IGNACIO, Jan Melbert C BSMT II-ALVIOR

CHAPTER I
THE CHALLENGES AND RESPONSES

OF THE NINETEENTH CENTURY

Leading Topics
1. Nations Struggle for Nationalism.
2. Men Fight for Democracy.

3. The Effects of the Industrial Revolution Are Multifarious.

4 Responses to the Growing Social Problems Are Created by the
Industrial Revolution.
5. Science Becomes the Servant of Man.

6. Modern Imperialism Starts a Process of Historic Change.

7. Growing Confidence in Progress Inspires Optimism.
The meaning and importance of a man’s task can be best understood And appreciated when
viewed within a time-frame and in its proper historical Context. To better understand and
appreciate the role of Jose Rizal in the Making of the Filipino nation one has to know the
developments in the Century when he lived, the period when he worked. The nineteenth century
was an era of challenges and responses. It Was a period of major changes which affected men
and society. Speaking Of the period, Rizal, in his Noli Me Tangere, asked who would be lost In the
struggle between the past and the present: Ah, we were speaking of the present condition of the
Philippines, Said Tasio to Don Filipo. Yes, we are now entering upon a Period of strife, or rather,
I should say that you are, for my generation Belongs to the night, we are passing away. This strife
is between The past, which seizes and strives With curses to cling to the Tottering feudal castles,
and the future, whose song of triumph May be heard from afar amid the splendors of the coming
dawn, Bringing the message of Good News from other lands. Who will Fall and be buried in the
smouldering ruins. The six important changes of the century were: (1) the struggle For
nationalism, (2) the gradual spread of democracy, (3) the modern- Tion of living through the
Industrial Revolution. (4) the advance of Science, (5) the march of imperialism and (6) the new
current in the Movement of thought and growing confidence on progress. Jose Rizal, Noli Me
Tangere translated by Charles E. Derbyshire (Manila: Philip- Pine Education, Inc., 1956), p. 410.
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RIZAL'S IMPACT ON NATIONAL IDENTITY
Nations Struggle for Nationalism. Nationalism is a feeling of oneness by a group of people who
believe that they possess common traditions, culture, and common ideals or goals. When people
become aware that they are different from another group, they become proud of their group.
They become willing to serve this group, their nation. They become patriotic. They develop pride
in their country. This is easily possible, however, only if they know their own country. This is the
main reason why Rizal would encourage studies about the Philippines. I would stimulate these
Philippine studies, wrote Rizal to his bosom German friend, Dr. Ferdinand Blumentritt, which are
like nosce te ipsum (know thyself) that gives the true concept of one's self and drives nations to
do great things.? The result of two great upheavals that occurred in the last quarter of the
eighteenth century, the American Revolution (1775-1783) and the French Revolution (1779-
1789) had influenced the thinking and development of the nineteenth century. Independence
from Great Britain for the Americans, and the overthrowing of absolutism and feudal privileges
for the French were to inspire many in other parts of the world. Rizal remembered the French
Revolution and wished Spain would have benefited from the gifts of said Revolution and shared
them with the Philippines. Spain did not plant in those islands (the Philippines) the invincible
standard of Castille so that they might be the exclusive patrimony and feudal dominion of the
reactionary friars but rather to assimilate and equalize them with herself, moaning if she moans,
unfortunate if she is unfortunate, enjoying progress, liberty, rights, social as well as political,
when she enjoys these inestimable gifts of the French Revolution." Throughout the nineteenth
century many peoples revolted against their rulers. In the struggles for nationalism the liberals
and the conservatives disagreed on the rights and the way governments should be run. The
liberals believed that a country should be free from domination by another and the people should
enjoy liberty, equality and opportunity. The conservatives believed in the "good old days" when
monarchs and kings ruled over their subjects. The Greeks with foreign aid won their
independence from the Turks in 1830. The Norwegians won their freedom from the Swedes in
1905, the culmination of the struggle started before the turn of the century. In 1861, after a long
period of disunion, Italy through the work of Camillo Cavour, Joseph Mazzini and Joseph
Garibaldi, became a free and united nation with the exception of the city of Rome which
remained under the Pope and Venetia. Trent and Trieste under Austria. Through the leadership
of Otto von Bismarck who adopted a policy of blood and iron Germany was united in 1871. The
spirit of nationalism spread outside of Europe Canada became a selt-governing nation in 1867.
The movement for nationalism in Latin 2 The Rizal-Blumentritt Correspondence, Part One
(Manila: Jose Rizal National Cen- tennial Commission, 1961), pp. 71-72. Jose Rizal, "How to
Deceive the Native Land", Political and Historical Writings (Manila: National Heroes Commission,
1964), pp. 78-82.
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CHALLENGES AND RESPONSES
America kept pace with the progress in Europe and North America. Spain's colonies in Latin
America revolted and won their independence between 1800 and 1825 Simoun de Bolivar, the
"liberator", freed Northern South America, the territory which is now Venezuela, Colombia,
Bolivia and part of Peru. Jose San Martin, a patriotic upperclass Spaniard born in Argentina, freed
Southern South America, the territory that is now known as Argentina, Chile and part of Peru. In
Asia, nationalism slowly developed in Japan during a long period of seclusion under the
Shogunate. Because foreign powers got control over portions of China, Chinese nationalism was
stimulated. Nationalism in India arose because of British exploitation of the country and racial
discrimination. In the Philippines, it began to be felt after the unjust execution of Fathers Jose
Burgos, Mariano Gomes y de los Angeles and Jacinto Zamora on February 17, 1872.
Men Fight for Democracy. With the growth of nationalism came the struggle for democracy, for
human rights and fundamental freedoms. Nationalism and democracy were the political ideals
of the nineteenth century In France democracy succeeded through a revolution. Foll owing the
establishment of the Third French Republic in 1875, France got many laws which advanced
democracy. One of these gave every man the right to vote. In England democracy was established
peacefully through a series of reforms passed by the Parliament. The Reform Acts of 1832, 1867
and 1884 enhanced its progress. Suffrage was extended to more people. New election districts
were created. A cabinet system was adopted under which the ministers were made responsible
to the House of Commons and not to the King or House of Lords. Slavery was abolished in British
colonies. Funds were provided for public education. The employment of women and children
under ten years was prohibited. In Belgium a very liberal constitution was adopted in 1881. To
make democracy more responsive to the needs of the people, complete manhood suffrage was
approved in Switzer land in 1848. The "referendum" which allows a bill passed by the legislature
to be presented to the people for approval and the "initiative" which gives the voters the right to
propose laws for approval of the legislature were also adopted. Outside of Europe democracy
made significant progress in the British Dominions. Australia introduced the secret ballot system,
and adopted man- hood suffrage in 1885. The latter was adopted in New Zealand in 1893. In the
United States democracy made remarkable progress when two men from the common people,
Andrew Jackson and Abraham Lincoln, were elected president. The American Civil War (1860-
1865) ended slavery. Democracy made slow progress in Spain, Italy and Russia. In the Philip- pines
it was even slower. Jose Rizal led the crusade for this by working for the rights of man and wrote:
We .fight so that there may be more justice and more liberty and for the sacred rights of man.
Marcelo H. del Pilar, Letter to Jose Rizal, May 24, 1889, Rizal's Correspondence With Fellow
Reformists (Manila: National Heroes Commission, 1964), Pp. 353-354.
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RIZAL'S IMPACT ON NATIONAL IDENTITY
The Effects of the Industrial Revolution Are Multifarious. The 19th century witnessed the
progress of the Industrial Revolution. This led to a series of changes in industry, two of which
were the shift from hand work to machine work, from the domestic system to the factory system.
It began in England in the 17th century or even earlier. From there it spread to the United States,
and much later to other countries of Europe, Asia, Latin America, Canada, Australia and parts of
Africa. The spinning jenny, spinning frame, spinning shuttle, cotton gin and sewing machine
hastened the revolution in manufacturing. Coal, iron and steel became basic materials of
industry. The revolution in transportation was brought about by the invention of steam boats,
steam locomotives, airplanes, automobiles and balloons. The telephone, telegraph, wireless
telegraphy, cable, postal service and newspapers revolutionized communication. Invention of
machines resulted in the establishment of factories, and brought about far reaching results.
Thousands of workers were employed in the beginning. Manufacturers went into large scale
production of different kinds of goods Commodities became cheaper. Towns and cities grew. The
wealth of nations increased by leaps and bounds. The factory system improved the standards of
living. Eventually two social classes arose, the capitalists and the laborers. Division of labor came
into practice, time was saved, and factory output increased. The Industrial Revolution
encouraged migration. People moved to new lands where they could make a living or improve
their social, economic. and political conditions and that of their children. Improved means of
transportation made this movement easier. An increase in population came about. This was a
result of advances in medical knowledge and public hygiene, opening of more land for cultivation,
improvement in the production of goods, development of new industries and increase in
national income. Nationalism was stimulated. Modern means of communication and
transportation brought the people of a nation closer. They began to realize their common
problems and aspirations. They felt the need for closer union in solving their problems and
attaining their goals. Rizal confirmed this truth. The people go from one island to another, wrote
Rizal, naturally communication and exchange of ideas have increased and realizing that they were
all menaced with the same danger and their common sentiments are hurt, they become friends
and they unite.3 Growth of liberalism was fostered. A new economic philosophy, laissez- faire,
was born. Literally, the term means let well enough alone or "hands off." It is a policy that
prevented the government from interfering in private trade or industry except to protect the
nation from foreign aggression, to maintain peace and order, to protect investment in foreign
countries, to enforce contracts, and to protect private industry. It allowed s Political and
Historical Writings, p. 140.
5.
CHALLENGES AND RESPONSES
only minimal governmental restriction over private trade. Those who favored this new policy
became influential in society. Industrial capitalism developed. The factory system brought in a
new group of producers called capitalists who financed mills and factories. Capital ism increased
the number of banks and the amount of credit, promoted insurance and multiplied corporations.
The Industrial Revolution brought about the victory of the middle class. This group was composed
of those who owned the means of production (especially machines) and worked for profits
instead of wages. The working men were too poor to own machines and thus were forced to sell
their labor to the capitalists. Gradually the middle class dominated society and dictated its social,
moral and political standards. The new economic condition, however, brought about labor
problems. Life was made more complex by the industrial area and ushered in disputes between
labor and capital. Labor came to clash with capital, the former demanding increased wages,
shorter hours of work, insurance benefits, compensation for injury met during working hours and
wholesome working conditions Responses to the Growing Social Problems Are Created by the
Industrial Revolution. Proposals to remedy the evils of the Industrial Revolution were suggested
by the liberals, the socialists, the communists and the Catholic Church. The liberals adopted the
laissez-faire policy. To stimulate the growth of factories, the liberals would allow everybody to
expand as much as he wished in his industrial enterprises. As a result the industrialists became
powerful and rich. The working men became poorer. Unemployment and misery resulted. The
socialists believed that the government should own and manage the means of production for the
benefit of all and not only for a few individuals. They preached that as long as the capitalists
controlled the economic life of the people, there could be no democracy. Among the earliest
socialists were Claude Henri, Francois Fourier and Robert Owen. Karl Marx, co-author of the
Communist Manifesto. advocated revolutionary communism. The earliest socialists believed that
reforms could be achieved gradually and peacefully through normal political methods and with
compensation for the private owners. Marx believed, however, that only a violent revolution
could improve the lot of workingmen. e advocated among other things the abolition of private
property in land, centralization of all the means of production in the hands of the state, abolition
of all rights of inheritance, confiscation of the property of all emigrants and rebels, and universal
and equal obligation to work. The Catholic Church reacted to the evils of industrialism by
advocating the following Christian principles announced by Pope Leo XIII in Rerum Novarum (The
Conditions of Labor). (1) Rights must be religiously respected. (2) It is the duty of public authority
to prevent and punish injury. (3) The
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RIZAL'S IMPACT ON NATIONAL IDENTITY
poor and the helpless have a claim to a special consideration whenever there is a question of
protecting the rights of individuals. (4) Since private property is as universal as human nature,
the State has the right to regulate the use of private property and to protect it. (5) The
preservation of life is the bounden duty of each and all members of society. The worker is entitled
to a just and decent living wage which will enable him to live in reasonable comfort as a human
being, to develop his faculties, and to attain his ultimate goal in life. (6) The State has the duty to
provide favorable working conditions. (7) The workers have the right to form unions. Science
Becomes the Servant of Man. During the nineteenth century science became the concern of
most. Rizal in his Noli Me Tangere stressed a point on this: To the Jesuits the Philippines owes
her dawning system of instruction in the natural sciences, the soul of the nineteenth century.
People became interested in science. Many of its secrets were discovered primarily with the use
of systematized experimentation. Scientists all over the world worked to know more about the
facts of nature. Businessmen spent large sums of money for research. The results of these
researches meant millions of profit to the business. Chemistry made great advances through the
work of John Dalton, an Englishman who formulated the atomic theory. This explains that all
matter Marie Curie, a Pole, dis- is made up of invisible particles or atoms. covered the important
element radium. The most exciting work of the century was in medicine. Louis Pasteur, a
Frenchman who started his career as a teacher of chemistry, discovered Pasteur thus became
the that germs cause diseases in man and animals. outstanding helper of mankind. Robert Koch,
a German physician, dis- covered the germ that caused anthrax and developed a method of
inoculation to prevent it. Koch became the greatest bacteriologist of his day. In modern surgery
Dr. Joseph Lister, an English surgeon, introduced antiseptics, which prevents infection. He began
the modern practice of hospital The use of anesthetics advanced medical practice. Dr. Craw-
sanitation. ford Long demonstrated the anesthetic properties of ether in a surgical Dr. William
Morton, a dentist from Boston, was the operation in 1842. first to use ether to ease pain of tooth
extraction in 1846. In Scotland, Dr. James Simpson used chloroform for the first time in 1847. The
advances in science gave man longer life-span by controlling or eliminating many Natural sciences
brought a new understanding of the world and diseases. the place of man in it.
Modern Imperialism Starts a Process of Historic Change. Imperialism is the activity of a nation
in extending its control and authority beyond its territorial boundaries through the acquisition of
new territories. It also means the desire of civilized nations to rule over weak or backward Rizal,
Noli Me Tangere, p. 409
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CHALLENGES AND RESPONSES
peoples. Great modern powers acquired colonies, concessions or sphere of influence for several
reasons. From an economic standpoint imperialism is resorted to for the purpose of securing raw
materials, markets for manufactured products, additional food supplies, outlets for surplus
population and fields for investment of surplus capital. From a political stand- point it may be for
the acquisition of regions necessary for national defense and of Territories for patriotic ends in
view. Still from a religious standpoint, expansion is made to be able to spread a particular religion.
Modern imperialism began in the second half of the nineteenth century and the reasons for this
were primarily economic. It grew out of a desire to look for markets where raw materials could
be bought, finished products at home could be sold, and surplus capital invested. The two most
common techniques of economic imperialism were economic penetration by asking permission
to do business for foreign capitalists followed later by political control in order to protect
economic interests. The Industrial Revolution in the late nineteenth century inspired nations to
begin modern imperialism. This resulted in the building of empires. South America, Africa, Asia,
and the Pacific Ocean became the centers for empire-building England, France, Germany, Italy,
Belgium, Japan, Portugal , Russia and the United States took a slice of many regions of the world
for varied reasons. Nineteenth century imperialism has both its supporters and opponents. There
are those who believe that imperialism had done many good things for the conquered countries.
Sanitation, education, better means of transportation and communication, scientific methods of
agriculture, improved ways of living. progressive ideas on religion, government and recreation,
and enriched culture are cited to support this contention. Imperialism abolished such practices
as suite, cannibalism, slave traffic and slavery. Those who opposed imperialism believe that it
had done more harm than good. They cite the exploitation of natural resources to enrich the
colonizing country and racial discrimination in supporting their thesis. The policy of divide and
rule adopted for the colonies is believed to have held back progress by promoting disunity.
Speaking of the situation in the Philippines on this policy, Rizal wrote incisively: Thus the Filipinos
have remained faithful to Spain for three centuries, giving up their liberty and independence,
now fascinated by the hope of a promised heaven, now flattered by the friendship offered them
by a great and noble nation, now also compelled to submission by the superiority in arms that
for persons with a low opinion of themselves held a mysterious character, or now because of the
foreign invader, taking advantage of internal dissensions, played the role of a third party to divide
and rule. Modern imperialism aroused the spirit of nationalism among the native peoples. Little
by little they rebelled until their demands for independence 7 Political and Historical Writings, p.
136.
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RIZAL'S IMPACT ON NATIONAL IDENTITY
could not be ignored anymore. The demand for national identity and independence was itself a
result of Westernization. By bringing Western ideas of nationalism and democracy to the East
imperialism had started a process of historic change, the demand for independence. This became
a reality in the second quarter of the twentieth century. Rizal's ideas related to.this historic
change were prophetic: No matter how much the Filipinos owe Spain, they cannot be Compelled
to renounce their right to redemption... However great is the loyalty of the Filipinos they cannot
prevent that the fatal laws of history be fulfilled.3 Growing Confidence on Progress Inspires
Optimism. There was great optimism and confidence in progress in the latter part of the
nineteenth century. In the Philippines Rizal aptly expressed the spirit of progress. Look at the
youth today!, wrote Rizal in the Noli Me Tangere. Full of enthusiasm at the view of a wider
horizon, they study history, mathematics, geography, literature, physical sciences, languages all
subjects in our times we heard mentioned with horror, as though they were heresies. Man has
at last comprehended that he is man. he comprehends that his heritage is the vast world,
dominion over which is within his reach; weary of his useless and presumptuous toil, he lowers
his head and examines what surrounds him. Man made considerable progress in various fields.
Democracy made significant gains by several reforms in government and social relations. Human
rights were extended to many people. Large sums of money were spent for public education.
Higher education for women became an accepted principle. Education for nationalism was
stressed to teach the people of a nation its own glories and achievements. Science received a
great boost from businessmen who spent much money so that science may served man- kind.
Public health was improved through the establishment of more hospital . Literature centered on
the life of the time. Writers wrote about the conditions they saw and experienced. This literary
tendency was called realism. The Noli Me Tangere and El Filibusterismo were realistic novels
because they pictured Philippine life and culture during Rizal's time. Painters painted life as it
actually was all around them. Architects experimented with new buildings. The nineteenth
century was a period of nationalism not only in government and politics but also in music. A
feeling of nationalism was shown by composers in using folk songs and national themes. "One of
the significant contributions of the nineteenth century was this: the individual citizen entered the
century a weak man before the Jaw and government; he left it with the conviction that
government exists for the welfare of all citizens. We call this idea individualism. It went hand in
hand with industrialism and nationalism. It underlies the 8Ibid. p. 153. 9 Rizal, Noli Me Tangere,
pp. 402-408.
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CHALLENGES AND RESPONSES
belief that every human life is sacred. Individualism was the cornerstone
of the nineteenth century."10
Speaking of this ferment on individualism, Rizal glowingly wrote on
the significance of individual enlightenment for the progress of the Philippines:
Despite all that system, organized, perfected, and followed with
tenacity by those who wish to keep the islands in holy ignorance;
there are Filipino writers, free thinkers, historiographers, chemists,
physicians, artists, jurists, etc. Enlightenment is spreading and its persecution encourages it. No;
the divine flame of thought is inextinguishable among the Filipino people, and in some way or
another it has
to shine and make it known. It is not possible to brutalize the
inhabitants of the Philippines.1
10.
CHAPTER II
POLICIES AND EVENTS IN NINETEENTH CENTURY SPAIN
AND THEIR EFFECTS ON THE PHILIPPINES
Leading Topics:
1. Spain Faces Struggles for Liberalism.
2. The Philippines Is Affected by the Political Instability in Spain
3. The Philippines Is Affected by the Union of the Church and the State.
4. Philippine Representation in the Spanish Cortes Is Justifiable.
5. Racial Discrimination Is Offensive to the Filipinos.
6. Denial of Human Rights Spurs the Filipinos to Fight for Them.
7. The Spirit of Reform in Spain Influences Philippine Progress.
You have just finished reading the important events which took place in the nineteenth century
in Europe and other regions. You have also read how men and leaders in government responded
to the challenges they faced. What were some of the policies and events in nineteenth century
Spain which affected the Philippines? A study of these policies and even will help you understand
and appreciate later the leadership of Jose Rizal in working for the freedom of his country. Spain
Faces Struggles for Liberalism. Spain was influenced by the ideals of both the French Revolution
and the American Revolution. This influence could be seen in the struggles of the people for
constitutionalism which marked the first three quarters of the century. During this period Spain
was beset by various troubles. On the political problem two sides, the liberals who were
constitutionalists and the conservatives who were reactionaries, ideals of liberty, equality and
fought bitterly. The liberals, inspired by the opportunity, wanted to limit absolutism so that the
people may enjoy their constitutional and human rights. Those who opposed the liberals were
the conservatives who wanted the retention of the monarchy. This duality of irreducible
tendencies, wrote a Spanish historian, blazed the inevitable trail of national history of Spain
throughout the whole of the nineteenth century. The problem consisted in deter mining what
men and what ideas should govern Spain, whether liberals or conservatives. The struggles
consumed the strength and the wealth of the nation. Military men played important roles in the
struggles. There were plots, intrigues, conspiracies and revolts. There were changes in the
constitution 1 Rafael Altamira, A History of Spain (Toronto: V. Van Nostrand Co., Inc., 1949), p.
539. 10
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POLICIES AND PRACTICES
some of which were liberal, others conservatives as may be seen in the constitutions of 1812,
1837, 1845 and 1869. When Queen Isabela II was overthrown and exiled during the Revolution
of 1869, the fight for constitutionalism was heightened. The new government adopted the radical
constitution of that year. Although the constitution continued the monarchial form of
government, it included liberal principles, such as the freedom of The worship, the jury system,
civil marriage and other human rights. Constituent Cortes which framed said constitution heard
proposals for the introduction of reforms to improve the colonial administration in the Philip
None of the proposals sponsored by the liberals led by Julian Pellon pines. were approved,
however. Marshall Francisco Serrano acted as Regent for Spain from 1868 to 1871. To solve the
problem of leadership the Spanish crown was offered to Amadeo, Duke of Aosta, a Prince of the
House of Savoy, the royal During his brief reign, Spain was plagued by uprisings, house of Italy
bitter party struggles and factional rivalries. Amadeo abdicated after two years of chaotic rule
(1871-1878). The liberals decided to establish a Republic The Republic was ruled by four eminent
which lasted from 1873 to 1874. Spanish Republicans, Estanislao Figueras, Francisco Pi y Margal,
Nicolas Sal- meron, and Emilio Castelar. The government continued to wrestle with grave
problems. A soldier-politician, General Manuel Pavia, rose to power and established a
dictatorship. When the nation was at the brink of chaos and anarchy, another general, Manuel
Martinez Campos, with the help of army officers, succeeded in proclaiming Alfonso, the son of
deposed Queen Isabela I1, King of Spain. The Bourbon dynasty was restored and Alfonso XII ruled
from 75 to 1885. During his reign Spain was generally peaceful. The constitution of 1876 was
proclaimed. It included many fundamental liberties, such as freedom of worship, freedom of
expression, freedom of assembly, universal suffrage and freedom of domicile. Alfonso XII died in
1885. His posthumous son was born in May, 1886. Alfonso's widowed mother, Queen Maria
During her rule Cristina, acted as Regent of Spain from 1885 to 1896. Praxedes Mateo Sagasta
and Antonio Canovas del Castillo alternated as Prime Minister. The most outstanding problem
during the Regency was in relation to the implementation of the various constitutional laws. The
constitutional problem, wrote Altamira, was no longer the central point of conflict... Now,
however, discussion centered rather about the problem of complying efficiently with political
and administrative norms and of the more or less ample, more or less sincere, interpretation by
the Executive Power of the constitutional precepts. The Philippines Is Affected by the Political
Instability in Spain. The political conditions in Spain adversely affected the Philippines. Changes
in the Madrid government were followed by constant changes in the political administration in
the colony. The common political dictum that "to the victors belong the spoils of office" was
shown in the frequent changes of governor-generals. From 1853 to 1898 there were 41 of them
who held office 2 Ibid., p. 572.
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RIZAL'S IMPACT ON NATIONAL IDENTITY
in the Philippines, each serving an average term of only one year and three months. During the
Regency of Queen Maria Cristina from 1885 to 1896, there were four assigned to the colonial
government and two in acting capacity. The frequent changes prevented the formulation and
execution of sound policies of administration. Rizal's observation in his Noli Me Tangere was
pertinent to this. You flatter me, said the governor-general to Crisostomo Ibarra, by thinking so,
and so it ought to be. Nevertheless, young man, you must know what burdens weigh upon our
shoulders in the Philippines. Here, we old soldiers, have to do and to be every thing: King,
Minister of State, of War, of Justice, of Finance of Agriculture, and of all the rest. The worst part
of it, too, is that in every matter we have to consult the distant mother country which accepts or
rejects our proposals according to circumstances there and at times blindly. As we Spaniards say,
He who attempts many things succeeds in None. Besides, we generally come here knowing little
about the country and leave it when we begin to get acquainted with it. Under the policy of giving
The choice of officials was just as weak. political rewards, a Spanish writer commented that the
continuous sending of political undesirables to the Philippines was lamentable. Many of these
were not prepared to govern the country. Others who were given government positions were
disliked by the Filipinos who lost their positions Some ignorant barbers and lackeys were
appointed to the newcomers. provincial governors and rough sailors were assigned district
judges and garrison commanders. Many Spanish officials were jobseekers and tried to enrich
themselves and later retired to enjoy their wealth. Appointment of officials not through merit,
specially when monetary consideration dictated such appointment, created maladministration,
graft, corruption and bribery. There was no hope that the officials would work for the welfare of
the Filipinos. Rizal lamented the existence of such practice. He strongly believed that a colonizing
country ought to send to the colonies men who could give glory and luster to her. Rizal wrote
convincingly: Because so much power and so much good luck given to one man alone, must
presume qualities little than divine and merits of the same kind. A man who permits to command
the fate of his fellowmen ought to be just like God, and like Him, incorruptible In order to govern
peoples, he does not know or and infallible. understand, he ought to possess the talent of a
genius and extra- ordinary knowledge; to govern such diverse entities, to reconcile hostile
interests and to remedy all the ills of a people, he ought to be a man who has grown gray in the
government of peoples, 3 James A. Leroy, The Americans in the Philippines (Boston: Houghton-
Mifflin Co., 1 oNoli Me Tangere, P Teas Filipinas en 1810 (Maat 5 Tomas de Comyn, Estados de
las Islas Filipinas en 1810 (Madrid: 1820), p. 134.
13.
POLICIES AND PRACTICES 13 informed of the laws and customs of the country. In order to present
himself in the name of a nation that pretends to colonize and wants people to forget the loss of
their liberty and independence by giving them civilization he must be endowed with real prestige,
with profound moral convictions, with a great love for humanity, with an exquisite tact, and with
the nicest prudence." The Philippines Is Affected by the Union of the Church and the State. The
union of the church and the state was a cardinal policy in Spain. This was carried out in the
colonial administration of the Philippines. The governor-general was the head of the central
government who exercised great powers. This was because he represented the King of Spain. As
an executive official, he controlled and supervised all administrative appointees of the King. As
captain-general, he commanded all armed forces. For some time his judicial power included the
dispensation of justice. Because he was vice-patron, he assumed the King's ecclesiastical
authority over offices and missions. The head of the ecclesiastical administration was the
archbishop of Manila. He was appointed by the Pope upon recommendation of the King Under
him were the bishops in charge of the dioceses and below the bishops were the priests who were
in charge of the parishes. The arch- bishop exercised religious, judicial and political functions. The
propagation of the Catholic faith was his important religious function. His judicial function
included cases on the violation of the Canon Law. The union of the church and the state was a
cause of conflicts between the government and the church. The church officials complained to
the King of Spain about the harsh treatment given to the people by the civil officials. On the other
hand, the governor-general complained to the King on the interference of ecclesiastical officials
in the civil and internal affairs of the government. The King of Spain issued various instructions
to bring harmony between the church and the state. In spite of these instructions, the conflicts
continued for many years. The policy did not only bring about such conflicts between the officials
of the church and those of the state. It also caused discontent among the Filipinos. They felt that
the friars wielded too much power in the government which should not be SO. They would rather
that the friars confine themselves to purely religious affairs. The separation of the church and the
state was one of the reforms asked of Spain later. On the wisdom of this Rizal wrote: Why could
not the government emancipate itself from the total age of the friars? What was Philippine
Representation in the Spanish Cortes Is Justifiable. Spain's motive in granting Philippine
representation in the Spanish Cortes? The Spanish War of Independence (1808-1814) against the
invading French forces aroused every Spaniard to defend his country. The government officials 8
Political and Historical Writings, p. 294. 7 Emma Blair and James Robertson, The Philippine Islands
(Cleveland: The Arthur H. Clark Co., 1903.1909), Vol. II, pp. 254-262, Vol. VII, p. 7; Vol. VIII, Pp.
276-279. 8Political and Historical Writings, pp. 117-118.
14.
RIZAL'S IMPACT ON NATIONAL IDENTITY
thought it was timely to rally the colonies to be loyal to Spain. And so on September 25, 1808 a
central revolutionary body was set up. On January 22, 1809 it decreed that Spanish colonies
should have national and direct participation in the ancient legislature, the Cortes. It was
reestablished by a decree issued in May, 1809. The Philippines was represented in the body in
1810-1813, 1820-1823, and 1834-1837. In 1836 Queen Maria Cristina, complying with popular
clamor for a constitutional government, called a constituent Cortes to draft a new constitution.
It approved the constitution of 1837 which established parliamentary government. Since there
was no more need for colonial support at the time the right to representation was conveniently
removed. Philippine representation no matter how brief and i:respective of its nature was a
memorable event in the Filipinos struggle for the recognition and respect for human rights. For
years its restoration continued to be one of the reforms demanded by the reformists. Rizal
expressed the need for the political reform: We see, then, no valid reason why the Philippines
should not have deputies. With their creation many discontented persons will be mollified and
instead of imputing the evils in the country to the government, as it happens today, they will bear
them better, because at least they can complain, and because, having their own sons among the
lawmakers, makes in a certain way responsible for their acts. At the beginning. the Philippines
had hers (in 1810-1813) who dealt with the kings and popes and the needs of the country. She
had them in the critical moments when Spain was groaning under the Napoleonic yoke and she
did not take advantage of the misfortune of the Metropolis as the other colonies did but even
drew closer to Spain. thus giving proofs of her loyalty: she remained loyal many, years afterwards.
What crime has the Philippines com- mitted that she should be deprived of her rights Racial
Discrimination Is Offensive to the Filipinos. A general belief then current in Europe was that the
white man was superior to one who was black or brown. This led to racism. In the Philippines the
Spaniards called the natives Indio’s. The Filipinos could not understand why the Spaniards who
introduced Christianity with the beautiful ideal of brotherhood considered them inferior on
account of the color of their skin. Rizal regretted this attitude towards his people. He urged Spain
to disregard this in considering the appeal for representation in the Spanish Cortes: It is useless
to refute certain impediments some fine writers have put forth such as the more or less brown
color of the skin and the more or less large-nosed faces.. And so long as the Spanish Cortes is not
an assembly of Adonises, Antinouses, boys and other similar angels; so long as one goes there to
legislate and not to securitize or wander through imaginary hemispheres, we believe that the
government should not be deterred by those obstacles. Right has no skin nor has reason noses.
Tbid, pp. 149, 152. 10 Ibid., pp. 148-149.
15
POLICIES AND PRACTICESS
Denial of Human Rights Spurs the Filipinos to Fight for Them. An individual's human rights are
the attributes of his human person. They include the right to life, liberty and security of person;
freedom of thought, religion and expression; freedom of assembly, equality before the law, the
right to an adequate standard of living and just working conditions; freedom from arbitrary
arrest, detention or exile; freedom of movement and residence within the border of each state:
the right to nationality: the right to marry and to found a family; the right to own property; the
right to take part in the government; the right to form and join trade union for the protection of
one's own interests; the right to just and favorable remuneration; the right to rest and leisure;
the right to education; the right to participate in the cultural life of the community; the right to
seek and be granted asylum; and the right to social and international order. During the
nineteenth century the Spaniard struggled hard to secure respect and recognition of their human
rights. The Filipinos could not understand why the Spaniards who fought for the sacred rights of
men would deny them the same rights. Sinibaldo de Mas, a Spanish economist and diplomat,
sympathized with the Filipinos and expressed what they felt: Why do we fall into an anomaly,
such as combining our claim for liberty for ourselves, and our wish to impose our law on remote
peoples? Why do we deny to others the benefits which we desire for our fatherlandP12 Rizal
voiced the respect and recognition of human rights as essential in promoting harmony among
peoples. His observations and experiences prodded the Filipinos to work for the recognition of
these rights. Neither obscurantism and fanaticism nor oppression or superstitions ever bind or
have bound peoples. On the other hand, 1liberty, rights and love group distinct races around the
same standard, one aspiration, one destiny. The Spirit of Reform in Spain Influences Philippine
Progress. The spirit of reforms which stimulated Spain had their repercussions in the Philippines.
From 1600 to 1815, Spain, like several European nations, adopted a restrictive policy in
connection with foreign trade. The policy known as mercantilism believed that the strength of a
nation depended upon the possession of a large stock of precious metals. Consequently foreign
trade must be restricted so that the largest possible amout be brought into the country and the
exportation of these metals should be kept at minimum. Mercantilism was later given up by
European countries. It was followed by another policy known as laissez-faire. The policy gives to
the individual the right to full and free range of economic activity. Public regulation of trade and
industry was limited to the maintenance of law and order. As a result of this new economic policy,
Spain ended the Galleon Trade in 1813. A Royal Decree of September 6, 1834 officially opened
11 Diosdado G. Capino, The Universal Declaration of Human Rights for Philippine Schools
(Quezon City: SCG Enterprises Inc., 1953), p. 4 12 Sinibaldo de Mas, Informe Sobre el Estado de
las Islas Filipinas en 1842 (Madrid 1843), Vol. III, p. 88. 13 Frederick A. Ogg, Economic
Development of Modern Europe, 19l7 quoied ii Conrado Benitez, History of the Philippines
(Boston: Ginn and Co., 1940). pp. 195-196, Political and Historical Writings, p. 81.
16.
RIZAL'S IMPACT ON NATIONAL IDENTITY Manila to world trade. This was later followed by the
opening of the ports of Sual, Iloilo and Zamboanga in 1855, Cebu in 1860, and Legazpi and
Tacloban in 1873. After the opening of Manila, foreigners came to establish their business firms
in the Philippines. By about 1859 there were 15 foreign establishments, of which seven were
English, three were Americans, two were French, two were Swiss and one was German. Economic
progress to- The lowed the opening of the ports and the admission of foreign firms. The social
effects of economic progress improved the status of the people in society. "Economic progress,
furthermore, paved the way for the development of civic courage, that spirit of personal
independence and criticism which characterizes an economically independent middle class. t was
that class which, because of greater educational advantages and contact with foreign newcomers
and their ideas, as well as enhanced material power, first questioned the abuses of the
government and demanded social reforms . Another significant policy adopted by Spain was the
improvement of education. On December 30, 1863, the Minister of Colonies, Jose de la Concha,
promulgated the Educational Decree. of 1863 which established the public educational system
and a normal school for men. The Filipinos had a brief taste of liberal regime when Governor
Carlos Ma. de la Torre was sent to the Philippines by the liberal government in Spain then. During
the two year rule of De la Torre (1869-1871), the Filipinos enjoyed certain liberal concessions,
such as the freedom of the press, untrammeled discussion of political problems including the
Filipinization of the parishes, paternal treatment from the government exemplified by the
democratic ways of the governor and the freedom to propose reforms. Years later Spain
approved several measures in an attempt to improve the colonial administration in the country.
Among these were the abolition of the tobacco monopoly in 1884, and the abolition of the tribute
and its substitution by the cedula in the same year. Under the Royal Decree of 1884 only lawyers
were appointed to the position of aleades mayores. They were prohibited to engage in trade.
Justice of the peace courts were established by another Royal Decree on May 29, 1885, Still in
another Royal Dccree dated May 5, 1886, each province was placed under a civil governor. The
alcaide mayor ceased to be both the judicial and executive official. He became the judge of the
court of first instance. The Spanish Penal Code was extended to the Philippine in 187, the Code
of Commerce in 1888 and the Civil Code in 1889. The Maura Law of 1893 was instituted to reform
the municipal government. Its provisions were not enforced, however, because of the outbreak
of the Philippine Revolution in August, 1896