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Introduction to sensors
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Chapter 1
Introduction to sensors
Bhagwati Charan Patel, G R Sinha and Naveen Goel
A sensor is a device that receives a signal or stimulus and responds to the stimulus in
the form of an electrical signal. The output signals correspond to some forms of
electrical signal, such as current or voltage. The sensor is a device that receives
different kinds of signal i.e. physical, chemical or biological signal and converts them
into an electric signal. The sensors are classified into different types based on the
applications, input signal, and conversion mechanism, material used in sensor
characteristics such as cost, accuracy or range. This chapter presents an overview
of sensors and their classifications as thermal, magnetic optical, mechanical and
chemical. The transfer functions, characteristics and specifications are also discussed
with introduction to basic forms of sensors.
1.1 Introduction
We can find sensors everywhere, and the whole world is full of sensors and their
applications. There are many types of sensors available around us, in our offices,
gardens, shopping malls, homes, cars, toys etc. These sensors make our lives so easy
and comfortable, starting from applications such as switching on the lights, fans,
television (TV), automatic adjustment of the room temperature by air conditioning
(AC), fire alarm, detecting obstacles when the car is reversing, making a thumb
impression etc. A sensor is a device which receives signals as well as responding to a
signal or stimulus. The stimulus signals can be defied by the measure, property, or
state which is sensed. We also can say that a sensor is a translator that converts a
nonelectrical value to an electrical value [1–3]. The output signal of a sensor may be
in the form of voltage, current, or charge. A sensor has many forms of input
properties and electrical output properties. If there is small change in the sensed
quantity, it will cause a small change in the electrical output and the changes can be
detected with their measuring capabilities.
All the sensors are categorized on the basis of their uses, applications, material
used and some production technologies. Some sensors are classified also by their
characteristics such as cost, accuracy or range of sensor. There are two main types of
sensors: passive sensor and active sensor. A passive sensor does not require any extra
energy source and electric signal is produced directly in reply to stimulus of external
sources. This means that the sensor converts input energy to output signal energy
[1, 4, 5]. Examples of passive sensors include photographic, thermal, electric field
sensing, chemical, infrared and seismic. The active sensors need external sources of
energy for their response, known as excitation signal. To produce the output signals,
sensors adopt necessary changes to these input signals. The active sensors are also
known as parametric sensors due to their own properties which can be modified in
response to an exterior effect and these properties can be afterward changed into
electric signals. Active sensors have a variety of applications related to meteorology
and observation of the Earth’s surface and atmosphere. Table 1.1 shows differences
between passive and active sensors.
The other types of sensors are based on their detection properties such as
variation mechanism, analog and digital. The detection properties of sensors include
electric, magnetic, physical, chemical etc, and variation mechanism includes con-
version of the input signal to output signal, whose examples are photoelectric,
thermoelectric, electrochemical, electromagnetic etc. Analog sensors produce an
analog output, i.e. continuous output signals are produced with respect to the
measured quantity, but a digital sensor is the opposite of analog sensors, with
discrete characteristics and digital output in nature. Sensors are also divided by their
detection properties, given in table 1.2
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Types Properties
signals. Sensors are characterized depending on the values of some of the important
parameters. The characteristics of sensors are described here in this section.
1 s
S= ln (1.4)
k a
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s−a
S= k (1.6)
b
where constant numbers are given by k.
There are some sensors that may not fulfil the above properties and in such cases,
higher-order polynomial approximation is required.
1.2.4 Accuracy
Accuracy is an important characteristic in sensors which is calculated in terms of
error in measurement and defined as the difference between measured value and true
value. It is represented in terms of % of full scale or % of reading.
Absoulute error = Measured value − True value Ae = Mv − Tv (1.8)
where Tv is calculated by taking the mean of an infinite number of measurements and
relative error can also be calculated as
Absolute error Mv − Tv
Relative error = Re = (1.9)
True value Tv
The accuracy rating indicates a collective effect of variation, linearity, calibration,
repeatability errors, dead band etc, in measurements used in sensors.
1.2.5 Calibration
There are many sensors available but to get the best possible sensor with optimal
value of accuracy, the sensor needs to be calibrated in the device where it will be
used. It is an adjustment or set of adjustments made on a sensor or device to make
that device function accurately and error free. For instance, we have to measure the
pressure with an accuracy ± 5 pa, and a given sensor is rated with an accuracy of ±
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10 pa. Can we use this pressure sensor? Yes, we can, but the given sensor needs to be
calibrated and we have to find out its initial transfer function during calibration.
In the calibration method, we have to find out its particular variables. These
variables describe the complete transfer function and should be identified before
calibration. Calibration of linear devices is calculated by equation (1.1) and variable
‘a’ and ‘b’ should be determined accurately.
In order to get constant values in the equation with good accuracy, the linear
transfer function is calculated as v = a + b(p ). To find constants ‘a’ and ‘b’, a sensor
can be exposed with two pressure values ( p1 and p2 ) with respect to their
corresponding output voltages (v1 and v2 ), then we get v1 = a + b(p1 ) and
v2 = a + b(p2 ), and the constants are calculated as
v1 − v2
b= and a = v1 − bp1 (1.10)
p1 − p2
and pressure of calibration can be computed as
v−a
p= (1.11)
b
The calibration error is actually a type of inaccuracy which is accepted by
manufacturers during the time when the devices or sensors are calibrated in the
factory. This obtained error is not uniform and can change during the process of
calibration.
1.2.6 Hysteresis
Hysteresis is a common phenomenon or characteristic which is caused by changing
properties of a material such as frictional and structural changes. Hysteresis error is
the difference between two output values that correspond to the same input
depending on direction followed by the sensor, as shown in figure 1.1.
The value of hysteresis error is represented by a positive or negative percentage of
the given pressure range. We can identify this hysteresis error for half of the given
range of pressure reference point.
Hysteresis
Decreasing
Sensor
pressure
Output
Increasing
pressure
Pressure
Reference point pressure
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1.2.7 Non-linearity
The linearity function in a sensor is calculated by the maximum deviation by straight
line given in equation (1.1), over the specified dynamic range. The non-linearity of
the sensor is calculated by the measurement of the difference in Y-axis of two lines of
equal slope, one passes through the minimum points and the other passes through
the maximum points of the output curve. The total non-linearity is the difference
between intercept value of Y-axis and a parallel line which goes through the
maximum deviation point. The total non-linearity is approximated by determining
the maximum deviation at the midpoint of the X-axis and the largest error is
observed between the actual and calculated values.
The midpoint (Xm) is calculated as:
⎛ Xmax − Xmin ⎞
Xm = ⎜ ⎟ + Xmin (1.12)
⎝ 2 ⎠
and the line connecting end points represents the total amount of non-linearity,
which is calculated by % of linearity as:
⎡
⎣( Ymax − Ymin
2 ) + Y ⎤⎦ − Y
min s
% Linearity = × 100% (1.13)
⎡
⎣( Ymax − Ymin
2 ) + Y ⎤⎦ min
where Ys is the actual Y value at this X value and if the actual measured Y values pass
through zero, then it is simplified to be:
% Linearity =
( Ymax
2 ) − Ys
× 100% (1.14)
( Ymax
2 )
1.2.8 Resolution
The resolution of a sensor is defined as minimum detectable signal fluctuation while
reading or measuring some quantity using a suitable sensor. This is also an ability of
the measurement to obtain and notice minor changes in the characteristic of the
measurement result.
1.2.9 Saturation
Every sensor has its certain operation limit, which is the state where the output
signal of the sensor will no longer to respond at some level despite increasing the
input stimuli values. This characteristic is referred as saturation of the sensor. There
is a point where output of the sensor does not respond as required to an increase in
the input stimuli, and that particular point is known as saturation point or threshold
point.
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1.2.10 Repeatability
Repeatability means occurrence of a value again and again when the system returns
to the same position multiple times to measure the range of output signals. Direction
of approach is an important issue to measure the position in repeatability, which
can be represented as the maximum change among readings of output as notified by
two repeated cycles unless otherwise specified. It is generally denoted as % of full
scale (FS):
Δ
δr = × 100% (1.15)
FS
1.2.12 Reliability
Reliability of the sensor node is the ability to perform the desired function under any
given circumstances a for definite period. This can be represented in terms of
statistics as a probability that the sensor will operate without failure in the stated
time interval. When the performance of the sensor is exceeded under given circum-
stances, it causes a failure of the sensor and it can be temporary or permanent. So
before manufacturing or designing the sensor, it should be properly checked,
considering the various worst circumstances and conditions.
1.2.14 Impedance
Impedance of a circuit is the total effective resistance or the measure of opposition to
the passes of current when an AC voltage source is applied. It is represented as Z and
its unit is ohm (Ω). This is calculated by applying a voltage source to the sensor with
a resistor and measuring the changed voltage across the resistor and sensor device.
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Input impedance is the impedance that is observed by the voltage source between the
two terminals of the circuit. Now, we are assuming that the applied voltage source is
the idle source but in an actual case this voltage source will also have some finite
resistance. In the case of output impedance, in the circuit we have connected some
load to the output terminal and the circuit is giving some voltage; ideally this output
voltage should also appear across the two terminals of this load. From the load
perspective, it will also have some finite resistance with this output voltage and this
finite resistance are known as the output impedance of the circuit or device.
1.2.15 Excitation
Excitation is the appropriate electrical signal required to operate the active sensor. It
is given by the range of voltage and/or current. The frequency of the excitation signal
must also be specified in some sensors. Transfer function of the sensor may be
altered by changing this excitation signal or it would cause output error.
1.2.17 Precision
It can be described as the nearest among a set of values and it is dissimilar from
accuracy. Let pt be the true value of the variable p and a random experiment
measure p1, p2 , …, pi as the value of p. Then our measurements p1, p2 , …, pi are
precise when they are very close to each other but not necessarily close to true value
pt . However, if we say p1, p2 , …, pi are accurate, it means that they are close to true
value pt and hence they are also close to each other. Hence accurate measurements
are always precise.
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1.2.19 Uncertainty
Every measurement has some uncertainty. Uncertainty in the data contains some
variable values that make them deviate from the correct or original values and is
measured by the amount of error as mean or average value of a data set. Error is the
difference between the true value and the measured value. Uncertainty is the range
of values within which the true value lies in some levels of confidence.
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Potentiometers are available as rotary and linear potentiometers in the market, and
can be used to measure the angular position and linear position, respectively;
through voltage division the changes in resistance can be used to create an output
voltage that is directly proportional to the input displacement.
The sensors have three terminals, where the one in the middle is known as the
wiper, and the other two are known as the ends. The wiper is a movable contact
where resistance is measured with respect to it and either one of the end terminals.
The displacement of the moving object is measured with the help of the sliding
element of the potentiometer. When position of the moving body changes then its
resistance between two fixed points also changes. The result is obtained in the form
of differential output voltage which varies linearly with the movement of core
position. The resulting output signal has both the amplitude and polarity.
Amplitude is calculated as linear function of the displacement and polarity gives
the direction of movement. Major advantages of the potentiometer include user
friendly operation, low cost, high amplitude output and the sensors are used for
measuring even large displacement, but its operating cycles are limited.
Resistance decreasing
with light intensity
Resistance
Light Intensity
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1.3.6 Accelerometer
This sensor is used to detect the acceleration of an object, and operates by sensing
the acceleration of gravity, and the direction of the object is calculated. This sensor is
a kind of microelectromechanical system (MEMS), which uses a silicon integrated
circuit. These sensors convert the mechanical motion caused in an accelerometer
into an electrical signal by using the piezoelectric, piezo-resistive and capacitive
components.
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parts of the sensor must be insulated from each other in order to reduce the
effect of stray capacitance.
• Resistive sensor: The resistive sensor is based on the change in resistance of
the material and is used to measure temperature, displacement, moisture etc.
A slider is free to move between two points and at a certain point we get the
zero output and at some other point we get the maximum output. The output
voltage is obtained between these two points and it is directly proportional to
displacement. So, the change in length of the wire causes the change in the
value of the resistance. This property is utilized to measure the changes in
displacement using resistivity and resistance. When the fixed voltage is
applied across end terminals of the sensor, a proportional voltage is generated
across the slider and this voltage can be calculated using voltage divider rule.
As distance increases, the output voltage will also increase. The resistive
technique used in this sensor can be used to sense or measure linear
displacement.
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vapour will be present and due to the presence of water vapour, there will be a
change in dielectric constant, and frequency of one of the oscillators changes
consequently. If there is no change in dielectric constant, its frequency is
going to be constant, whereas in the mixture water vapours are present, and
there is change in dielectric constant which results in change in its frequency.
Frequency changes are measured as the measure of humidity.
• Aluminium oxide hygrometer: In an aluminium oxide hygrometer, aluminium
oxide is coated on anodized aluminium and this aluminium oxide exhibits a
change in the dielectric constant with respect to changes in humidity. There
are two electrodes in which one is the inner electrode and the other is the
outer electrode made from a very thin layer of material like gold. Some pores
are presents in the inner layer. Due to the change in humidity, dielectric
constant changes and this change can be measured to measure the humidity
by bridge or electric method. The errors are much reduced and the response
time is small and therefore the response is very fast.
• Crystal Hygrometer: In a crystal hygrometer, crystals are coated with
hydroscopic materials (hydroscopic polymers). These crystals are used as
frequency determination elements in the oscillator, and therefore just like
with the capacitive hygrometer, if there is change in humidity then frequency
also changes. Frequency changes due to the humidity as the mass of the
crystal changes with amount of water absorbed by the coating. This change in
frequency is measured. Humidity sensors are used in industry, agriculture, the
medical field, environment monitoring etc.
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transducer and sends it as output signals. There are two types of chemical sensors
used to detect the composition: optical sensor and electro chemical sensor.
• Optical sensor: In the optical sensor, there are an emitter and a detector as the
main elements. The emitter senses the light to the optical sensor and the light rays
fall on the analyte and these rays may be reflected or refracted. These reflected
or refracted lights are passed through the detector. Now the detector receives
these lights and according to their intensity, the chemical compound present is
analysed. Operation of an optical sensor is very simple and it uses absorption
coefficient characteristics of the medium and path length travelled by the rays.
• Electrochemical sensor: The electrochemical sensor operates by acting on gas
molecules of interest and produces an electric signal proportional to the
compound present in the gas. It consists of sensing modules and electrodes,
separated by a thin layer of electrolyte. There are two plates and the centre is
filled by electrolytes. One plate is the cathode and the other plate is the anode.
An external membrane is introduced in solution and it is absorbed by certain
ions from the solution. Therefore, chemical properties of the solution change and
the electromagnetic field will also change; and consequently change in the
electromagnetic field ensures that the chemical composition is present in the gas.
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a dissimilar approach of using magnetic sensors. A resistive magnetic sensor keeps the
electrical resistance of the magnetic field and an inductive magnetic sensor uses coils
surrounding its magnetic material, which have the ability to detect changes within the
Earth’s magnetic field. A fluxgate magnetic sensor uses the approach of changing flux
parameters. Each type of technology focuses on a specific area for identifying
measurements to be detected. Sensitivity of the magnet is increased by combining
layers of magnetic alloys and the magnetic field is surrounded by an electric current,
and variation within the field is detected. The output of a magnetic sensor increases
with a strong magnetic field and decreases with a weak magnetic field.
Position sensor • Accurate, reliable, and predictable • Sensing range depends on the
measurement type of metal of the target object
• Higher switching rate
• High susceptibility to noise
Sound sensor • Used in speech recognition software • Sound files require more
• Easy to manipulate sound in real time memory size
• Does not require cabling compare • Interference cancelation is
to wired mic required
• Limited coverage area
(Continued)
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Smoke and • Simple and low-cost technology • Requires air or oxygen to work
gas sensor • Measures flammability of gases • Narrow or limited temperature
• Linear output and low power range
requirements
• Wide measurement range
• Higher sensitivity, resolution and
reliability
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Seismic sensor • Detects lateral and vertical variations • Data processing is time
in velocity consuming
• Produces detailed images of the • Equipment is expensive
subsurface
• Used to map stratigraphic units.
1.6 Conclusions
This chapter presented an overview of sensors with basics, characteristics and
different types of sensors. A sensor is a device that receives a signal and converts it
into an electrical signal. These sensors are classified on the basis of their applications,
cost, accuracy and range. Sensors are classified also into different categories like
thermal, electrical, magnetic optical, mechanical and chemical sensors. The sensor
technologies have become advanced now and cognitive and smart sensors are being
used in all modern applications.
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