIRE AND EFFECT OF MODERN ARTILLERY. 473
Kg 11
Fig.l2 .
Fig. 13.•Ss.

75.86.98.41 on Thu, 22 Apr 2021 08:51:55 UTC
location of a Trench 2 meters wide, in each of the zones 2, 3 and 4.

This trench will receive in zone No. 2.
2
-^X
2u
16X^00=8 shots
In zone No. 3
2
-X. 07X500=3.5 shots
20
In zone No. 4
-J^X
20 20 0.2X^00=1 shot.
It may readily be seen from the foregoing that the trench may,
without chance of serious damage, be placed anywhere in the third
zone, or in general within 50 to 60 meters of the wire which
fronts it.
Fig. 19 shows clearly that it is of no value to increase the depth

of single lines of entanglement beyond the amount necessaary to
make them difficult of passage by infantry, and difficult of destruc-
tion by cutting or by blowing up with elongated explosive charges.
Owing to the dispersion of the shots falling in the 50 per cent - or
two middle zones, a single entanglement up to about 40 meters in
depth would be as easily destroyed as the 10-meter structure de-
picted. If the center of impact of the fire were regulated upon the
axis of the wide entanglement, it would be destroyed by the same
number of shots from the battery as the smaller barrier. Thus we
see that, beyond a certain upper limit, no advantage against de-
struction by artillery fire is gained by increasing the wire in depth.
It follows then that to increase the strength of accessory de-
fenses against destruction by artillery - and also to render them
more difficult of passage by other means - it is better to dispose
the material in successive belts of normal entanglement (from 5
meters to 10 meters in depth), separating these belts by a distance
greater than at least two practical probable errors, axis to axis.
Then for the economical destruction, it will be necessary to make
a new adjustment of fire upon the second line of wire, thus almost
doubling the number of shots and the time necessary for the de-
struction of the single entanglement, even though the material used
for the two barriers were concentrated within it.

75.86.98.41 on Thu, 22 Apr 2021 08:51:55 UTC
Fig. 14 /
/
Fig. 16
Kg. 17
rí§. 18

75.86.98.41 on Thu, 22 Apr 2021 08:51:55 UTC
Effect of Slope on Destructive Fire.

Consider the case of the above trench and entanglement wi
fire destruction, regulated upon the wire, and with the organi
located
(a) Upon a forward slope;

(b) Upon a reverse slope.
For purposes of comparison and illustration assume that the

fall of the ground in each case is 10 meters in 100 meters - that is,
that the slope is 10 per cent. This is not uncommon for the slope
of the ground in average terrain. Consider first the trench located
within the third zone of dispersion upon the forward slope of 10
per cent.
From Table 2 we find that for an angle of fall of 10° 22' and a
forward slope of 10 per cent the slope coefficient=0.641.
Then multiplying the practical probable error by 0.641 we have
0.641X20.0=13 meters as the value of the probable error upon a
forward slope of 10 per cent.
The. trench then being located at, say, 50 meters from the wire,
lies in the fourth zone of dispersion, and therefore out of 500 shots
regulated upon the wire, receives
0.02X500X^=1 shot.
Now, if the trench itself were the objective of the artillery fire,
and the adjustment was good, on a horizontal terrain, out of 100
shots fired by a gun the trench would receive
- X 0.25X100=2.5 shots.
20
In the case of the forward slope of 10 per cent the trench

would receive at least
- X 0.25X100=4.0 shots.
13
Thus demonstrating the greater ease with which the trench is

destroyed upon the forward slope than upon the horizontal terrain.
In the case of the wire located upon the forward slope, the
probable error being reduced to 13 meters, the 10-meter belt would
receive out of each 100 shots

75.86.98.41 on Thu, 22 Apr 2021 08:51:55 UTC
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75.86.98.41 on Thu, 22 Apr 2021 08:51:55 UTC
- X 0.50X100=19.2 shots
26
while for the horizontal terrain it would receive
- X 0.50X100=12.5 shots.
40
Therefore, if the wire is located upon a forward slope of 10

per cent, it will take - instead of 500 shots to open a 25 meter
breach -
- X500=326 shots,
19.2
thus making the destruction quicker, cheaper and more certain

than in the similar case for a horiżontal ground.
In the case of the reverse slope, the results of this application
of the theory of dispersion are even more striking. The slope
coefficient for 10p angle of fall, and 10 per cent reverse slope is
2.325 from Table 3.
The practical probable error then becomes for this slope
2.325X20=46.5 meters.
The trench 50 meters from the wire, being now in the second
zone, received
2
46.5
as compared to 2.5 shots on the horizontal and 4 0 shots on the

forward slope.
For the entanglement located upon the reverse slope, out of
100 shots it would receive in the case of well-adjusted fire
- X 0.50X100=5.4 shots.
93
This shows that for the immediate case it will take, not 500
shots to make the required breach, but
12 5
- X500=1160 shots
5.4
The significance of the above discussion can not well be over-

looked when considering the relative merits of organization upon
a forward or reverse slope, in the case of position warfare. If we
take into account the great ease with which a fire for destruction

75.86.98.41 on Thu, 22 Apr 2021 08:51:55 UTC
PLANES OF FIRE
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75.86.98.41 on Thu, 22 Apr 2021 08:51:55 UTC
480 FIRE and effect of modern artillery.
can be regulated upon the forward slope organization, and the

difficulty with which it is regulated upon field works sited upon
the reverse slope, the above calculations show that the forward
slope organization is destroyed with a relative theoretic difficulty
of 25 per cent, and the time required for preparation of attack
upon it is reduced accordingly. This fact alone affects greatly the
degree of surprise with which an attack can be launched after the
preparation.
DESTRUCTIVE EFFECTS OF PROJECTILES.
General Considerations.
The destructive effects of modern projectiles are variable ac-

cording to their "mode óf employment and their fusing, and much
of the efficient employment of the artillery depends upon the
proper selection of shell and fuse for a given purpose. A general
consideration of what happens upon impact or explosion is of
interest. It may be stated that the solid shot without explosive
charge is no longer employed in the operations of land warfare.
Projectiles are fused- to burst :
(1) While still upon their trajectory (time fuse) ;
(2) Upon ricochet (delayed-action fuse) ;
(3) At or near the surface of impact (instantaneous, non-
delay or supersensitive fuse) ;
(4) After penetration, more or less deep, from the surface
of impact (delayed-action fuse).
In case (1) their destructive effect is almost entirely limited to
personnel and matériel unprotected by field works with over-head
cover, and it has already been demonstrated that the shelter af-
forded by an open trench is in most cases efficient protection against
such bursts.
The bursts of case (2) are employed for both shrapnel and high-
explosive shell, of 75 mm. calibre most frequently, but occasionally
of 155 mm. calibre. Their effects, and the remarks applying there-
to, are comparable to those of case (1).
For the destruction of ordinary field works, trenches, light
shelters, barbed-wire entanglements, localities, woods, unsheltered
personnel and matériel, the burst of case (3) is used, the principal
effect being due to the impact and explosion at the surface. The
shells of the 75 mm. class can not destroy earth works, and light
shelters are only destroyed by them in the case of direct hits. It is

75.86.98.41 on Thu, 22 Apr 2021 08:51:55 UTC
Fig. 20
Fig. 21

75.86.98.41 on Thu, 22 Apr 2021 08:51:55 UTC
not a shell of employment in the destruction of deep shel

trenches, emplacements and houses. Experience has shown
the shells of 75 mm. class are sufficient to destroy entanglem
particularly if supplemented somewhat by the trench arti
In the case of destruction on a counter slope, shells of the 155
class are necessary to supplement the work of the light-f
material.
The action of explosive shells bursting upon impact with the in-
stantaneous fuses is, in the case of direct hits upon structures, one
of combined shock and explosion. A mass of 16-pound weight
(75 mm.) travelling with a terminal velocity of 1,100 feet per
second (3,000 m. range) has a striking energy of about 150 foot-
tons, which combines with the detonation of its contained explosive
to produce the destruction. For bursts in case (3) when the hit
is not direct, the result is only dependent upon the blast of the
explosion and upon the effect of flying fragments of shell. For
the projectiles of small calibre, this effect is not serious against
even light shelters, but is of course important against matériel
and personnel without shelter.
The fuses producing the type of burst of case 4 are employed
mostly for destructions attempted with shells of 155 mm. calibre
and upward. This is the type of burst most employed for the
destruction of field works and permanent fortifications. The ac-
tion of the shell is one of combined impact, penetration, and ex-
plosion at or near the surface of principal resistance. The shells
employed must have a body of great strength, which fact materially
reduces their countenance for high explosive, in order not to be
shattered upon impact. It is impossible to make even approximate
computations of the combined stress effects upon structures, of
impact and explosion, but certain observations have been made
from experience, and the conclusions drawn are here presented.
Thè Destruction of Field Works.
The effects to be secured in fire executed against field works are
the overthrow of parapets, the obstruction of loopholes, the destruc-
tion of light shelters, the throwing down of interior slopes, the dis-
placement of earth so as to fill up or obstruct a part of the trenches,
etc.
The shells employed should be capable, to a high degree, of

throwing up the earth. This result is obtained by the formation
of " craters' ' at the point of fall of the shell, the earth thrown

75.86.98.41 on Thu, 22 Apr 2021 08:51:55 UTC
Barrage Chart .2 Battalions

of Artilléis Supporting
Fig. 22 Regiment of Infantry...
Normal Stahle Conditions

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out being projected all around the crater. Fire with ricochet
does not produce those craters. On the other hand, if the shell
bursts without having penetrated the ground, it produces only a
slight excavation, sometimes, indeed, entirely insignificant if the
calibre is small.
It is therefore advantageous that the shells penetrate to some
depth in the ground before bursting, and this result is obtained by
using fuses of varying degrees of delay. This depth should not,
however, exceed a given maximum, or the effects of the explosion
will not be felt on the surface of the ground, Fig. 20. In that case,
there is said to be a 4 ť camouflet. ' '
The depth giving the maximum crater depends upon the calibre
of the shell, its remaining velocity, its angle of fall, and the nature
of the ground. It results that, for a given shell and definite fire
conditions, there is an advantage in adjusting the duration of the
delay according to the resistance of the ground.
Shells of small calibres, containing but little explosive, should
not penetrate deeply into the ground; otherwise, a camouflet will
be the result. It is therefore evident that shells of small calibres
can produce only a superficial upturning of the ground. Only the
medium and large calibres, especially if fired with delay, are
capable of producing deep craters, thereby rendering field works
useless. The effects of the different types of percussion fuse in
producing craters is well shown by Fig. 20.
The Destruction of Deep Shelters .
In case of shelters and emplacements provided with overhead

and side cover with different degrees of resistance to shell fire,
the calibres from 155 mm. upward are employed in fire for
destruction. Using the fuse of long delay, the burst is pro-
duced after the shell has penetrated the overlying soil, bursting
courses, or even a portion of the structure itself, thus causing the
maximum of disruptive effect directly against or near the surfaces
it is desired to demolish. In the case of concrete emplacements,
such as fir machine guns, which are partially sunken into the
ground, the delay-action fuse acts effectively. When the shell
penetrates below the structure, the explosion tends to overturn it,
or burst in its floor by upward thrust.
The explosion produced after penetration is particularly ef
fective, owing to the tamping effect of the overlying material pene-

75.86.98.41 on Thu, 22 Apr 2021 08:51:55 UTC
FIRE AND EFFECT OF MODERN ARTILLERY 485
trated, a reaction for the downward or sidewise thrust of the

being provided This thrust produces, for example in the cas
eave shelters covered with virgin soil, a zone of compression do
ward and sidewise that tends to collapse the structure, even thou
penetration to its outer surfaces is not complete and there stil
mains between it and the point of burst, a considerable layer o
undisturbed ground.
For fire executed against deep shelters, high angles of fall ar
invariably employed to prevent the rise of the projectile to
surface, or too great a deflection from itSc course. Thus it hap
that the guns employed for these destructions are howitzers of
medium pr large calibre, capable of high angles of elevation. Th
probable course of a projectile below the surface ot the grou
under the influence of its terminal velocity and varying angle
fall, is indicated by Fig. 2i.
Destruction of Armor Plate and Concrete Works .

If the armor or concrete can be attacked on a vertical surfac
flat trajectory fire is employed. On the contrary, if it is to be
tacked on its roof (with surface approaching the horizontal), h
angle fire is used.
Generally, an important armored work (gun turret, for ex-
ample) can be disabled without perforating its armor. A great
upturning of the immediate surroundings of the turret is often
sufficient to prevent its functioning by destroying its essential
mechanisms. This result can be obtained easily enough if the in-
stallation of the armored work is rudimentary (turret installed in
a first-line trench, for example). But generally the essential parts
of such works are protected by a thick glacis of concrete and a
hood of armor (cast iron or steel) destroyed with more difficulty.
Attacks on concrete works always require the use of high-
explosive shells of largs calibre (calibre 280 mm., and remaining
velocity 250 meters).
If the concrete is protected by a layer of material (earth, sand,
etc.) it may first be necessary to strip it of the material by a
"shaving-down fire" by means of high-explosive shells with fuses
with long delay. Then the attack on the concrete work may begin.
Even with large calibres the penetration of the shell into
really good concrete is not great. The disintegration of the con
crete is only superficial, and if the surface attacked is horizontal,
some of the rubbish remains in the excavation and forms sort of a

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protecting layer against the following rounds. The deepenin

the crater is then rather slow. On the other hand, if a vertical
wall of concrete is attacked, the pieces knocked off fall little by
little and the breach progresses rapidly.
The most effective shells in attacking concrete works are those
of large calibre with very solid ogive, fused at the base, nondelay.
The resistance of the ogive is great enough so that it does not break
upon impact with the concrete, and it penetrates the outer layer.
The shock of its impact produces fissures and a disturbance favora-
ble to the effects of the bursting charge, which explodes immediate-
ly after, at the moment when the shell is fairly near the end of its
course. The effects produced are considerable.
BARRAGE FIRE AND CO-OPERATION BETWEEN THE INFANTRY AND THE
ARTILLERY.
Introductory Remarks.
One of the most important and interesting development
the present war is the development of the use of the artill
cooperation with the infantry -both in the attack and the
The condition of a stabilized front such as has existed in Eu
coupled with more or less fixed emplacements for the artillery
material, firing maps of a high degree of precision, and defenses
impregnable unless destroyed or neutralized by precise fire from
the artillery, has made possible and necessary the developments
that will outlined. Treatment of the subject in great detail will
not be attempted here, but sufficient discussion and illustration will
be given to make clear what constitutes cooperation between the
artillery and the infantry, and what are its uses and possibilities.
Definitions-
The following definitions are those of names commonly applied
to the various kinds of artillery fire. It can not be said that each
definition describes a type of fire, or purpose of fire, that is inde-
pendent of an unrelated to many of the other types. The uses of
each type are variable according to circumstances, and their fields
overlap. It is believed, however, that for the purpose of giving a
definite elementary knowledge of the subject, the definitions here-
with will serve.
Barrage. The concentration of the continued rapid fire of a
number of guns or batteries so that the individual centers of impact

75.86.98.41 on Thu, 22 Apr 2021 08:51:55 UTC
PIRE AND EFFECT OF MODERN ARTILLERY. 487
of their shots lie properly spaced along a well-defined lin

sidering dispersion, it is understood that this line is but the
line of the zone, generally elongated, that is covered by the
The foregoing is a broad definition of the term " Barrage.' '
Standing Barrage. A barrage whose center line remains
in position, with regard to the terrain, throughout the dura
of fire. Usually applied to a fire on a Trench line, or line of
bat groups.
Defensive or Protective Barrage. A barrage laid down upon
a predetermined fixed line, between our defensive organizations
and the enemy. This barrage is formed by a series of properly
located batteries assigned in groups to cover successive portions of
the defensive barrage line. For each group, the elements of fire to
reach its own section of the line, are recorded in the battery gun-
pits so that when not firing otherwise, the guns may be kept laid
upon the barrage line, as is customary. The infantry occupying
the defensive organizations, in case of need, call for protective
barrages along sections of the front, according to a prearranged
plan of cooperation with the artillery.
Rolling or Creeping Barrage. A barrage whose center line
takes successive positions, in general mutually parallel, and ad-
vancing by jumps in the direction of fire by definite linear intervals
according to a table of time intervals, the arrangement of which is
dependent upon the tactical needs.
Caging or Box Barrage. A fixed or " Standing Barrage' ' whose
center line is approximately perpendicular to the front of attack,
and whose function is to isolate the area attacked from support by
the defensive or counter-attacking elements on its flanks. It also
prevents the withdrawal by the flanks of the occupants of the area.
Back Barrage. A barrage similar in character and purpose to
the Caging Barrage, but so placed as to prevent support arriving
in the area attacked, from the direction of its rear, and to prevent
withdrawal toward the rear.
Fire of Preparation. A fire from all classes of matériel, pre-
ceding the hour of launching the attack, and designed to open a
way through the accessory defenses of the enemy's position for
the advance of the infantry, and also designed to demoralize the
enemy personnel and to destroy his field works and defensive
dispositions in general.
Fire for Destruction. Usually a fire concentration, regulated

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48& FIRE AND EFFECT OF MODERN ARTILLERY.
by observation, upon a definite Target with a view to its destru

tion. It is a phase or element of a Fire of Preparation. (See
Fire- for Neutralization.)
Fire of Counter-Preparation. A fire of reply to all forms of
enemy preparation, increasing m violence as the enemies ' fire
increases, destroying the assaulting forces before they can launch
their attack, and destroying or neutralizing the enemies' batteries.
This fire may or may not be regulated by observation.
Fire for Neutralization. A fire at moment of attack, generally
conducted with gas shells, against batteries whose map location
is known. This fire is not regulated upon the battery by observa-
tion and therefore is not intended to destroy it, but reliance is
placed upon the wide dispersion of the gas, to prevent the person-
nel of the battery from serving their guns in a defensive or offensive
rôle. (See Counter Battery.)
Fire of Interdiction. A concentration of fire without regulation,
upon a zone in which is to be expected the assembly or passage of
troops designed to operate in support or counter-attack.
Harassing Fire. A fire, generally intermittent in character,
designed to annoy the enemy, deteriorate his morale, prevent his
working and carrying parties from operating, and in general to
cause him the maximum discomfort and inconvenience. Frequent-
ly this type of fire is called for by forward observation posts to be
directed with minimum delay, upon designated targets, and with-
out preparatory regulation. (See Fire for Destruction.)
Fire of Retaliation. A fire, generally by observation, concen-
trated upon an objective, and in retaliation for a similar fire re-
cently conducted by the enemy. The objective generally corre-
sponds in character and tactical importance to the objective just
attacked or destroyed by the enemy artillery, and the fire there-
fore is to the enemy obviously in retaliation.
Counter-Battery Fire. Any fire, not one of neutralization, de-
signed to act against the personnel and materiel of the enemy's
batteries. (See Neutralization.)
Artillery in the Offensive.

Under the conditions of position warfare with extensive systems
of defensive works organized continuously along the front, and
extended in depth perpendicular to the front, no offensive operation
can be 'expected to achieve complete success, unless both the artil-

75.86.98.41 on Thu, 22 Apr 2021 08:51:55 UTC
lery preparation and support are effective. It is essential that the

front or sector selected for the attack admit of a full and success-
ful development of artillery fire, and that proper cooperation
should be possible with the infantry. For proper preparation of
the attack it is essential that the enemy 's works be in observation,
and for proper support it is essential that the advancing infantry
can be followed in their movements, so that the guns firing over
them can be controlled rapidly and effectively, thus affording the
maximum of support and safety to the attack.
Plan of Attack.
The plan of attack having been outlined by the Commander
responsible for its execution, and the materiel available having"
been indicated, it devolves upon the Commander of the artillery
forces engaged to develop in detail and in closest cooperation with
the Infantry Commander the plan for the utilization of the
artillery.
The plan will lay down the allotment of materiel to the different
tasks of the artillery, its grouping, and method of ammunition
supply. It will specify the cooperation of airplanes and balloons,
will allot command and observation posts, indicate the liaisons with,
the infantry, and regulate the cooperation and responsibility of the
subordinate formations. The lower formations will be charged
with the working out in gręat detail of the elements of fire, am-
munition supply, observation and registration, and all factors,
entering into the execution of their rôle.
The allotment of matériel to tasks is usually about as follows:
Light Field Guns (75 mm. class). Cutting wire, destroying-
light breast-works, interdiction fire, maintenance of breeches; bar-
rage fire of all classes.
Light Field Howitzer (120 mm. class). Destroying first-line
defenses when within their power, interdiction fire and counter-
battery.
Heavy Field Howitzers (155 mm. class). Used principally in
counter-battery work, and for the bombardment of sensitive points:
in the enemy defenses. May be used to supplement the work of
the 75 mm. material in the destruction of field works, particularly
those on reverse slopes.
Long Range Guns of High Power (155 mm.). Special destruc-
tions at long range, cutting communications, destroying telephone

75.86.98.41 on Thu, 22 Apr 2021 08:51:55 UTC
liaisons, and firing on Brigade and Divisional P. Cs. Also use

in counter-battery work.
Very Heavy Howitzers and B. B. Mounted Material. These a
used for the bombardment of special points of tactical importan
or localities where it is known there are very strong concrete or
underground shelters and emplacements, requiring for destruction
à heavy shell and high angle of fall.
The Light Trench Mortars. Used to harass the enemy in the
final stages of the preparation and may be used to supplement the
light field artillery in the preparation of breeches in the wire, and,
to a certain extent, in barrage work.
The Medium and Heavy Trench Mortars. Used in the destruc-
tion of first-line zone structures, and to harass and demoralize
the defenders. They are useful in reducing or neutralizing ma-
chine gun nests well to the front, and the heavy trench mortar
bomb is capable of important destructions within the limits of its
range.
Begistration. In order to utilize efficiently the means of observa-
tion at the disposal of the artillery, and to avoid indiscriminate and
obvious registration, the plan includes a table showing the hours
át which each particular grouping of artillery will have the right
to undertake its fire for registration, and what observing means
are to be had. This registration fire must be reduced in amount
to its absolute minimum, and must not reveal its character, as it
may give important indications to the enemy.
Duration of the Bombardment. The time necessary to prepare
an offensive operation has been subject to wide variations. In some
cases, particularly in the first years of the war, preparation has ex-
tended for periods of the magnitude of six days. The more modern
tendency has been to shorten this period materially, and the latest
offensives have been prepared in two or three hours. Thus is the
element of surprise to a certain extent fostered and utilized.
Isolation of the Area Attached. In offensive operations of mag-
nitude, such as those covering the advance along a Corps or an
Army front, the projected extent of penetration is usually limited
at the flanks, they constituting pivotal points from which the ad-
vance pushes forward to its maximum depth at the center. Thus
the flanks are not exposed, and the box or caging barrage is not
necessary, at least with respect to the entire operation. In the
case of small local operations, such as a raid accompanied by ar-

75.86.98.41 on Thu, 22 Apr 2021 08:51:55 UTC
tillery preparation, it is necessary to isolate the area attacked,

permit accomplishment of the raiding mission and subsequent w
drawal of the raiding party. Thus the small operation is fre
quently comparable in complexity to the large offensive, since
offset the destructive fire here unnecessary there are the com
standing barrage, box barrage, etc., which must be provided
isolate the area attacked.
Support of the Infantry during the Assault. The phase of prep-
aration for an offensive operation having been completed accord-
ing to the original schedule, or according to a modified schedule
resulting from a consideration of its observed effects, the artillery
mission becomes one of support to the infantry during its advance,
and one of protection to the infantry after it has reached its ob-
jectives and is consolidating them either for relatively permaņent
occupancy or as a temporary holding line preparatory to departure
toward a new objective.
Thus, in the phase of movement, the mission of the artillery is
to beat down all resistance to the advance from either front or
flanks, and in the phase of consolidation, it is to prevent the as-
sembly and approach of counter-attacks of all sizes. It is in
the phase of consolidation that the question of direct liaison be-
tween the infantry and the artillery becomes one of the utmost im-
portance, as cooperation by a time schedule is then out of the
question, and the artillery must be kept closely informed of the
situation of the infantry in order to give it the protection essential
to its safety and to the success of the attack.
The object of the barrage is to prevent the enemy from manning
his defenses, and installing his machine guns in time to arrest the
advancing infantry. An intense standing barrage on his trench
lines or lines of combat groups will force him to take shelter and
also carry his flanking weapons to safety. A rolling barrage pre-
ceding the assault waves by a proper interval will neutralize any
advance elements of defense not covered by the standing barrage.
It also will prevent the enemy from making a defense while at the
same time seeking safety from the standing barrage, as hé fre-
quently attempts by advancing from his trenches and installing
himself with his weapons in convenient shell holes, etc., in front of
his lines. With a pair of machine guns so situated, or a few de-
termined automatic rifle teams distributed in shell holes he could,
if not neutralized by the rolling barrage, break up a powerful at-
tack over a fairly wide front. It is essential therefore that when

75.86.98.41 on Thu, 22 Apr 2021 08:51:55 UTC
organized terrain, held by determined troops armed with m

automatic weapons, is to be taken with a minimum of losses,
ing barrage should precede the advance to sweep the ground
from every possible organized or extemporized nest of resis
The question of the combined use of the standing and r
barrages, is one that involves the distance the assaulting inf
has to cover before reaching its first, or its first intermedi
jective. It is evident that if the distance between lines, or be
point of take off and objective is small (of the magnitude of
depth of the dispersion zone), no rolling barrage is needed. In
this case dispersion zone of the standing barrage would cover the
.area in advance of the objective and render it approximately as
untenable as the trench on which its fire was regulated. If, how-
ever, the distance to be covered is such that a wide belt of terrain
in front of the enemy lines is free of shots from the standing bar-
rage on his trenches, it follows that a rolling barrage will be needed
for the reasons above stated.
The back barrage is usually a moving or searching barrage, ad-
vancing and withdrawing in depth over a zone behind the area
Attacked, and designed to sweep the ground to the rear, from which
xifle fire or fire from automatic weapons might be directed against
the advancing infantry;
Pace of the Holling Barrage and its Relation to the Infantry .
The advance of the rolling barrage is not one of steady progression,
but is by jumps at different time intervals. That is, at a stated
time the barrage, which has been falling on a given line for a given
short period, lifts and comes down on a second line in general
parallel to the first and at some definite distance, say 100 meters
from it. The advance of the infantry in keeping pace with the
barrage then consists of a careful advance until the limit of the
ône of security with respect to the barrage is reached, with then
.a pause until the barrage jumps forward when it can be approached
anew. This combination of movements of barrage and infantry
results, however, in practically a steady advance for the troops,
since the initial spacing between them and the barrage as it first
comes down is so arranged that the danger zone is just reached
when the first lift occurs, and so on.
The proper rate of advance is of course variable and depends
upon the nature of the terrain to be crossed, the distance to be
•covered to the first objective, the probable conditions of visibility;

75.86.98.41 on Thu, 22 Apr 2021 08:51:55 UTC
and, for the different stages of the advance, the state of exh
of the troops. The rate of advance of infantry over broken
has been found to range from 15 to 75 meters per minute,
reaching 100 meters per minute. The British, before the ba
Messines Ridge in May and June of 1917, made use of demo
tion barrages along certain fronts both to rehearse the coming
offensive and to confuse the enemy. These barrages made jumps
of 100 yards every two minutes, thus corresponding to an average
rate of infantry advance of 50 yards per minute. During the
actual offensive, a study of the successive barrage lines on their
operations maps shows that the 100-yard jumps were made in
periods varying from two to four or five minutes, and that the
barrages were held standing for periods of about ten minutes when
each 500 yards approximately of advance had been covered. This
was to afford opportunity for the assault columns to form again
and take care of casualties, 4 4 mapping-up, ' ' and necessary consoli-
dation. It also gave to the men a much needed breathing space,
and an opportunity to the command to make such possible changes
in the supporting fire as the tactical situation demanded.
The degree of closeness with which infantry can or will follow
a rolling barrage is a point on which the writers on the subject
seem unwilling to commit themselves very definitely. It is of
course dependent upon the range at which the fire is conducted,
and the type of fuse and shell employed. The precision of fire
must be of the highest type, and the cooperation time schedule must
be followed rigidly. Under the best circumstances, using H. E. or
shrapnel with the fuse of slight delay, so that the bursts are upon
ricochet, the infantry can and will approach to within 100 to 75
yards of the barrage. Under less favorable circumstances the
interval maintained will be nearer 150 to 200 yards. However, the
object of the barrage is entirely defeated, unless the barrage is
hugged as closely as possible, and it is considered better to suffer
a few casualties from the barrage itself than to have a section or
a platoon wiped out by fire from a machine gun, that would not
have had time to get into action before being rushed, had the
assault wave followed the barrage at a sufficiently small distance.
Artillery in the Defensive .

The defensive barrage has for its object. To stop the enemy
attack immediately after it is launched, and in case the attack gets

75.86.98.41 on Thu, 22 Apr 2021 08:51:55 UTC
across and is in contact with friendly troops, to prevent the arri

of reserves and reinforcements. To this end it is necessary that
the barrage plan for the defense be worked out in great detail, and
that it be possible for the infantry units manning the organized
defenses of the terrain, to call for and receive artillery protection
properly placed, in a short time.
The length of time in which protection can be received by the
infantry is about as follows, computed from the moment the assist-
ance is asked, generally by rocket signal confirmed when possible
by telephone.
To obtain automatic barrage - 2 minutes after request.
To obtain reinforcing barrage - 5 minutes after request.
To obtain help from adjoining artillery groups - 10 to 15
minutes after request.
It is generally understood with the infantry that only a certain
number of rounds will be fired from each piece, unless word comes
to the artillery commander that more protection is needed.
The plan for the protection of a regimental front by normal
and reinforcing barrages is shown by Fig. 22. The front primarily
protected is that of two battalions of the Nth infantry, and the
automatic barrage is laid down by two batteries (8 guns) of the
Rth field artillery. This gives a certain density of fire over the
regimental front, the density of fire under the conditions shown
not being very great. Upon additional call from the Nth infantry,
a reinforcing barrage is laid down over the normal automatic bar-
rage and is furnished by an additional battery of the Rth field
artillery. With respect to the front of the Nth infantry, these are
the sole missions in the defense, of the batteries named. These
batteries, however, have extended missions of support on the
fronts of adjacent infantry regiments, and their total arcs of fire
are as shown.

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FIRE AND EFFECT OF MODERN ARTILLERY

Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/44697732

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To properly design and construct field works of whatever char-

Classification by Calibre and Weight of Projectile.

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tried by the Germans, a successful piece being later developed by

Classification by Relation of Length and Calibre .

The principal tendency with regard to increase in mobility of

The units of angular measure used in artillery practice are:

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Let AB=L, be a small (relative to the range R) objective,

Since m is small the arc PN is very closely equ

Now, if m is expressed in degrees

(3) L=m°R - =0.0175m°R

(4) 7 L=mGR =0.0157mGR.

Definitions Relative to the Trajectory -

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The distance of fire is the distance, gun target measured alon

Trajectory in Air Projected

fire and the line of departure. (This angle is usually a matter of a

I=Angle of inclination of trajectory at point of fall ;

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USUAL TYPES, MODERN A]

UNITED STATES. PRANCE.

Light Field Howitzer

Heavy Field Howitzer

Long-Range Gun High Power

Medium Trench Mortar

Heavy R.R. Howitzer

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XTES, MODERN ARTILLERY.

PRANCE. ENGLAND. [ GERMANY.

.5 80 40 10.5 3 800 75 11 2.1 91 450 80 4 13/16

,0 60 205 63.6 9.2 13,000 45 290 47 280 12,000 45

>0 65 900 90 12 14,400 45 750 90 305 12,800 65 383 37

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(7) E=4R (R+4)

The variation in elevation corresponding to a variation of range

The angle of fall with respect to the ground is given by

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shell, tracer shell, star shell, etc. Necessities of manufacture hav

The most modern development in form of projectiles has been

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The classes of burst then are

(1) Percussion or impact burst, with instantaneous, non-delay-

By the term "fuse" is meant an assembly of mechanical units,

II. Shrapnel Shell.

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ITI. Special or Gas Shells are of all the types of body in co

IV. Projectiles of Special Employment.

Projectiles intended to act against personnel -

This case is illustrated by Fig. 5. The apex angle is always

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of burst, called the "type height," which is, for a giv

(b) Percussion fire and richochet.

Method of Action of Time-Fuse Shrapnel.

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very rapidly, and are considered ineffective when their velocit

It is true, however, that with the increase in range comes increase

4?° - 6n-t-6,k-f- 6m-+ 42S c