Propulsion - II Notes: Hypersonic Airbreathing Propulsion

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AE6504 PROPULSION - II
SEMESTER : V
Propulsion - II Notes Department of Aeronautical Engineering

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SYLLABUS
AE6504 PROPULSION - II LTPC
3003
OBJECTIVES:
 To impart knowledge in non air-breathing and hypersonic propulsion methods to students so that
they are familiar with various propulsion technologies associated with space launch vehicles,
missiles and space probes.
UNIT I HYPERSONIC AIRBREATHING PROPULSION 8

Introduction to hypersonic air breathing propulsion, hypersonic vehicles and supersonic combustion need
for supersonic combustion for hypersonic propulsion – salient features of scramjet engine and its
applications for hypersonic vehicles – problems associated with supersonic combustion – engine/airframe
integration aspects of hypersonic vehicles – various types scramjet combustors – fuel injection schemes in
scramjet combustors – one dimensional models for supersonic combustion using method of influence
coefficients.
UNIT II FUNDAMENTALS OF CHEMICAL ROCKET PROPULSION 9

Operating principle – specific impulse of a rocket – internal ballistics – performance considerations of
rockets – types of igniters- preliminary concepts in nozzle-less propulsion – air augmented rockets – pulse
rocket motors – static testing of rockets & instrumentation –safety considerations
UNIT III SOLID ROCKET PROPULSION 10

Salient features of solid propellant rockets – selection criteria of solid propellants – estimation of solid
propellant adiabatic flame temperature - propellant grain design considerations – erosive burning in solid
propellant rockets – combustion instability – strand burner and T-burner – applications and advantages of
solid propellant rockets.
UNIT IV LIQUID AND HYBRID ROCKET PROPULSION 10

Salient features of liquid propellant rockets – selection of liquid propellants – various feed systems and
injectors for liquid propellant rockets -thrust control and cooling in liquid propellant rockets and the
associated heat transfer problems – combustion instability in liquid propellant rockets – peculiar problems
associated with operation of cryogenic engines - Introduction to hybrid rocket propulsion – standard and
reverse hybrid systems- combustion mechanism in hybrid propellant rockets – applications and
limitations

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UNIT V ADVANCED PROPULSION TECHNIQUES 8

Electric rocket propulsion– types of electric propulsion techniques - Ion propulsion – Nuclear rocket –
comparison of performance of these propulsion systems with chemical rocket propulsion systems – future
applications of electric propulsion systems - Solar sail.
TOTAL: 45 PERIODS
OUTCOMES
 Understanding various propulsion systems
 Knowledge in rocket propulsion systems
 Knowing the applications and principles of liquid and solid-liquid propulsion systems
 Application of nuclear propulsion in rocketry.
TEXT BOOKS:
1. Sutton, G.P., “Rocket Propulsion Elements”, John Wiley & Sons Inc., New York, 5th Edition,
1993.
2. Mathur, M.L., and Sharma, R.P., “Gas Turbine, Jet and Rocket Propulsion”, Standard Publishers
and Distributors, Delhi, 1988.
REFERENCES:
1. James Award, "Aerospace Propulsion System"
2. Hieter and Pratt, "Hypersonic Air Breathing Propulsion"

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UNIT I
HYPERSONIC AIRBREATHING PROPULSION
Introduction to hypersonic air breathing propulsion- hypersonic vehicles and supersonic
combustion need for supersonic combustion for hypersonic propulsion – salient features of
scramjet engine and its applications for hypersonic vehicles – problems associated with
supersonic combustion – engine/airframe integration aspects of hypersonic vehicles – various
types scramjet combustors – fuel injection schemes in scramjet combustors – one dimensional
models for supersonic combustion using method of influence coefficients.
1.1 INTRODUCTION TO HYPERSONIC AIR BREATHING PROPULSION
DEFINING HYPERSONIC FLOW

A precise definition of hypersonic flow conditions is elusive because the term merely
connotes very high Mach numbers and is inherently qualitative. For propulsion engineers,
defining and locating a useful boundary is a relatively straightforward matter.
In subsonic aerodynamics most of the total temperature is invested in static enthalpy, and
changes of Mach number are largely due to changes of velocity. In transonic aerodynamics there
are substantial fractions of both static enthalpy and kinetic energy, and the Mach number
changes rapidly because both the speed of sound and the velocity are changing. In the hypersonic
region the bulk of the total temperature is invested in kinetic energy, and the Mach number
changes largely because the static temperature and speed of sound are changing.
This leads to one internal flow or propulsion-based definition of the hypersonic regime,
namely that this is where most of the total temperature exists as kinetic energy, a nd changes in
Mach number have little effect on the kinetic energy or velocity of the flow.
INTRODUCTION TO SCRAMJET
At higher temperature around 2500K, the walls of ramjet will tend to fail structurally.
Thus, like turbojets, conventional ramjets are also limited by material problem at high flight
Mach numbers. Moreover, if the temperature of the air entering the combustor is too high, when
the fuel is injected, it will be decomposed by the higher temperatures rather than be burned; that

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is, the fuel will absorb rather than release energy, and the engine will become a drag machine
rather than a thrust producing device.
The velocity of the incoming air, as seen from the frame of reference of the vehicle or
engine, also represents relative kinetic energy. When the air flow is decelerated by the scramjet,
the relative velocity and kinetic energy both decrease and observation of energy requires that any
missing kinetic energy will reappear as internal energy, with the result that the pressure,
temperature, and density of the flow entering the burner are considerably higher than in the free
stream. When the flight Mach number exceeds about 6, this effect becomes so pronounced that it
is no longer advantages to decelerate the flow to subsonic speeds. Depending upon flight
conditions and details of the diffuser operation, the adverse consequences can include pressures
too high for practical burner structural design, excessive performance losses due to normal shock
wave system, excessive wall heat transfer rates, and combustion conditions that large fraction of
the available chemical energy to dissociation.
A logical way to solve this problem is to only partially compress and decelerate the
oncoming flow, avoiding in particular the normal shock wave system, with the result that the
flow entering the burner is supersonic, the resulting engine is known as a supersonic combustion
ramjet or scramjet.
Even though the diffuser is responsible for some of the desired compression and deceleration
match of it is invariably accomplished by oblique shock waves emanating from the vehicle fore-
body located upstream of the engine. This allows the engine to take advantage of the inevitable
compression of the free stream by the vehicle and reduces the burdens upon the diffuser.
Moreover, since, the diffuser exit flow is supersonic the geometry is entirely convergent. Fuel is

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injected in to the supersonic flow just downstream of the diffuser, and the emphasis is upon
achieving rapid and through mixing (especially when all the entering oxygen is to be consumed)
because the time available for the combustion process is short. The heat loads are highest in the
burner primarily because of the combination of the high gas density due to compression, rather
than to the ongoing combustion. The exhaust nozzle need only be divergent because the
accelerating glow is supersonic throughout, and some of the acceleration can take place outside
the confining duct by using the after body of the vehicle as a free expansion surface.
1.2 HYPERSONIC VEHICLES AND SUPERSONIC COMBUSTION NEED FOR

SUPERSONIC COMBUSTION FOR HYPERSONIC PROPULSION
Clearly for hypersonic flight at very high Mach numbers, something else must be done.
This problem has led to the concept of a “supersonic combustion ramjet” and the scramjet. Here,
the flow entering the diffuser is at high Mach number, say M l=M =6. However, the diffuser
decelerates the air flow only enough to obtain a reasonable pressure ratio P 2 /P1 ; the flow is still
supersonic upon entering the combustor. Fuel is added to the supersonic stream, where
supersonic combustion takes place. In this way, the flow field throughout the scramjet is
completely supersonic; in turn, the static temperature remains low, and the material and
decomposition problems associated with the conventional ramjet are circumvented. Therefore
the power plant for a hypersonic transport in the future will most likely be a scramjet.
For the hypersonic regime, it has been proposed that the initial diffusion should be
limited and that combustion should occur at supersonic velocities. If then the heat is added when
M>1, the process occurs along the lower branch of a Rayleigh line and may again take place
until the checking point is reached. The Rayleigh lines are different ones, the specific mass flow,
G=m/A = v being greater for this case although the heat added is less and the efficiency is
lower. It is possible that shock is an adiabatic process and at constant area, all states must be on
the initial Rayleigh line, and constant line, and the total amount of heat added is not changed.
The balance between a conventional ramjet (CRJ) and the supersonic combustion ramjet (SCR
or Scramjet) lies in the efficiencies of the processes (e.g. diffusion) and the initial temperature
level (ie., Mach number). Also these high temperatures, the degree of frozen or equilibrium flow
can have a considerable effect and this is dependent on the fuel. It should be noted that subsonic

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combustion necessitates a decrease of static pressure (for Acceleration of the flow) and that
supersonic combustion implies an increase of static pressure (decelerating of the flow) but both
are accompanied by a loss of stagnation pressure. As in indication of performance, Fig 2.10
shows a comparison of a CRJ and a SCRJ at a particular condition.
The successful burning at high velocity is very difficult and the situation is an order of
magnitude higher or more severe. The temperature of course is very much higher, which
promotes very fast combustion. Pressures too are high, again helpful. A fuel like hydrogen is
almost necessary and so is a flow situation which permits some stability. It would seem that a
standing shock wave somewhere is required, produced by wedges on the duct walls or along its
axis or at the discharge of a premixed fuel.
The advantage of the SCRJ, in addition to the lower initial temperature and absence of the
dissociation sink, is in having lower pressures and no subsonic diffusion, hence a saving of
weight in length and strength.
1.3 SALIENT FEATURES OF SCRAMJET ENGINE AND ITS APPLICATIONS FOR

HYPERSONIC VEHICLES
The scramjet uses a slightly modified Brayton Cycle to produce power, similar to that used
for both the classical ramjet and turbine engines. Air is compressed; fuel injected, mixed and
burned to increase the air – or more accurately, the combustion products - temperature and
pressure; then these combustion products are expanded. For the turbojet engine, air is
mechanically compressed by work extracted from the combustor exhaust using a turbine. In
principle, the ramjet and scramjet works the same. The forward motion of the vehicle compresses
the air. Fuel is then injected into the compressed air and burned. Finally, the high-pressure
combustion products expand through the nozzle and over the vehicle after body, elevating the
surface pressure and effectively pushing the vehicle.
Thrust is the result of increased kinetic energy between the initial and final states of the
working fluid, or the summation of forces on the engine and vehicle surfaces.

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PARTS OF SCRAMJET ENGINE
The different parts of a scramjet engine: air inlet, isolator, combustor and nozzle. With the
actual technology, as it is mentioned in Chapter 3, the scramjet engine must be integrated with
the fuselage of the aircraft, specially the air inlet and the nozzle. Part of the forebody aircraft
fuselage makes the function of air inlet compressing the freestream air, and similarly, the aft
body acts as a nozzle expanding the gases from the combustion.
AIR INLET:
It can be considered as a diffuser in which takes place the compression of the freestream air
gathered. This compression is achieved by successive shock waves. The performance of the air
inlet compression can be separated into two key parameters: capability, or how much
compression is performed, and efficiency, or what level of flow losses does the inlet generate
during the compression process. A common parameter used to quantify the efficiency of the
forebody/inlet compression is the kinetic energy efficiency. The definition is the ratio of the
kinetic energy of the compressed flow would achieve if it were expanded isentropically to
freestream pressure, relative to the kinetic energy of the freestream.

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Hypersonic inlets used in scramjets fall into three-different categories, based on the type of
compression that is utilized. These three types are: external compression, mixed compression and
internal compression. A schematic of these types is shown in figure below.
In the external compression all the compression is performed by flow turning in one direction
by shock waves that are external to the engine. These inlet configurations have large cowl drag,
as the flow entering the combustor is at a large angle relative to the freestream flow; however,
external compression inlets are self-starting and spill flow when operated below the design Mach
number (this is a desirable feature for inlets that must operate over a large Mach number range).
In a mixed compression inlet the compression is performed by shocks both external and
internal to the engine, and the angle of the external cowl relative to the freestream can be made
very small to minimize external drag. These inlets are typically longer than external compression
configurations, but also spill flow when operated below the design Mach number. Depending on
the amount of internal compression, however, mixed compression inlets may need variable
geometry in order to start.
In internal compression inlet the compression is performed by shock waves that are internal
to the engine. This type of inlet can be shorter than a mixed compression inlet, but it does not
allow easy integration with the vehicle. It maintains full capture at Mach numbers lower than the
design point, but its most significant limitation is that extensive variable geometry is always
required for it to start.

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ISOLATOR:
At flight speeds below Mach 8, combustion in a scramjet engine can generate a large local
pressure rise and separation of the boundary layer on the surfaces of the combustion duct. This
separation, which can feed upstream of fuel injection, acts to further diffuse the core flow in the
duct, and will affect the operation of the inlet, possibly causing an unstart of the engine. The
method use to alleviate this problem is the installation of a short duct between the inlet and the
combustor known as an isolator. In some engines (those which operate in the lower hypersonic
regime between Mach 4 and 8) the combination of the diffusion in the isolator and heat release in
the combustion decelerate the core flow to subsonic conditions, in what is called dual- mode
combustion. At speeds above Mach 8 the increased kinetic energy of the airflow through the
engine means that the combustion generated pressure rise is not strong enough to cause boundary
layer separation. Flow remains attached and supersonic throughout, and this is termed pure
scramjet. In this case an isolator is not necessary.
The structure of the supersonic flow in confined ducts under the influence of a strong adverse
pressure gradient is of interest in the design of scramjet isolators. As shown in figure below, a
pressure gradient is imposed on the incoming supersonic flow, and with the presence of a
boundary layer, a series of crossing oblique shocks are generated.
This phenomenon, known as pseudo shock or shock-train, is characterized by a region of

separated flow next to the wall, together with a supersonic core that experiences a pressure
gradient due to the area restriction of the separation and forms the series of oblique shocks
mentioned before. Finally, the flow reattaches at some point and mixes out to conditions that

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match the imposed back-pressure. Being able to predict the length scale of this flow structure is
the key component of isolator design for dual-mode scramjets.
COMBUSTOR :
The combustor chamber is a duct where the combustion between freestream air and fuel takes
place. This combustion is supersonic, so there are some aspects that require more attention on the
contrary of the conventional combustion. At very high velocities, a properly fuel injection and
mixing could be a problem, as well as holding the flame. Some techniques used today for fuel
injection in scramjet engines are: wall, ramp, strut, pylon and pulsed injectors. And for keeping
the combustion, there is a technique quite used called cavity flame holders.
Another significant aspect to take into account is the dissociation. At the entrance of the
combustor the flow static temperature and pressure are very high, and with the heat release due
to chemical reactions, the temperature and pressure could reach extremely high values which
involve dissociation of combustion products.
Due to the heat addition, the velocity or Mach number decreases while the static temperature
and pressure increases. The total temperature is raised and the total pressure is reduced. The total
pressure loss is proportional to the square of Mach number; hence, it is better to have a small
combustor inlet Mach number, on the contrary for the dissociation phenomenon.
The fuel used in scramjet engines is hydrogen or hydrocarbons. Hydrogen is most used
because it has more advantages in front of hydrocarbons. The reason for using liquid hydrogen
for scramjet fuel rests with its high specific impulse and its potential for cooling parts of the
vehicle. The heat value (which represents the amount of energy released when a fuel is
combusted) for hydrogen is two and a half times that of hydrocarbons. Another advantage over
hydrocarbons is that hydrogen is a clean fuel as it doesn‟t produce any harmful pollutants like
carbon monoxide (CO) or carbon dioxide (CO2) during the combustion process.
Although it may appear that hydrogen is the ideal fuel for scramjet propulsion it does present
some drawbacks. Liquid hydrogen is not a dense fuel, having a density of only 0.09 kg/m3. For
example, JP-8 on the other hand has a density of 800 kg/m3 in similar conditions, very much

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higher. Having a low density does save weight; however, a large volume is needed in order to
store enough chemical energy for practical use.
NOZZLE:
The nozzle is a divergent duct that accelerates the supersonic flow and at the same time
expands it reducing its static temperature and pressure. The expansion process converts the
potential energy of the combusting flow to kinetic energy and then it results in thrust.
The weight of a fully-expanded nozzle would be prohibitive at most hypersonic flight

conditions; hence under-expansion losses are usually traded against vehicle structural weight.
Dissociation losses result from chemical freezing in the rapid expansion process in the nozzle,
essentially locking up energy that cannot be converted to thrust. Flow angularity losses are
product of varying flow conditions in the nozzle, and viscous losses are associated with friction
on the nozzle surfaces.
The choice of combustor inlet Mach number is a key aspect for the performance of the
scramjet and it is related to the nozzle expansion. If the s tatic temperature at the combustor
entrance is too high, dissociation will be present and then chemical energy is not available as
thermal energy for conversion to kinetic energy in the nozzle.
APPLICATIONS FOR SCRAMJET ENGINES
There is a range of possible applications for scramjet engines, including missile propulsion,
hypersonic cruiser propulsion, and part of a staged space access propulsion system Figure below
displays the approximate performance range in terms of engine spec ific impulse and Mach
number for various types of propulsion systems . It can be seen that at Mach numbers higher than
approximately 6-7, the only available propulsion systems are rockets and scramjets. Compared to
rockets, scramjets have much higher specific impulse levels; therefore, it is clear why it is
advantageous to develop the scramjet, if for this reason only. Contrary to rockets, scramjets do
not require that an oxidizer be carried on board the aircraft as it is an air breathing engine,
collecting oxygen from the atmosphere. This decreases the required weight of the overall
propulsion system and fuel, resulting in a higher allowable payload weight or increased range.

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There are other reasons that the development of the scramjet is advantageous as we ll. Air
breathing engines produce higher engine efficiency, have a longer powered range, possess the
ability for thrust modulation to ensure efficient operation, have higher maneuverability, and are
completely reusable .
The general consensus is that hydrogen fuel should be used for air breathing flight faster than
Mach 8-10, due to its “higher cooling capacity” and its faster reactions. Though hydrogen can
perform at higher speeds above the hydrocarbon upper limit, with current capabilities the
hydrogen fueled scramjet will only offer acceptable performance to about Mach 15.
There are many advantages in applying the scramjet as the propulsion system for the second
stage of a two-stage-to-orbit (TSTO), hydrocarbon-fueled aerospace plane. It would provide for a
small TSTO vehicle as well as a small single-stage-to-orbit (SSTO) vehicle or military
hypersonic cruiser that uses a hydrocarbon-fueled scramjet.
The rationale for hypersonic missile capability lies in the fact that a Mach 6-8 missile
increases the possible range within a given flight time, or similarly, decreases the flight time
required for a given range.
The goal of scramjet development is to give hypersonic vehicles a more efficient alternative to
rockets. The vehicle that could most quickly benefit from current scramjet research is the cruise
missile; however, a hypersonic cruiser aircraft is an alternative to traditional turbojet

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transportation for civilian or military application. Scramjets could also be used in conjunction
with rockets for space launchers, thereby requiring less on-board oxidizer for transport to space.
1.4 PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH SUPERSONIC COMBUSTION
At high flight speeds, the residence time for atmospheric air ingested into a scramjet inlet and
exiting from the engine nozzle is on the order of a millisecond. Therefore, fuel injected into the
air must efficiently mix within tens of microseconds and react to release its energy in the
combustor. The overall combustion process should be mixing controlled to provide a stable
operating environment; in reality, however, combustion in the upstream portion of the
combustor, particularly at higher Mach numbers, is kinetically controlled where ignition delay
times are on the same order as the fluid scale. Both mixing and combustio n time scales must be
considered in a detailed study of mixing and reaction in a scramjet to understand the flow
processes and to ultimately achieve a successful design.
Airframe structural and heat transfer limitations constrain flight Mach numbers to specific
altitudes and corresponding freestream conditions. Cycle efficiency considerations, together with
temperature limitations imposed by materials and combustion product gas dissociation, dictate
the combustion system entry Mach number and thermodynamic state.
The maximum combustion temperature occurs when hydrocarbon fuel molecules are mixed
with just enough air so that all of the hydrogen atoms form water vapor H 2 0, and all of the
carbon atoms form carbon dioxide C02 .
Gas-phase chemical reactions occur by the exchange of atoms between molecules as a result
of molecular collisions. Consequently, fuel and air must be mixed to near-stoichiometric
proportions at the molecular level before combustion can take place.
Compressible shear/mixing layers and jets provide good model problems for studying the
physical processes occurring in high-speed mixing and reacting flow in a scramjet. Mixing layers
are characterized by large-scale eddies that form due to the high shear that is present between the
fuel and air streams. These eddies entrain fuel and air into the mixing region.

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The shock and expansion wave structure in and about the mixing layer can interact with the
turbulence flow field to affect mixing layer growth. Shock and expansion waves interacting with
the layer result from the engine internal structure. Experiments have shown that the shocks that
would result from wall and strut compressions appear to enhance the growth of the two-
dimensional eddy structure (rollers) of a mixing layer.
1.5 ENGINE/AIRFRAME INTEGRATION ASPECTS OF HYPERSONIC VEHICLES
High speed flight requires proper aerodynamic integration of the ramjet or scramjet with the
remainder of the vehicle. It is found, for example, that making hypersonic engines axisymmetric
and attaching them to the vehicle by means of pylons or struts can produce enough external drag
on the pylon and the cowl to virtually cancel the internal thrust, and creates internal passages so
narrow that the flow is dominated by wall effects and difficult to manage. Furthermore, this
configuration cannot easily capitalize on the vehicle surfaces for compression and expansion.
The recent engineering design work on aerospace planes has shown that success is also
dependent upon careful integration of engine and airframe structures, materials, cooling,
controls, and subsystems. As the vehicles fly to the very high altitudes necessary to avoid the
excessive pressures that would result from hypersonic speeds, they also fly where the air is very
rare, the density being only one hundredth or one-thousandth or less of the sea level value. Air
breathing engines require airflow in order to generate the thrust that lifts and accelerates the
vehicle, and they cannot be allowed to suffocate.
One way to capture the required airflow is to use the entire fore body underneath the vehicle
as a compression surface, shaping it carefully for high efficiency, and recognizing that, since the
air has no warning of the presence of the vehicle until it encounters the first oblique shock wave,
a stream tube of air enormously larger than the physical opening of the engine inlet can be
directed into the engine, as shown in figure below. Once inside the engine, the air that has been
compressed and burned would then require a nozzle exit area even larger than the original free
stream capture area in order to make good on the available thrust, but a conventional nozzle of
this geometry would be too cumbersome to carry along. Instead, the entire after body underneath
the vehicle is used as a free expansion surface, and the entire underside of the vehicle must be
carefully designed to accommodate engine performance under all flight conditions.

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HYPERSONIC AIRBREATHING PROPULSION CHALLENGES
Operating efficiently and reliably over an extraordinarily large range of flight conditions,
including Mach numbers from 0 to 25 (orbital speed) and altitudes from sea level to the top of
the atmosphere.
It is the fact that practical aerospace plane configurations allow only one "hole" for the engine,
and that ramjets and scramjets produce no thrust while standing still or when the atmosphere is
too thin, and further complicated because the airframe and engine are totally integrated, not only
with regard to generating net thrust, but also inevitably from the standpoint of the ordinary
"aerodynamic" effects such as lift and drag forces and stability and control moments.
The current challenges in the development of the scramjet engine can be gathered in three
main areas: air inlet, combustion, and structures and materials.
Air inlet :
The overall performance of a scramjet is largely dictated by the aerodynamic
performance, geometric size, and weight of the hypersonic inlets. Commonly, hypersonic inlets
have a wide Mach number range, but the shock-on- lip condition can be met only at the design
Mach number, since shock angles vary with the upstream Mach numbers. Thus, at Mac h
numbers higher than the design one, the ramp shocks move inside the inlet and evolve into a
strong incident shock, causing strong slip layers, remarkable total pressure loss, boundary- layer
separation, and possible engine unstart. At Mach numbers lower than the design one, the ramp
shocks move away from the cowl lip, causing loss of the precompressed airflow and the so-
called spillage drag. To avoid these performance penalties at offdesign conditions, the control of

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the ramp shock system is needed. Hence, variable geometric approaches for ramp shock control
are widely considered and studied.
Combustion :
Supersonic combustion is very difficult to maintain and continues to be a formidable task. the
largest problem associated with combustion is the mixing between freestream air and fuel. If fuel
cannot be properly injected and mixed into the air stream it will not ignite, regardless of pressure,
temperature or equivalence ratio. Due to compressibility effects, fuel injection presents
challenging obstacles. The air stream is at such a high pressure and velocity, that fuel injected
into the stream has a tendency to be pushed against the wall and rendered ineffective. In addition
to the problem of mixing, ignition and flame holding at these high velocities is extremely
difficult. Another challenge to increase the performance is the need of a variable geometry
combustion chamber. A fixed geometry combustor associated to a variable capture area air inlet
does not benefit from the enhanced efficiency of the air inlet. A fully variable geometry – air
inlet + combustion chamber – can increase the performance.
Structures and materials :
A rocket that passes nearly vertically through the atmosphere on its way to orbit, a scramjet
would take a more leveled trajectory. Because of the thrust-to-weight ratio of a scramjet being
low compared to modern rockets, the scramjet needs more time to accelerate. Such a depressed
trajectory implies that the vehicle stays a long time in the atmosphere at hypersonic speeds,
causing atmospheric friction to become a problem. This is not only for space launch applications
but also in missile or commercial transport applications. Heat addition produced by the
combustion at these high velocities and temperatures is another significant factor to take into
account. Therefore, the materials chosen for the structure must have good properties and be
adequate in front of these phenomena. Furthermore, cooling of the engine‟s structure by fuel or
radiation is essential.
Summarize the challenges of SCRAMJET development:
 Accomplishing stable, efficient mixing and combustion in a supersonic flow within a

burner of reasonable size.
 Providing the structural integrity necessary for a reusable system despite the extremely
hostile environmental conditions.

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 Developing the analytical tools that enable confident control over the engine design and
reliable prediction of the actual behavior.
 Proving that the aerospace plane and engine are ready for routine operations by means of
analysis, ground testing, and flight testing of experimental vehicles.
1.6. VARIOUS TYPES OF SUPERSONIC COMBUSTORS

The use of supersonic combustion can result in higher levels of performance at increased
flight Mach number than can be achieved with subsonic combustion.
DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS OF SUPERSONIC COMBUSTOR:

Supersonic combustor considerations essentially dictate many of the inlet requirements,
and the resulting combustor exit flow chemistry can also limit key exhaust nozzle options.
A. Inlet Flow:
For a subsonic combustion ramjet the captured supersonic airflow is first decelerated in a
supersonic diffuser to a lower supersonic Mach number, then brought to subsonic conditions
through a normal shock system, and finally diffused further to a lower subsonic Mach number.
This action is typically accomplished by a supersonic diffuser employing a number of oblique
shocks and a throat section followed by a subsonic diffuser. Obviously for a scramjet inlet, only
a supersonic diffuser is required. Consequently, the question of how much supersonic diffusion
or inlet compression should be provided at the entrance of the supersonic combustor becomes an
important issue. The answer involves integration of the design of the inlet, combustor, and
nozzle such that the required engine performance is achieved at acceptable weight, operational
reliability, and cost.

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B. COMBUSTOR FLOW:
Heat release rate of hydrogen over a wide range of pressure and temperature, often
further accelerated by the presence of local shock waves from nonaxial fuel injection into the
airstream, the actual combustion pressure rise can be expected to be rather abrupt with an
initially high adverse pressure gradient .This sharp pressure gradient coupled with the
impracticality of scramjet inlet Boundary Layer removal for such high-temperature flow raises
the concern of Boundary Layer separation.
The assumption of 100% mixing implies that provided adequate combustor length ER = 1
mixing of the fuel and air is achieved homogeneously in the combustor. The assumption of
equilibrium chemistry implies that for steady flow the specie concentrations are not (or no
longer) a function of time (forward and backward reactions occur at the same rate). Because the
individual chemical reactions require a finite time for completion as a function of pressure and
temperature, the preceding calculations also implied that the combustor was long enough for the
finite rate chemical reactions to reach equilibrium. Consequently, if the combustor length is not
long enough, then the net heat release for stoichiometric combustion of hydrogen is reduced.
TYPES OF COMBUSTORS:
1. STEP COMBUSTOR:
One design approach to the Boundary Layer separation problem is the use of a step
combustor as schematically illustrated in figure below. The resulting A^/A2 > 1 provides a basis
for accommodating the combustor pressure rise. Fuel is typically injected in close proximity to
the base of the step, which can also provide small subsonic recirculation regions for ignition and
flame holding. Boundary- layer separation occurs downstream of the station 2 interface but is
only a concern in that the resulting fuel injection and combustion- induced step pressure must not
subject the station 2 Boundary Layer to such a high back pressure that significant upstream
separation results.

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The step combustor can be a design solution when Boundary Layer separation is likely to
occur in a constant-area combustor. The step area increase provides a mechanism for
accommodating wall forces resulting from fuel injection and combustion pressures P step >P2
without separating the inlet Boundary Layer.
2. ISOLATOR COMBUSTORS:
Another design solution when Boundary Layer separation is likely to occur in a constant
area combustor is the use of an inlet isolator in conjunction with an increased area combustor.
The increased area combustor could be a step combustor, a divergent-area wall combustor, or a
combination. The isolator section is intended to provide the length required for precombustion
increase of the inlet pressure to the combustor pressure level without unstarting the inlet.
Typically, such backpressuring of the viscous inlet flow is accomplished by a shock train (close-
coupled series of shock-wave Boundary Layer interactions). The isolator is designed to contain
this shock train, thus preventing it from extending further upstream into the inlet compression
system. The higher the combustor back pressure, the greater the throttling required, and
consequently the smaller is the flow area A2A required to satisfy the conservation equations at
the isolator exit.

21
1.7 FUEL INJECTION SCHEMES IN SCRAMJET COMBUSTORS

For given inlet conditions the net heat release achieved in a scramjet combustor is driven
by the efficiency and effectiveness of the fuel injectio n. Efficiency is reflected in the degree of
fuel/air mixing achieved; effectiveness is associated with minimization of the combustor exit
stream thrust losses incurred in the mixing process and the extent of the additional wall cooling
or thermal protection risk associated with the fuel injector.
A. WALL JETS:
Wall jets, although minimizing intrusion of the combustor flow path, result in a relatively
complex flow structure in the immediate vicinity of the jets as characterized shown below in
figure for normal injection through a round hole on a flat plate. The resulting regions of high-
pressure gradient on the wall near the jet are also a source of increased local heat flux.
When in- line jets are spaced too far apart, the benefit of increased momentum flux per unit
frontal area is likely to diminish, approaching single hole performance in the limit. On the other
hand, too close an axial spacing could also be a problem in terms of constraining fore and aft

22
expansion (high-pressure jet proximity) at the expense of the frontal area increasing lateral
expansion.
B. IN-STREAM INJECTORS:
Fuel jets can be vertically spaced as required to achieve desired local F/A distribution across
the entire combustor height, matching even non uniform flow air profiles. For fuel injected from
the sidewalk or out of the top of in-stream injectors, much of the previous discussion of wall jets
applies. For fuel injected axially downstream from the trailing edge, full axial fuel momentum is
also achieved but at what can be a significant mixing rate penalty. At high combustor velocities
such axial injection can lead to increased distance (combustor length) to achieve adequate
mixing. The major issues are thermal protection and structural integrity.
C. HYPERMIXERS:
In hypermixer type axial downstream fuel injection permits maximum momentum recovery
from the fuel (the importance of which increases with flight Mach number). Vortex shedding
from the corners, step-type recirculation behind the aft surfaces, and impingement of the
reflected ramp shock just aft of the injectors are relied upon to enhance the otherwise relatively
slow mixing of the axially injected hydrogen.

23
The fuel injector ramp and reflected shocks are a source of non combustion entropy increase and
unlike well-designed inlet compression ramps they do not provide permanent increased inlet
contraction for the losses incurred. Intentional creation of vortices for mixing enhancement also
introduces additional axial momentum losses. the challenge of the hypermixer concept is to
achieve adequate mixing of near axially injected fuel in reasonable combustor lengths without
increasing drag.
D. MIXING:
Scramjet combustors primarily dependent on free shear- layer mixing (such as unenhanced
simple axial fuel injection) can be expected to require an unacceptably long length to achieve
acceptable mixing. Fuel injector designs that introduce curved shock waves and local Boundary
Layer separation increase the rotationality of the flow and the losses induced provide near-field
mixing over that of free shear flow. Combustion in the near and far field, along with induced
vortices, also increases mixing relative to free shear flow.
1.8 ONE DIMENSIONAL MODELS FOR SUPERSONIC COMBUSTION USING

METHOD OF INFLUENCE COEFFICIENTS.
The sole function of the isolator is to prevent inlet unstart, by providing sufficient additional
adiabatic compression above its entry pressure p 2 to match or support whatever back pressure P 3
.There are two very different physical mechanisms which cause a back pressure p 3 > p2 to arise at
burner entry: in scramjet mode, thermal blockage unrelieved by area expansion which causes
unwanted flow separation, and in ramjet mode, the required thermal choking which insures that
the flow into the burner will be subsonic.
For the case of frictionless flow without mass addition, but with change in both cross-sectional
area A and total temperature Tt due to heat "addition," the governing ordinary differential
equation (ODE) for axial variation of Mach number is given by
When M > 1, it can be seen from inspection of Eq. (6-90) that occluding the flow, either by
decreasing A or by increasing Tt, causes M to decrease in the axial direction. Conversely,
relieving the flow, either by increasing A or decreasing Tt , will cause M to increase. However, in

24
the dual- mode combustion system, A(x) will never decrease with x, as there is no physical throat,
and Tt(x) will never decrease.
A(x) and Tt(x) are chosen as independent variables, and their coefficients are the influence
coefficients of the respective independent variables on the single dependent variable M. for
supersonic combustion (scramjet mode), both mixing and chemical heat release rates are greatest
at onset, and relax asymptotically toward their respective fully- mixed and chemical equilibrium
(or kinetically frozen) zero-rate values with infinite convective time or distance.
The axial total temperature gradient dTt/dx is greatest shortly after ignition, usually near
burner entry, and decreases to its least value at burner e xit. For a wide variety of scramjet mixers,
and to represent both mixing transition delay and induction or ignition delay, Tt(x) can be
usefully represented in non dimensional form by a rational function given by
Tb is the overall total temperature rise ratio in the burner.

Ө is an empirical constant of order 1 to 10 which depends on the mode of fuel injection
and fuel-air mixing.
To determine a unique solution ordinary differential equation (ODE), it is necessary to specify
the burner entry Mach number M3 , as well as the forcing functions A(x) and Tt (x).
The following additional equations are useful for plotting the burner process path on H-K
coordinates:
Most analyses of supersonic combustion have assumed constant-A combustion, as the

constant-A geometry is both easy to fabricate and to analyze. an adverse pressure gradient is
created whenever heat is added to a frictionless, supersonic flow in a constant-A burner, and if
the pressure rise is too great, it will cause separation of the boundary layer. It is important to note
that cause-and-effect relationships are somewhat different in the combustion system.
In the case of a frictionless constant-Area (A) burner, the causal chain is: (1) the pressure rises
as a result of heat addition to the supersonic flow, and (2) if the pressure rise exceeds some
threshold value, the boundary layer separates, so that (3) the oncoming supersonic flow is turned

25
into itself by the effective area blockage of the separated flow near the wall, and is compressed
into a confined core flow through an oblique shock train, until the confined core flow pressure
matches the pressure in the region of separated flow in the burner.

26
UNIT II
FUNDAMENTALS OF CHEMICAL ROCKET PROPULSION
Operating principle – specific impulse of a rocket – internal ballistics – performance
considerations of rockets – types of igniters- preliminary concepts in nozzle-less propulsion – air
augmented rockets – pulse rocket motors – static testing of rockets & instrumentation –safety
considerations
2.1 OPERATING PRINCIPLE:

A rocket propulsion device, though working on the same principle as that of a jet engine i e.
of obtaining a propulsive force as a reaction to the acceleration of a mass of fluid, characterizes
itself in that it carries, with it, its own supply of oxidant. this enables the rocket to operate in
higher altitudes and even at vacuum.
A rocket motor is a device for converting the thermo chemical energy of one or more
propellants into exhaust jet kinetic energy: the term “propellants” is applied to any material.
Solid or liquid, consumed in the rocket motor. It is generally assumed, and there is some
evidence to support the assumption, that under the pressures and temperatures occurring in a
rocket motor combustion chamber and nozzle the chemical reactions take place under conditions
which approach chemical equilibrium.
The chemicals utilized for producing the high-pressure, high – temperature gases in a
rocket motor are either solids or liquids, but for certain special applications the reaction of gases,
like gaseous hydrogen with gaseous oxygen, must be useful. Regardless of the type of propeller
(or propellant), the main objective is to produce the largest possible jet velocity. Since the
pressure of the gases enthalpy the exhaust nozzle ranges from 250 to 3000psi and the back
pressure is 14.7psi or less, the exhaust nozzle alwa ys operates under supercritical conditions.
Hence if the isentropic flow is assumed the gas speed in the throat of the nozzle will be the
critical speed of sound a* , which is dependant of the basic pressure. Furthermore, to obtain the
largest possible values of jet speed, the exhaust gases are always the converging-diverging the
exhaust gases are always ejected with supersonic speed.

27
Thrust :
Thrust is useful to begin by examining the performance of a rocket under static tests. Consider
the thrust of a stationary rocket indicated schematically in figure below for simplicity, the flow
may be assumed one dimensional, with a steady exit velocity Ve and propellant flow rate &
consider a stationary control surface “S” which interests the jet perpendicularly through the exit
plane of the nozzle. Positive thrust “T” acts in the opposite direction to V e. The reaction to the
thrust is shown in fig as it acts on the control volume. If the expelled fluid can be considered a
continuum, it is necessary to consider the pressures just inside the exit plane of the nozzle, pe ,the
cross-sectional area of the jet Ae is the exit area of the nozzle.
The momentum equation for any such control volume M is,
∑ ∫ ∫ (2.1)
Where
Fx = Force component in the x direction
= density of fluid
Ux = velocity component of the fluid in x direction
v = Volume
m = mass flow rate of flow (positive for out flow)

28
In words the resultant force acting on the control volume is equal to the time rate of
increase of linear momentum with in the control volume flux the nut efflux of linear momentum
from the control volume.
Where, the subscripts CV and CS denote the control volume and control surface
respectively.
Since Ux is zero within the propellant tank or tanks, and the flow is steady within the thrust
chamber, the time derivative term is zero. Also the momentum – flux can be written as
∑ ∫ (2.2)
Considering the pressure on the control surface to be uniformly Pa. expect the plane of the jet,.
The force summation may be written
∑ - (2.3)
Thrust is actually a result of pressure or stress distribution over interior and exterior surface, as
shown typically for a chemical rocket in figure.
Combining equation 1,2 and 3, we obtain,
mVe = - (2.4)
If the pressure in the exhaust plane is the same as the ambient the pressure, the thrust is given by
= mVe
The condition pa =pe is called correct or optimum expansion because it corresponds to

maximum thrust for given chamber conditions. Conveniently, one can define an effective
exhaust velocity, Vj , such that
T = m Vj (2.5)
Where

29
Effective exhaust velocity, Vj= Ve + (Pe-Pa) (2.6)
2.2 SPECIFIC IMPULSE OF A ROCKET:
The impulse per unit mass of propellant will be shown to be an important performance
variable. If the effective exhaust velocity Vj is constant equation shows that the total impulse I
imparted to the vehicle during acceleration is
I= ∫ (2.7)
Where, m = the total mass of expelled propellant. This impulse per unit mass of propellant is
therefore,
= = (2.8)
He term specific impulse, Isp is usually defined by,
Isp = = (2.9)
Where, g is the acceleration due to gravity at the earth‟s surface. The presence of g in the
definition is arbitrary, but it does have the advantage that n all common systems of units the
specific impulse is expressed in seconds.
Analysis of an Ideal Rocket: Chemical rockets, whether powered by liquid or solid propellants,
consist in varying complexity of propellant supply and feed system, a combustion chamber, and
exhaust nozzle. To simplify our analysis of the thrust chamber, we assume the following.
1. The working substances (or chemical reaction products) is homogenous.

2. All the species of the working fluid is gaseous. Any condensed phases (liquid or solid)
add a negligible amount to the total mass.
3. The working substance obeys the perfect gas law.
4. These are no heat transfer across the rocket walls: therefore, the flow is adiabatic.
5. These are no appreciable friction and all boundary layer effects are neglected.
6. These are no shock waves or discontinuities in the nozzle flow.

30
7. The propellant flow is steady and constant. The expansion of the working fluid is uniform
and study, without vibration. Transient effects (i.e. start up and shut down) are of very
short duration and may be neglected.
8. All exhaust gases leaving the rocket have an axially directed velocity.
9. The gas velocity, pressure, temperature, and density are all uniform across any section
normal to the nozzle axis.
10. Chemical equilibrium is established with in the rocket chamber and the gas composition
does not change in the nozzle (frozen flow)
11. Stored propellants are at room temperature. Cryogenic propellants are at their boiling
points.
Assuming adiabatic nozzle expansion, the energy equation requires constant stagnation enthalpy
in the nozzle.
h02 = h0e
Assuming the expansion to be Isentropic,
(2.10)
Putting Cp in terms of universal gas constant R0 , molecular weight M, and ratio of specific heats
, we get
(2.11)
If Q is the heat supplied in the form of chemical energy per u nit mass of propellant, we get

31
(2.12)
From Eqn 2.11 we can write
(2.13)
If At is the area of the throat of the nozzle and Pt the pressure at throat it can be proved that the
mass flow rate is given by
(2.14)
The thrust produced is given by
(2.15)
putting eqn 2.13 & 2.14 in 2.15
IDEAL THRUST COEFFICIENT:
FT
CF 
Pc A t
where pc = combustion chamber pressure,

At = nozzle throat area

32
Depends primarily on (pc/pa) so a good indicator of nozzle performance – dominated by

pressure ratio.
CHARACTERISTIC VELOCITY (C*):
Pc A t
C* 
 ejects
m
• Calculated from standard test data.
• It is independent of nozzle performance and is therefore used as a measure of
combustion efficiency – dominated by T (combustion chamber temperature).
c
2.3 INTERNAL BALLISTICS:
The parameters that govern the burning state and mass discharge rate of motors are called
internal ballistic properties; they include r, k, k, p, and the influences caused by pressures,
propellants ingredients, gas velocity, or acceleration.
K = A6 /A1
p- temperature sensitivity of the burning rate
k– temperature sensitivity of pressure
r - burning rate.
2.4 PERFORMANCE CONSIDERATIONS OF ROCKETS:

The analysis of performance is usually divided into two somewhat separate sets of
calculations:
The combustion process is the first part. It usually occurs in the combustion chamber at
essentially constant chamber pressure (isobaric) and the resulting gases follow Dalton's law. The
chemical reactions or the combustions occur very rapidly. The chamber volume is assumed to be
large enough and the residence time in the chamber long enough for attaining chemical
equilibrium in the chamber.
The nozzle gas expansion process constitutes the second set of calculations. The fully reacted,
equilibrated gas combustion products enter the nozzle and undergo an adiabatic expansion in the

33
nozzle. The entropy remains constant during a reversible (isentropic) nozzle expansion, but in
real nozzle flows it increases slightly.
The thrust, depends upon the pressure in the combustion chamber, the properties of the
propellant and the geometrical shape of the rocket. To obtain high thrust the molecular weight of
the propellants must be as low as possible.
Another factor which limits the thrust obtainable is the maximum allowable temperature as
well as the maximum temperature which can be produced by chemical reactions. At very high
temperatures, dissociation does not allow the whole of the heat energy to be converted into the
kinetic energy and the maximum obtainable temperatures are limited.
The effect of the characteristics of the propellant and the area-ratio of the nozzle and its shape
also play an important part in dictating the performance of the chemical rocket as it affects the
velocities obtainable as well as the drag on the rocket.
The optimum expansion condition is that when the static pressure at the exit of the rocket
nozzle is the same as the ambient pressure. The length of the diverging nozzle passage is
increased over that corresponding to the optimum expansion ratio (P a =pe) ; this will result in
further expansion in the nozzle and pressure at exit of the nozzle will be less than ambient
pressure pa .
On the other hand, any length of the nozzle which is less than that corresponding to Pe=Pa
will result in lesser expansion and hence in reduced exhaust velocity and thrust will again be
reduced. So the condition Pe=pa gives the best expansion condition for a rocket nozzle with a
given threat diameter.

34
2.5 TYPES OF IGNITERS:
PYROTECHNIC IGNITERS
In industrial practice, pyrotechnic igniters are defined as igniters (other than pyrogen-type
igniters as defined further on) using solid explosives or energetic propellant- like chemical
formulations (usually small pellets of propellant which give a large burning surface and a short
burning time) as the heat-producing material.
This definition fits a wide variety of designs, known as bag and carbon igniters, powder can,
plastic case, pellet basket, perforated tube, combustible case, jellyroll, string, or sheet igniters.
The common pellet-basket design in figure below is typical of the pyrotechnic igniters. Ignition
of the main charge, in this case pellets consisting of 24% boron-71% potassium perchlorate-5%
binder, is accomplished by stages; first, on receipt of an electrical signal the initiator releases the
energy of a small amount of sensitive powdered pyrotechnic housed within the initiator,
commonly called the squib or the primer charge; next, the booster charge is ignited by heat
released from the squib; and finally, the main ignition charge propellants are ignited.

35
PYROGEN IGNITERS:
A pyrogen igniter is basically a small rocket motor that is used to ignite a larger rocket
motor. The pyrogen is not designed to produce thrust. All use one or more nozzle orifices, both
sonic and supersonic types, and most use conventional rocket motor grain formulations and
design technology. Heat transfer from the pyrogen to the motor grain is largely convective, with
the hot gases contacting the grain surface as contrasted to a highly radiative energy emitted by
pyrotechnic igniters. For pyrogen igniters the initiator and the booster charge are very similar to
the designs used in pyrotechnic igniters. Reaction products from the main charge impinge on the
surface of the rocket motor grain, producing motor ignition. Common practice on the very large
motors is to mount externally, with the pyrogen igniter pointing its jet up through the large motor
nozzle.
SAFETY DEVICES IN IGNITERS

Two approaches are commonly used to safeguard against motor misfires, or inadvertent
motor ignition; one is the use of the classical safe and arm device and the second is the design of
safeguards into the initiator. Energy for unintentional ignition--usually a disaster when it
happens--can be (1) static electricity, (2) induced current from electromagnetic radiation, such as
radar, (3) induced electrical currents from ground test equipment, communication apparatus, or
nearby electrical circuits in the flight vehicle, and (4) heat, vibration, or shock from handling and
operations. Functionally, the safe and arm device serves as an electrical switch to keep the igniter
circuit grounded when not operating; in some designs it also mechanically misaligns or blocks
the ignition train of events so that unwanted ignition is precluded even though the initiator fires.

36
When transposed into the arm position, the ignition flame can be reliably propagated to the
igniter's booster and main charges.
Electric initiators in motor igniters are also called squibs, glow plugs, primers, and sometimes
headers; they always constitute the initial element in the ignition train and, if properly designed,
can be a safeguard against unintended ignition of the motor.
Both (a) and (b) structurally form a part of the rocket motor case and generically are headers.
In the integral diaphragm type (a) the initial ignition energy is passed in the form of a shock
wave through the diaphragm activating the acceptor charge, with the diaphragm remaining
integral. This same principle is also used to transmit a shock wave through a metal case wall or a
metal insert in a filament-wound case; the case would not need to be penetrated and sealed. The
header type (b) resembles a simple glow plug with two high-resistance bridgewires buried in the
initiator charge. The exploding bridgewire design (c) employs a small bridgewire (0.02 to 0.10
mm) of low-resistance material, usually platinum or gold, that is exploded by application of a
high voltage discharge.

37
2.6 PRELIMINARY CONCEPTS IN NOZZLE-LESS PROPULSION:

The nozzleless solid rocket motor utilizes a solid- fuel grain geometrically contoured to
function as a rocket engine nozzle during operation.
The nozzleless solid rocket motor is in reality an advanced mass fraction system. By avoiding
the inherent weight penalty of a nozzle, the nozzleless motor potentially offers improved payload
or terminal velocity capability. The nozzleless motor could also be simple, low cost and reliable.
The attractiveness of nozzleless solid rocket motors is due not only to cost savings and
simplification but their increased potential for flight missions. Using the terminal velocity or V
capability of a rocket as a rmeasure of performance, nozzleless rockets may be compared to
conventional rockets. The ideal V equation is:
By simply removing the nozzle from the conventional motor and firing it, about 70 percent of
its standard total impulse is achieved. The most important reason is the propellant burn rate.
Conventional motors are generally designed for operation In the pressure regime of 1000 to 2000
psi. Burn rates and nozzle sizes are matched appropriately. Port areas are usually much larger
than the throat area in the motors to avoid erosive burning. When the nozzle is removed, they

38
port becomes the throat, thus reducing the chamber pressure and propellant burn rate. The lower
pressures result in lower total impulse. Decreasing the burn rate of the propellant without
changing other motor parameters can thus have a significant effect upon the delivered total
impulse. A motor designed for operation without a nozzle would use the volume originally taken
up by the nozzle for additional propellant; would have a higher web fraction; would use a
propellant having more desirable propellant properties (such as a low pressure exponent); and
would probably have a lighter case. All these changes would greatly enhance the comparison
between nozzleless and conventional motors in terms of performance.
Elimination of the nozzle from a conventional rocket motor will result in a 30 percent
decrease in total impulse. By placing additional propellant in the volume originally occupied by
the nozzle, utilizing improved grain design, and selecting proper propellant3, the decrease in
total impulse can be reduced to 10 percent or less. Preliminary studies indicate that nozzleless
motors would cost 20 to 30 percent less than the conventional motors, and the use of nozzleless
rocket motors appears to be attractive for small, unguided, air-launched solid rockets.
SHORTCOMINGS:
Considerable development is necessary to operate at low pressure and to avoid the instability
problem. It is assumed that proper propellant tailoring and grain design could accomplish stable
operation. In addition, the nozzleless motor designs thus far envisioned cannot accommodate the
traditional fins necessary for flight stability.
2.7 AIR AUGMENTED ROCKETS:

A ducted rocket, sometimes called as an air-augmented rocket, combines the principles of
rocket and ramjet engines, it give higher performance (specific impulse) than a chemical rocket
engine, while operating within the earth‟s atmosphere. Usually the term air-augmented rocket
denotes mixing of air with the rocket exhaust (full-rich for after burning) in proportions that
enabled the propulsion device to retain the characteristics of the rocket engine, for example, high
static thrust and high thrust to weight ratio. In contrast, the ducted rocket often is like a ramjet in
that it must be boosted to operating speed and uses the rocket components more as a fuel-rich
generator (liquid, solid, or hybrid), igniter, and air ejector pump).

39
The principles of the rocket and ramjet can be combined so that the two propulsion systems
operate in sequence and in tandem and yet utilize a common combustion chamber and volume.
The low-volume configuration, known as an integral rocket-ramjet, can be attractive in air
launched missiles using ramjet propulsion. The transitio n from the rocket to the ramjet requires
enlarging the exhaust nozzle throat (usually by ejecting rocket nozzle parts), opening the ramjet
air inlet-combustion chamber interface, and following these two events with the normal ramjet
starting sequence.
A solid fuel ramjet uses a grain of solid fuel that gasifies or ablates and reacts with air. Good
combustion efficiencies have been achieved with a patented boron-containing solid fuel
fabricated into a grain similar to a solid propellant and burning in a manner similar to a hybrid
rocket propulsion system.
2.8 PULSE ROCKET MOTORS:
A pulsed rocket motor is typically defined as a multiple Pulse (physics) solid-fuel rocket motor.
This design overcomes the limitation of solid propellant motors that they cannot be easily shut
down and reignited. The pulse rocket motor allows the motor to be burned in segments (or
pulses) that burn until completion of that segment. The next segment (or pulse) can be ignited on
command by either an onboard algorithm or in pre-planned phase. All of the segments are
contained in a single rocket motor case as opposed to staged rocket motors. The pulsed rocket
motor is made by pouring each segment of propellant separately. Between each segment is

40
a barrier that prevents the other segments from burning until ignited. At ignition of a second
pulse the burning of the propellant generally destroys the barrier.
The benefit of the pulse rocket motor is that by the command ignition of the subsequent pulses,
near optimal energy management of the propellant burn can be accomplished. Each pulse can
have different thrust level, burn time, and achieved specific impulse depending on the type of
propellant used, its burn rate, its grain design, and the current nozzle throat diameter.
2.9 STATIC TESTING OF ROCKETS & INSTRUMENTATION:

Static rocket system tests with complete propulsion system on test stand is carried out in two
methods:
(a) partial or simulated rocket operation (for proper function, calibration, ignition, operation--
often without establishing full thrust or operating for the full duration)
(b) complete propulsion system tests (under rated conditions, off-design conditions, with
intentional variations in environment or calibration).
For a reusable or restartable rocket propulsion system this can include many starts, long-duration
endurance tests, and post operational inspections and reconditioning.
These tests can be performed on at least three basic types of programs:
1. Research on and development or improvement of a new (or modified) rocket engine or motor
or their propellants or components.
2. Evaluation of the suitability of a new (or modified) rocket engine or motor for a specified
application or for flight readiness.
3. Production and quality assurance of a rocket propulsion system.
For che mical rocket propulsion systems, each test facility usually has the following major
systems or components:
1. A test cell or test bay where the article to be tested is mounted, usually in a special test fixture.
If the test is hazardous, the test facility must have provisions to protect operating personnel and
to limit damage in case of an accident.
2. An instrumentation system with associated computers for sensing, maintaining, measuring,
analyzing, correcting, and recording various physical and chemical parameters. It usually
includes calibration systems and timers to accurately synchronize the measurements.
3. A control system for starting, stopping, and changing the operating conditions.

41
4. Systems for handling heavy or awkward assemblies, supplying liquid propellant, and
providing maintenance, security, and safety.
5. For highly toxic propellants and toxic plume gases it has been required to capture the
hazardous gas or vapor (firing inside a closed duct system), remove almost all of the hazardous
ingredients (e.g., by wet scrubbing and/or chemical treatment), allow the release of the nontoxic
portion of the cleaned gases, and safely dispose of any toxic solid or liquid residues from the
chemical treatment. With an exhaust gas containing fluorine, for example, the removal of much
of this toxic gas can be achieved by scrubbing it with water that contains dissolved calcium; it
will then form calcium fluoride, which can be precipitated and removed.
6. In some tests specialized test equipment and unique facilities are needed to conduct static
testing under different environmental conditions or under simulated emergency conditions. For
example, high and low ambient temperature tests of large motors may require a temperature-
controlled enclosure around the motor; a rugged explosion-resistant facility is needed for bullet
impact tests of propellant- loaded missile systems and also for cook-off tests, where gasoline or
rocket fuel is burned with air below a stored missile. Similarly, special equipment is needed for
vibration testing, measuring thrust vector forces and moments in three dimensions, or
determining total impulse for very short pulse durations at low thrust.
INSTRUMENTATION AND DATA MANAGEMENT:

Some of the physical quantities measured in rocket testing are as follows:
1. Forces (thrust, thrust vector control side forces, short thrust pulses).
2. Flows (hot and cold gases, liquid fuel, liquid oxidizer, leakage).
3. Pressures (chamber, propellant, pump, tank, etc.).
4. Temperatures (chamber walls, propellant, structure, nozzle).
5. Timing and command sequencing of valves, switches, igniters, etc.
6. Stresses, strains, and vibrations (combustion chamber, structures, propellant lines,
accelerations of vibrating parts)
7. Time sequence of events (ignition, attainments of full pressure).
8. Movement and position of parts (valve stems, gimbal position, deflection of parts under load
or heat),
voltages, frequencies, and currents in electrical or control subsystems.

42
9.Visual observations (flame configuration, test article failures, explosions) using high-speed
cameras or video cameras.
10.Special quantities such as turbopump shaft speed, liquid levels in propellant tanks, burning
rates, flame luminosity, or exhaust gas composition.
MEASUREMENT SYSTEM TERMINOLOGY:

Range refers to the region extending from the minimum to the maximum rated value over which
the measurement system will give a true and linear response.
Errors in measurements are usually of two types: (1) human errors of improperly reading the
instrument, chart, or record and of improperly interpreting or correcting these data, and (2)
instrument or system errors, which usually fall into four classifications: static errors, dynamic
response errors, drift errors, and hysteresis errors.
Static errors are usually fixed errors due to fabrication and installation variations; these errors
can usually be detected by careful calibration, and an appropriate correction can then be applied
to the reading.
Drift error is the change in output over a period of time, usually caused by random wander and
environmental conditions.
Dynamic response errors occur when the measuring system fails to register the true value of the
measured quantity while this quantity is changing, particularly when it is changing rapidly.
A maximum frequency response refers to the maximum frequency (usually in cycles per
second) at which the instrument system will measure true values. The natural frequency of the
measuring system is usually above the limiting response frequency.
Linearity of the instrument refers to the ratio of the input (usually pressure, temperature, force,
etc.) to the output (usually voltage, output display change, etc.) over the range of the instrument.
Resolution refers to the minimum change in the measured quantity that can be detected with a
given instrument. Dead zone or hysteresis errors are often caused by energy absorption within
the instrument system or play in the instrument mechanism; in part, they limit t he resolution of
the instrument.
Sensitivity refers to the change in response or reading caused by special influences. For example,
the temperature sensitivity and the acceleration sensitivity refer to the change in measured value
caused by temperature and acceleration.

43
2.10 SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS:

Most rocket propulsion testing is now accomplished in sophisticated facilities under closely
controlled conditions. Modern rocket test facilities are frequently located several miles from the
nearest community to prevent or minimize effects of excessive noise, vibrations, explosions, and
toxic exhaust clouds.
Prior to performing any test, it is common practice to train the test crew and go through repeated
dry runs, to familiarize each person with his or her responsibilities and procedures, including the
emergency procedures.
Typical personnel and plant security or safety provisions in a modern test facility include the
following:
1. Concrete-walled blockhouse or control stations for the protection of personnel and instruments
remote from the actual rocket propulsion location.
2. Remote control, indication, and recording of all hazardous operations and measurements;
isolation of propellants from the instrumentation and control room.

44
3. Automatic or manual water deluge and fire-extinguishing systems.

4. Closed circuit television systems for remotely viewing the test.
5. Warning signals (siren, bells, horns, lights, speakers) to notify personnel to clear the test area
prior to a test, and an all-clear signal when the conditions are no longer hazardous.
6. Quantity and distance restrictions on liquid propellant tankage and solid propellant storage to
minimize damage in the event of explosions; separation of liquid fuels and oxidizers.
7. Barricades around hazardous test articles to reduce shrapnel damage in the event of a blast.
8. Explosion-proof electrical systems, spark-proof shoes, and non spark hand tools to prevent
ignition of flammable materials.
9. For certain propellants also safety clothing (see Fig. 20-4), including propellant- and fire-
resistant suits, face masks and shields, gloves, special shoes, and hard hats.
10. Rigid enforcement of rules governing area access, smoking and safety inspections.
11. Limitations on the number of personnel that may be in a hazardous area at any time.
MONITORING AND CONTROL OF TOXIC MATERIALS:

Open-air testing of chemical rockets frequently requires measurement and control of exhaust
cloud concentrations and gas movement in the surrounding areas for safeguarding personnel,
animals, and plants. A toxic cloud of gas and particles can result from the exhaust gas of normal
rocket operation, vapors or reaction gases from unintentional propellant spills, and gases from
fires, explosions, or from the intentional destruction of vehicles in flight or rockets on the launch
stand. Environmental regulations usually limit the maximum local concentration or the total
quantity of toxic gas or particulates released to the atmosphere. One method of control is for tests
with discharges of moderately toxic gases or products to be postponed until favorable weather
conditions are present.

45
UNIT III
SOLID ROCKET PROPULSION
Salient features of solid propellant rockets – selection criteria of solid propellants- estimation of
solid propellant adiabatic flame temperature - propellant grain design considerations – erosive
burning in solid propellant rockets – combustion instability – strand burner and T-burner –
applications and advantages of solid propellant rockets.
3.1 SALIENT FEATURES OF SOLID PROPELLANT ROCKETS:

The principal components and features of relatively single solid propellant rocket motors.
The grain is the solid body of the hardened propellant and typically accounts for 82% to 94% of
the total motor mass. The igniter (electrically activated) provides the energy to start the
combustor. This grain configuration has a central cylinder cavity with light tapered slots,
forming an 8-pointed star. Many grains have slots, grooves, holes, or other geometric features
and they alter the initial burning surface, which determines the initial mass flow and the initial
thrust. The hot reaction gases flow along the perforation or port cavity towards the nozzle. The
inner surface of the case (really a pressure vessel), which are exposed directly to hot gas have a
thermal protection or insulation layer to keep the case from becoming too hot, in which case it
could no longer carry its pressure and other loads. The case is either made of metal(such as steel,
aluminum or titanium) or a composite fiber-reinforced plastic material.
The nozzle accelerates the hot gas; it is made of high temperature materials (usually graphite
and/or an ablative material to absorb the heat) to withstand the high temperature. The majority of

46
all solid rockets have a simple fixed nozzle. as shown here, b ut some nozzle have provision to
rotate it slightly so as to control the direction of the thrust to allow vehicle steering.
3.2 SELECTION CRITERIA OF SOLID PROPELLANTS:

The propellant selection is critical to rocket motor design. The desirable propellant
characteristics are listed below. The requirement for any particular motor will influence the
priorities of these characteristics:
1. High performance or high specific impulse; really this means high gas temperature and/or
low molecular mass.
2. Predictable, reproducible, and initially adjustable burning rate to fit the need of the grain
design and the thrust-time requirement.
3. For minimum variation in thrust or chamber pressure, the pressure or burning rate exponent
and the temperature coefficient should be small.
4. Adequate physical properties (including bond strength) over the intended operating
temperature range.
5. High density (allows a small- volume motor).
6. Predictable, reproducible ignition qualities (such as reasonable ignition overpressure)
7. Good aging characteristics and long life. Aging and life predictions depend on the
propellant‟s chemical and physical properties, the cumulative damage criteria with load
cycling and thermal cycling and actual tests on propellant samples and test date from failed
motors.
8. Low absorption of moisture, which often causes chemical deterioration.
9. Simple, reproducible, safe, low-cost, controllable, and low-hazard manufacturing.
10. Guaranteed availability of all raw materials and purchased components over the reduction
and operating life of the propellant, and good control over undesirable impurities.
11. Low technical risk, such as a favorable history of prior applications.
12. Relative insensitivity to certain energy stimuli
13. Non-toxic exhausts gases.
14. Not prone to combustion instability.

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3.3 ESTIMATION OF SOLID PROPELLANT ADIABATIC FLAME TEMPERATURE:

All of these theoretical analyses are only approximations of what really happens in rocket
combustion and nozzle flow, and they all require some simplifying assumptions. The analysis is
usually divided into two somewhat separate sets of calculations:
The combustion process is the first part. It usually occurs in the combustion chamber at
essentially constant chamber pressure (isobaric) and the resulting gases follow Dalton's law. The
chemical reactions or the combustions occur very rapidly. The chamber volume is assumed to be
large enough and the residence time in the chamber long enough for attaining chemical
equilibrium in the chamber.
The nozzle gas expansion process constitutes the second set of calculations. The fully reacted,
equilibrated gas combustion products enter the nozzle and undergo an adiabatic expansion in the
nozzle. The entropy remains constant during a reversible (isentropic) nozzle expansion, but in
real nozzle flows it increases slightly.
The principal chemical reactions occur inside the combustion chamber of a liquid propellant
rocket engine or inside the grain cavity of a solid propellant rocket motor, usually within a short
distance from the burning surface.
Rocket propulsion systems usually do not operate with the proportion of their oxidizer and fuel
in the stoichiometric mixture ratio. Instead, they usually operate fuel-rich because this allows
lightweight molecules such as hydrogen to remain unreacted ; this reduces the average molecular
mass of the reaction products, which in turn increases the specific impulse.
Dalton's law applies to the gas resulting from the combustion. It states that a mixture of gases at
equilibrium exerts a pressure that is the sum of the partial pressures of the individual gases, all at
the same temperature. The subscripts a, b, c, etc. refer to individual gas constituents.
The perfect gas equation p V = RT applies very closely to high temperature gases. Here V is the
specific volume or the volume per unit mass of gas mixture, and the gas constant R for the
mixture is obtained by dividing the universal gas constant R' (8314.3 J/kg- mol-K) by the average
molecular mass (often erroneously called the molecular weight) of the gas mixture.

48
Using Dalton's law, the above equation can be written as,
The effective average molecular mass / of a gas mixture is given by
In most rocket propulsion the heat of reaction is determined for a constant-pressure combustion
process. In general the heat of reaction can be determined from sums of the heats of formation of
the products and the reactants, namely
Here nj is the molar fraction of each particular species j.

The free energy is a function of temperature and pressure. It is another property of a material,
just like enthalpy or density; only two such independent parameters are required to characterize a
gas condition. The free energy may be thought of as the tendency or driving force for a chemical
material to enter into a chemical (or physical) change.
The chemical reaction occurs instantaneously but isothermally at the reference temperature,
and the resulting energy release then heats the gases from this reference temperature to the final
combustion temperature. The heat of reaction is
Here h is the increase in enthalpy for each species multiplied by its molar fraction, and Cp is
the molar specific heat at constant pressure.
Once the gases reach the nozzle, they experience an adiabatic, reversible expansion process
which is accompanied by a drop in temperature and pressure and a conversion of thermal energy
into kinetic energy.

49
3.4 PROPELLANT GRAIN DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS:

The grain is the solid body of the hardened propellant and typically accounts for 82 to 94% of
the total motor mass. Design and stresses of grains are described later in this chapter. Propellants
are described in the next chapter. The igniter (electrically activated) provides the energy to start
the combustion. The grain starts to burn on its exposed inner surfaces. This grain configuration
has a central cylindrical cavity with eight tapered slots, forming an 8-pointed star. Many grains
have slots, grooves, holes, or other geometric features and they alter the initial burning surface,
which determines the initial mass flow and the initial thrust. The hot reaction gases flow along
the perforation or port cavity toward the nozzle.
The inner surfaces of the case (really a pressure vessel), which are exposed directly to hot gas,
have a thermal protection or insulation layer to keep the case from becoming too hot, in which
case it could no longer carry its pressure and other loads. The case is either made of metal (such
as steel, aluminum or titanium) or a composite fiber-reinforced plastic material.
The nozzle accelerates the hot gas; it is made of high temperature materials (usually a graphite
and/or an ablative material to absorb the heat) to withstand the high temperatures and the
erosion. The majority of all solid rockets have a simple fixed nozzle, as shown here, but some
nozzles have provision to rotate it slightly so as to control the direction of the thrust to allow
vehicle steering.
PROPELLANT BURNING RATE:

The burning surface of a propellant grain recedes in a direction essentially perpendicular
to the surface. The rate of regression usually exposed in un/sec, mm/sec, or in/sec, is the burning
rate.
Success in rocket motor design and development depends significantly on knowledge of
burning rate behavior of the selected propellant under all motor operating conditions and design
limit conditions. Burning rate is a function of the propellant composition, for composite
propellant, it can be increased by changing the propellant characteristics.
1. Add a burning rate catalyst, often called burning rate modifier (0.1 to 3.0% of
propellant) or increase the percentage of existing catalyst
2. Decrease the oxidizer percentage.
3. Increase oxidizer percentage.

50
4. Increase the heat of combustion of the binder and (or the plasticizer).
5. Imbed wires or metal staples in the propellant.
A side from the propellant formulation and propellant manufacturing process, burning rate in a
full scale motor can be increased by the following
i. Combustion chamber pressure.
ii. Initial temperature of the solid propellant prior to start.
iii. Combustion gas temperature.
iv. Velocity of the gas flow parallel to the burning surface.
v. Motor motion (acceleration and spin-induced grain stress)
Burning rate date are usually obtained in three ways namely, from testing by:
i. Standard strand burner, often called craw ford burners
ii. Small scale ballistic evaluation motors.
iii. Full scale motors with good instrumentation.
The burning rate of propellant in the motor is a function of many parameters, and at any instant
governs to the mass flow rate m of hot gas generated and flowing form the motor (stable
combustion)
m=Ab X r X pb
Here, A b is the burning of the propellant grain; r is the burning rate, and p b is the solid propellant
density prior to motor start. The total mass “m” of the effective propellant burned can be
determined by integration the equation.
m=ʃ m dt = pb Ar X r dt
Where Ab and r vary with the time and pressure.
BURNING RATE RELATION WITH PRESSURE:

Unless otherwise stated, burning rate for most propellant is expressed for 70*F or 294K
propellant (prior to ignition) burning at a reference chamber pressure of 1000psi or 6.894Mpa.
With many propellants it is possible to approximate the burning rate as a function of chamber
pressure, at least over a limited range of chamber pressures. For most production type
propellants, the empirical equation for burning rate is
r=a Po n

51
Where r - the burn rate is usually in centimeters per second and the chamber pressure „a‟ is an
empirical constant influenced by ambient grain temperature. This equation applies to all the
commonly used double – base, composite, or composite double-base propellants. Also „a‟ is
known as the temperature co-efficient and it is not dimensionless. The burning rate exponent „n‟
sometimes called the combustion index, is independent of the in initial grain temperature and
describes the influence of chamber pressure on the burning rate. The change in ambient
temperature does not change the chemical energy released in the combustion; it merely changes
the rate of reaction at which energy is released.
For a particular propellant and for wide temperature and pressure limit s, the burning rate can
vary by factor of 3 or 4. For all propellants, they range form about 0.05to 75mm/sec; The high
values are difficult to achieve, even with considerable burning rate catalyst additives, embedded
metal wires, or high pressures (above 14Mpa or 2000Mpa)
The burning rate very sensitive to the exponent n for stable operation, n values greater then O
and less than, I, High values of n give a rapid change of burning rate with pressure. This implies
that even a small change in chamber pressure produces substantial changes in the amount of hot
gas produced. Most production propellants have a pressure exponent n ranging between 0.2 and
0.6. In practice, as „n‟ approaches 1, burning rate and chamber pressure become very sensitive to
one another and disastrous rise in chamber pressure can occur in a few milliseconds. When the
„n‟ value is low and comes closed to zero, burning can become unstable and may even
extinguish itself. Some propellants display a negative „n‟ which is very important for „re storable‟
motors or gas generators. A propellant having a wide pressure range. Plate an propellants are
those that exhibit a nearly constant burning rate over a limited pressure range.
BURNING RATE RELATION WITH TEMPERATURE:

Temperature affects chemical reaction rates and the initial ambient temperature of a propellant
grains prior to combustion influences burning rate. The motor performance characteristics must
stay within specified acceptable limits. For air launched missile motors, the extreme s are usually
219K and 344K. Motors using typical composite propellants experience a 20 to 35% variation in
chamber pressure and a 20 to 30% variation in operating time over such a range of propellant
temperatures. In large rocket motors, an uneven melting of the grain can cause a sufficiently
large difference in burning rate so that a slight thrust misalignment can be produced.

52
The sensitivity of burning rate to propellant temperature can be expressed in the form of
temperature co-efficient,
[ ] [ ]
[ ] [ ]
Where is known as temperature sensitivity of burning rate, expressed as percent change of

burning rate per degree change in propellant temperature at a particular value of chamber
pressure, and as the temperature sensitivity of pressure expressed as percent change of
chamber pressure per degree change in propellant temperature at a particular value of k. Hence k
is the geometric function, namely the ratio of the burning surface, Ab to nozzle throat area Ak

53
CLASSIFICATION OF SOLID PROPELLANT ROCKET MOTOR:

Processed modern propellants can be classified in several ways, as described below. This
classification is not rigorous or complete. Sometimes the same propellant will fit into two or
more of the classification.
Propellants are often tailored to and classified by specific applications such as space launch
booster propellants or tactical missile propellants; each has somewhat specific chemical
ingredients, different burning rates, different physical properties, and differe nt performance.
Table shows four kinds of rocket motor applications (each has somewhat different propellants)
and several gas generator applications. Propellants for rocket motors have hot (over 2400k) gases
and are used to produce thrust, but gas generator propellants have lower-temperature combustion
gases (800 to 1200k) and they are used to produce power not thrust. Historically, the early rocket
motor propellants used to be grouped into two classes: double-base (DB*) propellants were used
as the first production propellants, and then the development of polymers as binders made the
composite propellants feasible.
Double-base (DB) propellants for a homogeneous propellant grain, usually a nitrocellulose
(NC*), a solid ingredient which absorbs liquid nitroglycerine (NG) plus minor percentages of
additives. Both the major ingredients are explosive and function as a combined fuel and oxidizer.
Both extruded double-base (EDB) and cast double-case (CDB) propellant have found extensive
applications, mostly in small tactical missiles of older design. By adding crystalline nitramines
(HMX or RDX)* the performance and density can be improved; this is sometimes called cast-
modified double-base propellant. A further improvement is to add an elastomeric binder (rubber-
like, such as cross linked poly-butadiene) which improves the physical properties and allows
more nitramine and thus improves the performance slightly. The resulting propellant is called
elastomeric- modified double-base (EMCDB). These four classes of double base have nearly
smokeless exhausts. Adding some solid ammonium per chlorate (AP) and aluminum (A1)
increase the density and the specific impulse slightly, but the exhaust gas is smoky. The
propellant is called composite-modified double-base propellant or CMDB.
Composite propellants form a heterogeneous propellant grain with the oxidizer crystals and
powered fuel (usually aluminum) held together in a matrix of synthetic rubber (or plastic) binder,
such as poly butadiene (HTPB)*. Composite propellants are cast from a mix of solid (AP
crystals, Al powder)* and liquid (HTPB, PPG)* ingredients. The propellant is hardened by cross

54
linking or curing the liquid binder polymer with a small amount of curing agent, and curing it in
an oven, where it becomes hard and solid. In the past three decades the composite propellants
have been the most commonly used class. They have further subdivided below.
1. Conventional composite propellants usually contain between 60 and 72% ammonium per
chlorate (AP) as crystalline oxidizer, up to 22% aluminum powder (AI) as a metal fuel, and 8 to
16% of elastomeric binder (organic polymer) including its plasticizer.
2. Modified composite propellant where an energetic nitramine (HMX or RDX) is added for
obtaining a little more performance and also a somewhat higher density.
3. Modified composite propellant where an energetic plasticizer such as nitroglycerine (used in
double-base propellant) is added to give a little more performance. Sometimes HMX is also
added.
4. A high energy composite solid propellant (with some aluminum), where the organic
elastomeric binder and plasticizer are largely replaced by energetic materials (such as certain
explosives) and where some of the AP is replaced by HMX. Some of these are called elastomer-
modifier cast double-base propellants (EMCDB). Most are experimental propellants. He
theoretical specific impulse can be between 270 and 275 sec at standard conditions.
5. A lower energy composite propellant, where ammonium nitrate (AN) is the cr ystalline
oxidizer (no AP). It is used for gas generator propellant. If a large amount of HMX is added, it
can become a minimum smoke propellant with fair performance.
Propellants can be classified by the density of the smoke in the exhaust plume as smoky
reduced smoke, or minimum smoke (essentially smokeless). Aluminium powder, a desirable
fuel ingredient, is oxidized to aluminium oxide, which forms visible small solid smoke particles
in the exhaust gas. Most composite propellant are smoky. By reducing the aluminum content in-
composite propellant, the amount of smoke is also reduced. Carbon (Soot) partials and metal
oxide, such as zirconium oxide or iron oxide, can also be visible if in high enough concentration.
The safety rating for detonation can distinguish propellants as a potentially detonable
material (class 1.1) or as a non-detonable materials (class 1.3). Examples of class 1.1 propellant
are a double-base propellants and composite propellants containing a significant proportion of
solid explosive (e.g., HMX or RDX), together with certain other ingredients.
Propellants can be classified by some of the principal manufacturing processes that are
used. Cast propellant is made by mechanical mixing of solid and liquid ingredients, followed by

55
casting and curing; it is the most common process for composite propellants. Curing of many
cast propellants is by chemical reaction between binder and curing agent at elevated temperature
(45 to 150 C) or hardened by a non chemical process such crystallization. Propellant can also be
made by a salvation process (dissolving a plasticizer in a solid palletized matrix, whose volume
is expanded ). Extruded propellant is made by mechanical mixing (rolling into sheets) followed
by extrusion (pushing through a die at high pressure). Salvation and extrusion process apply
primarily to double-base propellants.
Propellants have also been classified by their principal ingredient. Such as the principal
oxidizer (ammonium per chlorate propellants, ammonium nitrate propellants. or azide-type
propellants) or their principal binder or fuel ingredient and also by prope llants with toxic and
nontoxic exhaust gases.
PROPELLANT GRAIN AND GRAIN CONFIGURATION:

The grain is the shaped mass of processed solid propellant inside the rocket motor. The
propellant material and geometrical configuration of the grain determine the motor performance
characteristics. The propellant grain is a cast, molded, or extruded body and its appearance and
feel is similar to that of hard rubber or plastic. Once ignited, it will burn on all its exposed
surfaces to form hot gases that are then exhausted through a nozzle. A few rocket motors have
more than one grain inside a single case or chamber and very few grains have segments made of
different propellant composition
Cartridge- loaded or freestanding grains are manufactured separately from the case (by
extrusion or by casting into a cylindrical mold or cartridge) and then loaded into or assembled
into the case. In case-bonded grains the case is used as a mold and the propellant is cast directly
into the case and is bonded to the case or case insulation.

56
Free-standing grains can more easily be replaced if the propellant grain has aged excessively.
Cartridge- loaded grains are used in some small tactical missiles and a few medium-sized motors.
They often have a lower cost and are easier to inspect. The case-bonded grains give a somewhat
better performance, a little less inert mass (no holding device, support pads, and less insulation),
a better volumetric loading fraction, are more highly stressed, and often somewhat more difficult
and expensive to manufacture. Today almost all larger motors and many tactical missile motors
use case bonding.
Definitions and terminology important to grains include:
Configuration: The shape or geometry of the initial burning surfaces of a grain as it is
intended to operate in a motor.
Cylindrical Grain: A grain in which the internal cross section is constant along the axis
regardless of perforation shape.
Neutral Burning:Motor burn time during which thrust, pressure, and burning surface area
remain approximately constant, typically within about =15%. Many grains are neutral burning.
Perforation: The central cavity port or flow passage of a propellant grain; its cross section
may be a cylinder, a star shape, etc.
Progressive Burning: Burn time during which thrust, pressure, and burning surface area
increases
Regressive Burning: Burn time during which thrust, pressure, and burning surface area
decreases
Silver: Unburned propellant remaining (or lost – that is, expelled through the nozzle) at the
time of web burnout.

57
Burning time, Or Effective Burning Time, tb : Usually, the interval from 10% maximum
initial pressure (or thrust) to web burnout, with web burnout usually taken as the aft tangent-
bisector point on the pressure-time trace.
Action Time, Ta: The burning time plus most of the time to burn silvers; typically, the interval
between the initial and final 10% pressure 9or thrust) points on the pressure-time trace.
Deflagration limit: The minimum pressure at which combustion can still be barely self
sustained and maintained without adding energy. Below this pressure the combustion cases
altogether or may be erratic and unsteady with the plume appearing and disappearing
periodically.
Inhibitor: A layer or coating of slow or non burning material (usually, a polymeric rubber type
with filler materials) applied (glued, painted, dipped, or sprayed) to a part of the grain‟s
propellant surface to prevent burning on that surface. By preve nting burning on inhibited
surfaces the initial burning area can be controlled and reduced. Also called restrictor.
Liner: A sticky non-self burning thin layer of polymeric-type material that is applied to the
cases prior to casting the propellant n order to promote good bonding between the propellant
and the case or the insulator. It also allows some axial motion between the grain periphery and
t5he case.
Inte rnal Ins ulator: An internal layer between the case and the propellant grain made of an
adhesive, thermally insulating material that will not burn readily. Its purpose is to limit the heat
transfer to the temperature rise of the case during rocket operation.
Web Thickness, b : The minimum thickness of the grain from the initial burning surface to the
insulated case wall or to the intersection of another burning surface: for an end-burning grain. b
equals the length of the grain.
Web Fraction, bf: For a case-bonded internal burning grain, the ratio of the web thickness b to
the outer radius of the grain:
bf = b/radius=2b/diameter
Volumetric Loading Fraction, Vf: The ratio of propellant volume Vb to the chamber volume
Vc (excluding nozzle) available for propellant, insulation and restrictors Vb = m/p
Vf = Vb/ Vc = It
Where It is the total impulse, Is the specific impulse, and nb the propellant density.

58
A grain has to satisfy several interrelated requirements:

1. From the flight mission one can determine the rocket motor requirements. They have to be
defined and known before the grain can be designed. They are usually established by the
vehicle designers. This can include total impulse, a desired thrust-time curve and a tolerance
thereon, motor mass, ambient temperature limits during storage and operation, available
vehicle volume or envelope, and vehicle accelerations caused by vehicle forces (vibration,
bending, aerodynamic loads, etc.).

59
2. The grain geometry is selected to fit these requirements; it should be compact and use the
available volume efficiently, have an appropriate burn surface versus time profile to match the
desired thrust-time curve, and avoid or predictably control possible erosive burning. The
remaining unburned propellant slivers, and often also the shift of the center of gravity during
burning, should be minimized.
3. The propellant is usually selected on the basis of its performance capability (e.g.,
characteristic velocity), mechanical properties (e.g., strength), ballistic properties (e.g., burning
rate), manufacturing characteristics, exhaust plume characteristics, and aging properties. If
necessary, the propellant formulation may be slightly altered or "tailored" to fit exactly the
required burning time or grain geometry.
4. The structural integrity of the grain, including its liner and/or insulator, must be analyzed to
assure that the grain will not fail in stress or strain under all conditions of loading, acceleration,
or thermal stress. The grain geometry can be changed to reduce excessive stresses.
5. The complex internal cavity volume of perforations, slots, ports, and fins increases with
burning time. These cavities need to be checked for resonance, damping, and combustion
stability.
6. The processing of the grain and the fabrication of the propellant should be simple and low
cost.
Constant area pressure and thrust require a grain with neutral burning characteristic, while
increasing and decreasing value of these parameters require progressive and regressive burning
characteristics, respectively. The only simple type of grain with a single burning surface
yielding a neutral characteristic is that with end burning or “Cigarette burning. This does not
yield a high thrust, as cross sectional area is limited and hence it is used only for small
rockets. A simple hollow cylinder to give longitudinal burning results in progressive burning,
as the area continually increases, but the addition of a central cylindrical grain or provision of a
key slot throughout the length can be made to give a neutral characteristic. A stat or multi fin
type of grain can also give neutral burning and this general type of configuration is popular, as
the grain has structural strength and requires no additional supports except in the very largest
sizes. Small variations of the fin shape can yield progressive or regressive burning to a
program such as two-step burning. Some grain geometries are show in the fig. Portions of grain
surfaces which are not required to burn but which may ignite adventitiously can be inhibited by

60
casting the surface with an insert or very slow burning substances. The outside of the grain at
the grain at the wall must have an inhibitor and a layer of non-combustible insulating material
to protect the casing.
The third factor in solid propellant burning is erosive burning, that is accelerated
combustion due to the flow or burning gases along the surfaces of the propellant. At ignition,
the cross sectional area for the flow of the gas within the grain is a minimum. It is larger than
the nozzle area of course and increase with time as the propellant burns. There is thus a
significant gas velocity during the early part of the combustion period , with the gases
sweeping over the burning surface. The effect is one of a boundary layer, with high velocities
producing a thinner layer, with increased heat to transfer to the propellant. It is largely this heat
transfer and consequent preheating of the propellant, which increase the burning rate and leads
to erosive burning. Thus a fast burning performance will be less subject to erosive burning t han
a slower one and hence the phenomenon is associated with propellant composition, at least up
to high pressure (=100psi).
3.5 EROSIVE BURNING IN SOLID PROPELLANT ROCKETS:

Erosive burning refers to the increase in the propellant burning rate caused by the high-
velocity flow of combustion gases over the burning propellant surface. It can seriously affect
the performance of solid propellant rocket motors. It occurs primarily in the port passa ges or
perforations of the grain as the combustion gases flow toward the nozzle; it is more likely to
occur when the port passage cross-sectional area A is small relative to the throat area At with a
port-to-throat area ratio of 4 or less.
The high velocity near the burning surface and the turbulent mixing in the boundary layers
increase the heat transfer to the solid propellant and thus increase the burning rate. Erosive
burning increases the mass flow and thus also the chamber pressure and thrust during the early
portion of the burning, As soon as the burning enlarges the flow passage (without a major
increase in burning area), the port area flow velocity is reduced and erosive burning diminishes
until normal burning will again occur. Since propellant is consumed more rapidly during the
early erosive burning, there usually is also a reduction of flow and thrust at the end of burning.
Erosive burning also causes early burnout of the web, usually at the nozzle end, and exposes
the insulation and aft closure to hot combustion gas for a longer period of time; this usually

61
requires more insulation layer thickness (and more inert mass) to prevent local thermal failure.
In designing motors, erosive burning is either avoided or controlled to be reproducible from
one motor to the next.
3.6 COMBUSTION INSTABILITY:

Two types of combustion instability: a set of acoustic resonances or pressure oscillations,
which can occur with any rocket motor, and a vortex shedding phenomenon, which occurs only
with particular types of grains.
ACOUSTIC INSTABILITIES:
When a solid propellant rocket motor experiences unstable combustion, the pressure in the
interior gaseous cavities (made up by the volume of the port or perforations, fins, slots, conical
or radial groves) oscillates by at least 5% and often by more than 30% of the chamber pressure.
When instability occurs, the heat transfer to the burning surfaces, the nozzle, and the insulated
case walls is greatly increased; the burning rate, chamber pressure, a nd thrust usually increase;
but the burning duration is thereby decreased. The change in the thrust-time profile causes
significant changes in the flight path, and at times this can lead to failure of the mission. If
prolonged and if the vibration energy level is high, the instability can cause damage to the
hardware, such as overheating the case and causing a nozzle or case failure. Instability is a
condition that should be avoided and must be carefully investigated and remedied if it occurs
during a motor development program. Final designs of motors must be free of such instability.

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The pressure oscillations increase in magnitude, and the thrust and burning rate also increase.
The frequency seems to be a function of the cavity geometry, propellant composition, pressure,
and internal flame field.
Chuffing is the periodic low frequency discharge of a bushy, unsteady flame of short
duration (typically less than 1 sec) followed by periods of no visible flame, during which slow
out gassing and vaporization of the solid propellant accumulates hot gas in the chamber. The
motor experiences spurts of combustion and consequent pressure buildup followed by periods
of nearly ambient pressure.
VORTEX-SHEDDING INSTABILITY:
This instability is associated with burning on the inner surfaces of slots in the grain.
Large segmented rocket motors have slots between segments, and some grain configurations
have slots that intersect the centerline of the grain. Hot gases from the burning slot surfaces
enter the main flow in the perforation or central cavity of the grain. The hot gas from the slot is
turned into a direction toward the nozzle. The flow from the side stream restricts the flow
emanating from the upstream side of the perforation and, in effect, reduces the port area. This
restriction causes the upstream port pressure to rise; sometimes there is a substantial pressure
rise.

63
The interaction of the two subsonic gas flows causes turbulence. Vortices form and are
periodically shed or allowed to flow downstream, thereby causing an unstable flow pattern.
The vortex shedding patterns can interact with the acoustic instabilities. The vortex shedding
patterns can interact with the acoustic instabilities.
3.7 STRAND BURNER AND T-BURNER:
A strand burne r is a small pressure vessel (usually with windows) in which a thin strand
or bar of propellant is ignited at one end and burned to the other end. The strand can be
inhibited with an external coating so that it will burn only on the exposed cross-sectional
surface; chamber pressure is simulated by pressurizing the container with inert gas. The
burning rate can be measured by electric signals from embedded wires, by ultrasonic waves, or
by optical methods.
The burning rate measured on strand burners is usually lower than that obtained from
motor firing (by 4 to 12%) because it does not truly simulate the hot chamber environment.
Also small ballistic evaluation motors usually have a slightly lower burning rate than full- scale
larger motors, because of scaling factors. The relationship between the three measured burning
rates is determined empirically for each propellant category and grain configuration. Strand-
burner data are useful in screening propellant formulations and in quality control operations.
Data from full-scale motors tested under a variety of conditions constitute the final proof of
burning-rate behavior. Obviously, the strand burner and other substitutes for the full- scale
motor.

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A T-burner is used for gaining combustion stability-related data. It is an indirect, limited

method that does not use a full-scale motor.
A standard T-burner has a 1.5- in. internal diameter double-ended cylindrical burner vented
at its midpoint. Venting can be through a sonic nozzle to the atmosphere or by a pipe
connected to a surge tank which maintains a constant level of pressure in the b urner cavity. T-
burner design and usage usually concentrate on the portion of the frequency spectrum dealing
with the transverse oscillations expected in a full-scale motor. The desired acoustical
frequency, to be imposed on the propellant charge as it burns, determines the burner length
(distance between closed ends). The nozzle location, midway between the ends of the burner,
minimizes attentuation of fundamental longitudinal mode oscillations (in the propellant grain
cavity).
Acoustic velocity nodes are out of phase with pressure waves and occur at the ends of the
burner. Propellant charges are often in the shape of discs or cups cemented to the end faces of
the burner. The gas velocity in the burner cavity is kept intentionally low (Mach 0.2 or less)
compared with the velocity in a full- scale motor. This practice minimizes the influence of
velocity-coupled energy waves and allows the influence of pressure-coupled waves to be more
clearly recognized.
T-burner are used for assessing the stability of a full-scale solid rocket presupposes valid
theoretical models of the phenomena occurring in both the T-burner and the actual rocket

65
motor. In addition to assessing solid rocket motor combustion stability, the T burner also is
used to evaluate new propellant formulations and the importance of seemingly small changes
in ingredients, such as a change in aluminum powder particle size and oxidizer grind method.
3.8 APPLICATIONS AND ADVANTAGES OF SOLID PROPELLANT ROCKETS:
APPLICATIONS OF SOLID PROPELLANT ROCKETS:

Solid propellant rockets are used in assisted-takeoff missiles, projectiles and a number of
other applications. For small rocket missiles almost invariably solid propellant rocket is used as
it is, quite adequate for the range in question and is much more easy to handle than the liquid
propellant rocket of same size. Solid propellant rockets have limited duration of burning and it
is difficult to control the burning of the propellant as well as cooling of the combustion
chamber.
The evolution of technology in solid propellant rockets enabled its use for high
performance systems. Today Long range missiles and boosters for satellite launch vehicles
employ solid rockets for their simplicity and ease of handling and storage requirements.
ADVANTAGES OF SOLID PROPELLANT ROCKETS:

1. Simple design (few or no moving parts).
2. Easy to operate (little preflight checkout).
3. Ready to operate quickly.
4. Will not leak, spill, or slosh.
5. Sometimes less overall weight for low total impulse application.
6. Can be throttled or stopped and restarted (a few times) if preprogrammed.
7. Can provide TVC, but at increased complexity.
8. Can be stored for 5 to 25 years.
9. Usually, higher overall density; this allows a more compact package, a smaller vehicle (less
drag).
10. Some propellants have nontoxic, clean exhaust gases, but at a performance penalty.
11. Some grain and case designs can be used with several nozzles.
12. Thrust termination devices permit control over total impulse.

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13. Ablation and gasification of insulator, nozzle, and liner materials contribute to mass flow
and thus to total impulse.
14. Some tactical missile motors have been produced in large quantities (over 200,000 per
year).
15.Can be designed for recovery, refurbishing, and reuse (Space Shuttle solid rocket motor).
DISADVANTAGES OF SOLID PROPELLANT ROCKETS:

1. Explosion and fire potential is larger; failure can be catastrophic; most cannot accept bullet
impact or being dropped onto a hard surface.
2. Many require environmental permit and safety features for transport on public conveyances.
3. Under certain conditions some propellants and grains can detonate.
4. Cumulative grain damage occurs through temperature cycling or rough handling; this limits
the useful life.
5. If designed for reuse, it requires extensive factory rework and new propellants.
6. Requires an ignition system.
7. Each restart requires a separate ignition system and additional insulation--in practice, one or
two restarts.
8. Exhaust gases are usually toxic for composite propellants containing ammonium perchlorate.
9. Some propellants or propellant ingredients can deteriorate (self-decompose) in storage.
10. Most solid propellant plumes cause more radio frequency attenuation than liquid propellant
plumes.
11. Only some motors can be stopped at random, but motor becomes disabled (not reusable).
12. Once ignited, cannot change predetermined thrust or duration. A moving pintle design with
a variety throat area will allow random thrust changes, but experience is limited.
12. If propellant contains more than a few percent particulate carbon, aluminum, or other
metal, the exhaust will be smoky and the plume radiation will be intense.
13. Integrity of grain (cracks, unbonded areas) is difficult to determine in the field.
14.Thrust and operating duration will vary with initial ambient grain temperature and cannot be
easily controlled. Thus the flight path, velocity, altitude, and range of a motor will vary with
the grain temperature.
15. Large boosters take a few seconds to start.

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16. Thermal insulation is required in almost all rocket motors.

17. Cannot be tested prior to use.
18. Needs a safety provision to prevent inadvertent ignition, which would lead to an unplanned
motor firing. Can cause a disaster.

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UNIT IV
LIQUID AND HYBRID ROCKET PROPULSION
Salient features of liquid propellant rockets – selection of liquid propellants – various feed
systems and injectors for liquid propellant rockets -thrust control and cooling in liquid
propellant rockets and the associated heat transfer problems – combustion instability in liquid
propellant rockets – peculiar problems associated with operation of cryogenic engines -
Introduction to hybrid rocket propulsion – standard and reverse hybrid systems- combustion
mechanism in hybrid propellant rockets –applications and limitations.
4.1 SALIENT FEATURES OF LIQUID PROPELLANT ROCKETS:

A liquid propellant propulsion system is commonly called a rocket engine. It has all the hardware
components and propellants necessary for its operation, that is for producing thrust. If consists of
one or more thrust chambers, one or more tanks, to store propellants, a feed mechanism to force
the propellants from the tanks into the thrust chambers, a power source to furnish the e nergy for
the feed mechanism, suitable plumbing or piping to transfer the liquids, a structure to transmit
the thrust force, and control devices to initiate and regulate the propellant flow and thus the
thrust. In some applications an engine may also include a thrust vector control system, various
instrumentation and residual propellant (trapped in pipes, valves, or wetting tank walls). It does
not include hardware for non-propulsive purposes, such as aerodynamic surfaces, guidance, or
navigation equipment, or the useful payload such as scientific space exploration package or
missile warhead.
PROPELLANTS:
The propellants, which are the working substance or rocket engines, constitute the fluid
that undergoes chemical and thermodynamic changes. The term liquid propellant embraces all
the various liquids used and may be one of the following:
1. Oxidizer (liquid oxygen, nitric acid, etc.,)
2. Fuel (liquid Hydrogen, gasoline, alcohol, etc.,)
3. Chemical compound or mixture of oxidizer and fuel ingredients, capable of self-
decomposition.
4. Any of the above, but with a gelling agent.

69
A bipropellant rocket unit has two separate liquid propellants, an oxidizer and a fuel. They
are stored separately and are not mixed outside the combustion chamber. The majority of liquid
propellant rockets have been manufactured for bipropellant applications.
A monopropellant contains a oxidizing agent and combustible matter in single substance. It
may be mixture of several compounds or it may be homogeneous material, such hydrogen
peroxide or hydrazine. Monopropellants are stable at ordinary atmosp heric conditions but
decomposed and yield hot combustion gases when heated or catalyzed.
A cold gas propellant (e.g. Nitrogen) is stored at very high pressure, gives a low
performance, allows a simple system and is usually very reliable. It has been used for roll
control and attitude control.
A cryogenic propellant is liquefied gas at low temperature, such as liquid oxygen (-183‟C) or
liquid hydrogen (-253‟c). Provision for venting the storage tank and minimizing vaporization
losses.
Storable propellants (e.g. nitric acid or gasoline) are liquid at ambient temperature and can be
store for long periods in sealed tanks. Space storable propellants are liquid in the environment
of space; this storability depends on the specific tank design, thermal cond itions, and tank
pressure. An example is ammonia.
A gelled propellant is a thyrotrophic liquid with a gelling additive. It is like a jelly or thick
paint. It will not spill or leak. Readily, can flow under pressure, will burn and is safer in some
respects.

70
The propellant mixture ratio for a bipropellant is the ratio at which the oxidizer and duel are
mixed and react to give hot gases. The mixture ratio r is defined as
mixture ratio r = mo /mr
It is usually chosen to give maximum value of specific impulse or To / M where To is the
combustion temperature, M is the molecular mass of the reaction gases. For a given thrust T
and a given effective exhaust velocity Vj The total propellant flow is given by,
m= =
LIQUID PROPELLANT ROCKET ADVANTAGES:
1. Usually highest specific impulse; for a fixed propellant mass, this increases the
vehicle velocity increment and the attainable mission velocity.
2. Can be randomly throttled and randomly stopped and restarted; can be efficiently
pulsed (some small thrust sizes over 250,000 time). Thrust-time profile can be
randomly controlled, this allows a reproducible flight trajectory.
3. Cutoff impulse can be controllable with thrust termination device (better control of
vehicle terminal velocity).
4. Can be largely checked out just prior to operation. Can be tested at full thrust on
ground or launch pad prior to flight.
5. Can be designed for reuse after field services and checkout.
6. Thrust chamber (or some part of the vehicle) can be cooled and made light weight.
7. Storable liquid propellants have been kept in vehicle for more than 20 years and
engine can be ready to operate quickly.
8. With pumped propulsion feed systems and large total I pulse, the inert propulsion
system mass (including tanks) can be very low (thin tank walls and low tank
pressure), allowing a high propellant mass fraction.
9. Most propellants have nontoxic exhaust, which is environmentally acceptable.
10. Some propellants have nontoxic exhaust, which is environmentally acceptable.
11. Can modify operating conditions during firing to prevent some failures that would
otherwise result in the loss of the mission or vehicle.
12. Can provide component redundancy to enhance reliability.

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13. With pumped propulsion feed systems and large total impulse the inert propulsion
system mass can be very low allowing a high propellant mass fraction.
14. Can provide component redundancy to enhance reliability (e.x. dual check valves or
extra thrust chamber).
15. With multiple engines, can design for operation with one or more shutoff (engine
out capability).
16. The geometry of low-pressure tanks can be designed to fit most vehicles space
constraints.
17. The placement propellant tanks within the vehicle can minimize the travel of the
center of gravity during powered flight. This enhances the vehicles flight stability and
reduces control forces.
18. Plume radiation and smoke are usually low.
LIQUID PROPELLANT ROCKET DISADVANTAGES:
1. Relatively complex design, more parts or components more things to go wrong.

2. Cryogenic propellants cannot be stored for long pe riods except when tanks are well
insulated, and escaping vapors are recondensed. Propellant loading stand requires
cryogenic propellants storage facilities.
3. Spills or leaks of several propellants can be hazardous, corrosive, toxic and cause
fires.
4. Non hypergolic propellants require an ignition system.
5. Tanks need to be pressurized by a separate pressurization subsystem. This can require
high pressure inert gas storage (2000 to 10000 psi) for long periods of time.
6. More difficult to control combustion instability.
7. Bullet Impact will cause leaks, sometimes a fire, but usually no detonations, gelled
propellant can minimize eliminate these hazards.
8. A few propellants give toxic vapors or fumes.
9. Usually requires more volume due to lower average propellant density and the
relatively inefficient packaging of engine components.
10. It vehicle breaks up and fuel and oxidizer are intimately mixed, it is possible that an
explosive mixture be created.

72
11. Sloshing in tank can cause a flight stability problem, but it can be minimized with
baffles. If tank outlet is uncovered aspirated gas can cause combustion interruption or
combustion vibration.
12. Smoky exhaust plume can occur with some hydrocarbon fuels.
13. Needs special design provisions for start in zero gravity.
14. With cryogenic liquid propellants there is a start delay caused by the time needed to
cool the system flow passage cryogenic temperatures.
15. Life of cooled large thrust chambers may be limited to perhaps 100 or more starts.
16. High-thrust unit requires several seconds to start.
4.2 SELECTION OF LIQUID PROPELLANTS:

Heat of combustion: The calorific value of liquid propellant system (oxidizer plus fuel) should
be as high possible.
Reaction rate: The reaction should take place at a rapid rate so that the stay time required for
complete combustion of the propellant will be very small.
Average propellant density: The average density of the propellant combination should be as
large as possible so that a large weight of propellants can be carried in a small volume. In
general, the liquid fuel has lower densities then oxidizers, so that bipropellants which give good
values of specific impulse with large values of mixture ratio gives the largest values o f average
density.
Stability: The propellant should be stable chemically and not deteriorable appreciably over
reasonable storage periods (several months) at storage temperatures ranging from – 65‟F to
approximately 160‟F
Vapor pressure: It is desirable that the vapor pressure of the liquid propellant be small at
temperatures up to approximately 160‟F otherwise, its storage over long period become difficult.
Moreover, high vapor pressures the apt to introduce cavitations in the pumps for pressurizing the
propellant.
Freezing point: It is desirable that the propellant remain liquid at lower temperature to be
encountered in storage on the ground and also in the stratosphere. Propellants which freeze at
temperatures higher than – 60‟F will not meet the requirements of low freezing point in most
military applications.

73
Ignitability: It is desirable that the propellants, or monopropellants ignite in the smallest

possible time interval after combustion chamber furthermore, the ignitability should not be
affected adversely by decrease in the temperature of the propellants.
Viscosity: The viscosity of the propellant should be low and not increase appreciably at low
temperatures.
Specific Heat: If the propellant is to be employed for convective cooling of the rocket motor, a
high specific heat is advantageous. Otherwise, the specific heat is immaterial
Thermal Conductivity: Like the specific heat, the thermal conductivity is of importance only if
the propellant is to be employed as a cooling purposes, a large value of thermal conductivity is
desirable.
Corrosiveness: The chemical activity of the propellant with the materials for constructing
storage tanks, valves, rocket motors, pumps, and seals introduces: problems of storage, handling,
and design.
Storage Hazards: Such properties a toxicity, explosion and fire hazard and desirability must be
investigated before a liquid propellant is put into general use. Methods for handling, transporting,
transferring and storing the propellants must be devised which will available personal to work
with them with the maximum of safety.
Availability : Propellants which are to be used in large quantity either must be readily available
or these production possibilities must be sufficient to meet the demand.
Cost: The cost of a propellant combination should be in terms or realizable impulse per unit cost.
Of course, a large value of impulse per unit cost is desirable.
4.3 VARIOUS FEED SYSTEMS AND INJECTORS FOR LIQUID PROPELLANT

ROCKETS:
The propellant feed system has two principal functions: to raise the pressure of the
propellants and to feed them to one or more thrust chambers. The energy for these functions
comes either from a high-pressure gas, centrifugal pumps, or a combination of the two.
Liquid propellants are required to be injected at a pressure slightly above the combustor
pressure. Two types of feed systems can be employed; they are (i) gas pressure feed system and
(ii) the pump feed system. The former is much simpler and widely used for low thrust and short-
range operations. The latter is used in large engines.

74
GAS PRESSURE FEED SYSTEM:

Figure shows a schematic diagram of a liquid propellant rocket employing the “gas
pressure feed system”. An inert gas is separately carried at a pressure much higher than the
injection pressure this is used to exert the required pressure in the propellant tanks. The
pressurizing gas is chosen on the basis of its chemical properties, density, pressure and the total
weight of the gas and the tank. A gas, which is ideal for one propellant, may be quite unsuitable
for another. Nitrogen, Helium and air have been used for pressurization. The propellants under
high pressure are forced to flow into the thrust chamber through values, feed lines and injectors.
Several regulating and check valves are used for filling, draining, starting and checking the flow
of propellants.
In this method no moving parts such as pumps and turbines are used. Therefore the
system is considerably simpler. However, the pressurization of the propellant tanks requires t hem
to be comparatively much heavier and introduces a weight penalty besides other problems.
Therefore this system in unsuitable for large rocket engines and long range missions.
Pressure for injection can also be generated within the propellant tank or tanks by introducing a
small quantity of a gas, which reacts exothermally with the propellant; this produces the high
pressure gas required to force the propellant into the combustor.

75
TURBO PUMP FEED SYSTEM:

In the turbo pump feed system propellants from the tanks are pumped into the combustor by gas
turbine driven centrifugal pumps. The turbine or turbines work on high pressure and temperature
gas generated separately or tapped out from the main combustor. Figure depicts a general
arrangements of a turbo pump system. Here both the fuel and oxidizer pumps re driven by a
single turbine. In order to achieve flexibility in choosing the design and operating parameters the
fuel and oxidizer pumps can be driven separately by their turbines.
Figure depicts a turbo pump feed system employing a single turbine driving the fuel and
oxidizer pumps through a reduction gear. The turbine operates on a separate gas stream
generated from the propellants in an independent gas ge nerator as shown. A pressurizing gas can
be used to increase the pressure of the propellants at the pump suction to avoid cavitations and
the resulting instability in pump operation.
Generally turbine speeds are high; therefore propellant pumps can be driven at optimum
speeds through reduction gears with an additional weight penalty. The working gas for the
turbine can also be generated at the optimum temperature and pressure. The gas generator also
has its own injection and ignition systems. The flow of propellants to the gas generator occurs (in
the system shown in figure) due to the action of the pressurizing gases. If gas pressurization is
not employed the propellants can be bled from the delivery lines of the pumps. The propellant
from required for driving the turbine is f the order of 1.5 to 5 per cent of the main flow. The
turbine exhaust is also expanded through an exhaust nozzle to provide an additional thrust as
shown in the figure.
An auxiliary power unit is also needed in a rocket engine. An single turbine can develop
sufficient power to drive the propellant pumps as well as the electric generator. Besides working
on high energy gases bled from the main thrust chamber or combustor it can also employ its own
combustor with a gas pressure feed system. An alternate method, which is comparatively
simpler, is to generate the working gases by burning solid propellants in a manner similar to the
solid propellant rocket.

76
The turbine and pumps for rocket applications are designed to meet some special
requirements. There are enormous temperature differences within a turbo-pump unit. The high-
pressure gas at the turbine inlet is at a high temperature of the order of 1500K whereas the
temperature of some of the propellants are highly reactive. Therefore, the sealing arrangement in
propellant pumps should be perfect and resistant to corrosion. Both positive displacement and
turbo pumps can be used for delivering propellants from the tanks to the combustion chamber.
However, centrifugal pumps are widely used. For a given peripheral speed of the pump impeller
it is preferable to employ higher rotational speed in order to restrict the size of the pump.
INJECTORS FOR LIQUID ROCKETS:

The function of the injectors is similar to those of a carb uretor of an internal combustion
engine. The injector has to introduce and meter he flow of the liquid propellant to the
combustion chamber, cause the liquids to be broken up into small droplets ( a process called
atomization) and distribute and mix the propellant in such a manner that the correctly
proportionate mixture of fuel and oxidizer will result, with uniform propellant mass flow and
composition over the chamber cross section. This has been accomplished with different types of
injector design and elements; several common types are shown in figure below.

77
The injection hole pattern on the face of the injector is closely related to the internal
manifolds or feed passages with the injectors. Those provides for the distribution of propellant
from the injector inlet to all the injection holes, a large complex manifold volume allows low
passage velocities and good distribution of flow over the cross section of the chamber. A small
manifold volume allows for a lighter weight injector and reduces the amount of “dribble”. flow
after the main walls are shut.
The higher passage velocity causes an uneven flow through the different identical injection
holes and thus a poorer distribution and wider local gas composition variation. Dribbling results
in after burning, which is an insufficient irregular combustion that give a little cut o ff thrust after
wall closing. For application with very accurate terminal vehicle velocity requirements, a cut off
impulse has to be very small and reproducible and often walls are build into the injector to
minimize passage wall.
The impinging steam type, multi hole injectors are commonly used with oxygen hydrocarbon
and storable propellants. For unlike doublet patterns the propellants are injected through a

78
number of separate small holes in impingement forms thin liquid fans and aids atomization of the
liquids into droplets, also distributions. Characteristics of specific injection orifice are given in
the table. Impinging hole injector are also used for like on like or cells impinging patterns (fuel
on fuel and oxidizer on oxidizer)
The two liquid steams then form a fan, which breaks up into droplets. Unlike doublets work
best when the hole size of the fuel is about equal to that of the oxidizer and the ignition delay is
long enough to allow the formation of fans. For uneven volume flow the triplet pattern seems to
be more effective.
The non-impinging or showerhead injector employs non- impinging steams of propellant
usually emerge in normal to the face of the injector. It release on turbulence and diffusion to
achieve mixing. This type is not used, because it requires a large chamber volume for good
combustion. Sheet or sprays type injectors give cylindrical, conical, or other types of spray
sheets, these sprays generally intersect and thereby promote mixing and atomization. By varying
the width of the sheet (through an axially moveable sleeve) it is possible to throttle the propellant
flow over a wide range without excessive reduction in injector pressure drop. his type of variable
area concentric tube injector was used on the descent engine of the lunar excursion module and
throttled over a range of flow with only a very small in mixture ratio.
The coaxial hollow post injector has been used for liquid oxygen and gaseous hydrogen
injectors by most domestic and foreign rocket designers. It is shown in the lower left of Fig. It
works well when the liquid hydrogen has absorbed heat from cooling jackets and has been
gasified. This gasified hydrogen flows at high speed (typically 330 m/sec or 1000 ft/sec); the
liquid oxygen flows far more slowly (usually at less than 33 m sec or 100 ft/sec) and the
differential velocity caused a shear action, which helps to break up the oxygen stream into small
droplets. The injector has a multiplicity of these coaxial posts on it face. This type of injector is
not used with liquid storable bipropellants, in part because the pressure drop to achieve high
velocity would become too high.

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4.4 THRUST CONTROL AND COOLING IN LIQUID PROPELLANT ROCKETS AND THE
ASSOCIATED HEAT TRANSFER PROBLEMS:
THRUST VECTOR CONTROL:
All chemical propulsion systems can be provided with one of several types of thrust vector
control (TVC) mechanisms. Some of these apply either to solid, hybrid, or to liquid propellant
rocket propulsion systems.
Aerodynamic fins (fixed and movable) continue to be very effective for controlling vehicle
flight within the earth's atmosphere, and almost all weather rockets, antiaircraft missiles, and air-
to-surface missiles use them. Even though aerodynamic control surfaces provide some additional
drag, their effectiveness in terms of vehicle weight, turning moment, and actuating power
consumption is difficult to surpass with any other flight control method.
The reasons for TVC are: (1) to willfully change a flight path or trajectory (e.g., changing t he
direction of the flight path of a target-seeking missile); (2) to rotate the vehicle or change its
attitude during powered flight; (3) to correct for deviation from the intended trajectory or the
attitude during powered flight; or (4) to correct for thrust misalignment of a fixed nozzle in the
main propulsion system during its operation, when the main thrust vector misses the vehicle's
center of gravity.
TVC MECHANISMS WITH A SINGLE NOZZLE:
They can be classified into four categories:
1. Mechanical deflection of the nozzle or thrust chamber.
2. Insertion of heat-resistant movable bodies into the exhaust jet; these experience aerodynamic
forces and cause a deflection of a part of the exhaust gas flow.
3. Injection of fluid into the side of the diverging no zzle section, causing an asymmetrical
distortion of the supersonic exhaust flow.
4. Separate thrust-producing devices that are not part of the main flow through the nozzle.
In the hinge or gimbal sche me (a hinge permits rotation about one axis only, whereas a gimbal
is essentially a universal joint), the whole engine is pivoted on a bearing and thus the thrust
vector is rotated. For small angles this scheme has negligible losses in specific impulse a nd is
used in many vehicles. It requires a flexible set of propellant piping (bellows) to allow the
propellant to flow from the tanks of the vehicle to the movable engine.

80
Jet vanes are pairs of heat-resistant, aerodynamic wing-shaped surfaces submerged in the
exhaust jet of a fixed rocket nozzle. They were first used about 55 years ago. They cause extra
drag (2 to 5% less Is; drag increases with larger vane deflections) and erosion of the vane
material. Graphite jet vanes were used in the German V-2 missile in World War II and in the
Scud missiles fired by Iraq in 1991. The advantage of having roll control with a single nozzle
often outweighs the performance penalties.
Small auxiliary thrust chambers were used in the Thor and early version of Atlas missiles.
They provide roll control while the principal rocket engine operates. They are fed from the same
feed system as the main rocket engine. This scheme is still used on some Russian booster rocket
vehicles.
Injection of Secondary Fluid (SITVC) through the wall of the nozzle into the main gas stream
has the effect of forming oblique shocks in the nozzle diverging section, thus causing an
unsymmetrical distribution of the main gas flow, which produces a side force. The secondary
fluid can be stored liquid or gas from a separate hot gas generator (the gas would then still be
sufficiently cool to be piped), a direct bleed from the chamber, or the injection of a catalyzed
monopropellant. When the deflections are small, this is a low- loss scheme, but for large
moments (large side forces) the amount of secondary fluid becomes excessive.
Movable nozzles are the most efficient. They do not significantly reduce the thrust or the
specific impulse and are weight-competitive with the other mechanical types.
Flexible Seal Nozzle has been used in launch vehicles and large strategic missiles, where the
environmental temperature extremes are modest. At low temperature the elastomer becomes stiff
and the actuation torques increase substantially, requiring a much larger actuation system. It
uses a movable joint with a toroidal hydraulic bag to transfer loads. There are double seals to
prevent leaks of hot gas and various insulators to keep the structure below 200°F or 93°C.
Jet Tab TVC system has low torque, and is simple for flight vehicles with low-area-ratio
nozzles. Its thrust loss is high when tabs are rotated at full angle into the jet, but is zero when the
tabs are in their neutral position outside of the jet. On most flights the time-averaged position of
the tab is a very small angle and the average thrust loss is small. Jet tabs can form a very
compact mechanism and have been used successfully on tactical missiles.
Jetavator was used on submarine-launched missiles. The thrust loss is roughly proportional to
the vector angle.

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Thrust Magnitude Control (TMC):

Thrust magnitude control (TMC) allows for large thrust variations usually with small variations
in chamber pressure. In some liquid-propellant rocket motors, TMC has been used without
varying the throat area by reducing the mass flow into the chamber. As a result of the reduced
mass flow, the chamber pressure decreases too. This may cause irregular combustion, or even
extinguishments. Apart from this, the exhaust velocity is also lowered. Twp possible systems
without these adverse effects are the translating inlet nozzle and the pintle nozzle. Both systems
vary the throat to modulate the thrust. The translating nozzle is primarily designed for two
different thrust magnitudes. An outline is given in Fig. The port. A, is either closed or fully
opened. If the port, A, is closed the sustain throat is the only way through which propulsive gases

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can leave the rocket engine. If port A is opened, an extra boost flow can leave the combustion
chamber and the boost throat acts as nozzle throat.
The pintle nozzle employs a center body that can move in an axial direction; thereby
continuously vary in the throat area, Fig. The central body, which holds the movable pintle is
mounted on struts on the nozzle inlet. It is of course, possible to co mbine TVC and TMC to
obtain real thrust vector control, i.e both magnitude and direction of the thrust can be varied.
Another TMC device that should be mentioned in this section is the extendable exit cone. If
curing powered flight under-expansion losses become unacceptably large, one can increase the
thrust by lengthening the exit cone. This may be done by moving aft an extension to the
divergent part of the nozzle. This concept was planned for the Space Shuttle main Engine,
SSME, but has been abandoned to keep the mechanism simple.

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COOLING IN LIQUID PROPELLANT ROCKETS:

The primary objective of cooling is to prevent the chamber and nozzle walls from becoming
too hot, so they will no longer be able to withstand the imposed loads or stresses, thus causing
the chamber or nozzle to fail. Most wall materials lose strength and become weaker as
temperature is increased. These loads and stresses are discussed in the next section. With further
heating, the walls would ultimately fail or even melt. Cooling thus reduces the wall temperatures
to an acceptable value. Basically, there are two cooling methods in common use today. The first
is the steady state method. The heat transfer rate and the temperatures of the chambers reach
thermal equilibrium. This includes regenerative cooling and radiation cooling. The duration is
limited only by the available supply of propellant.
Regenerative cooling is done by building a cooling jacket around the thrust chamber and
circulating one of the liquid propellants (usually the fuel) through it before it is fed to the
injector. This cooling technique is used primarily with bipropellant chambers of medium to large
thrust. It has been effective in applications with high chamber pressure and high heat transfer
rates. Also, most injectors use regenerative cooling.
In radiation cooling the chamber and/or nozzle have only a single wall made of high
temperature material. When it reaches thermal equilibrium, this wall usually glows red or white
hot and radiates heat away to the surroundings or to empty space. Radiation cooling is used with
monopropellant thrust chambers, bipropellant and monopropellant gas generators, and for
diverging nozzle exhaust sections beyond an area ratio of about 6 to 10. A few small bipropellant
thrusters are also radiation cooled. This cooling scheme has worked well with lower chamber
pressures (less than 250 psi) and moderate heat transfer rates.
The second cooling method relies on transient heat transfer or unsteady heat transfer. It is also
called heat sink cooling. The thrust chamber does not reach a thermal equilibrium, and
temperatures continue to increase with operating duration. The heat absorbing capacity of the
hardware determines its maximum duration. The rocket combustion operation has to be stopped
just before any of the exposed walls reaches a critical temperature at which it could fail. This
method has mostly been used with low chamber pressures and low heat transfer rates. Heat sink
cooling of thrust chambers can be done by absorbing heat in an inner liner made of an ablative
material, such as fiber-reinforced plastics. Ablative materials are used extensively in solid
propellant rocket.

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Film cooling and special insulation are supplementary techniques that are used occasionally
with both methods to locally augment their cooling capability. This is an auxiliary method
applied to chambers and or nozzles, augmenting either, a marginal steady- state or a transient
cooling method. It can be applied to a complete thrust chamber or just to the no zzle, where heat
transfer is the highest. Film cooling is method of cooling where by a relatively cool thin fluid
film covers and protects exposed will surfaces from excessive heat transfer. The film is
introduced by infecting small quantities of fuel or an inlet fluid at very low velocity through a
large number or orifices along the exposed surfaces in such a manner that a protective relatively
cool gas film is formed. A coolant with a high heat of vaporization and a high boiling point is
particularly desirable.
A special type of film cooling, sweat cooling or transpirations cooling uses a porous wall
material which admits a coolant through pores uniformly over the surface.
Cooling also helps to reduce the oxidation of the wall material and the rate at which walls would
be eaten away. The rates of chemical oxidizing reactions between the hot gas and the wall
material can increase dramatically with wall temperature. This oxidation problem can be
minimized not only by limiting the wall temperature, but also by burning the liquid propellants at
a mixture ratio where the percentage of aggressive gases in the hot gas (such as oxygen or
hydroxyl) is very small, and by coating certain wall materials with an oxidation- resistant
coating; for example iridium has been coated on the inside of rhenium walls.
HEAT TRANSFER PROBLEMS:

Heat transfer calculations are useful to guide the design, testing, and failure investigations. Those
rocket combustion devices that are regenerative cooled or radiation cooled can reach thermal
equilibrium and the steady-state heat transfer relationships will apply. Transient heat transfer
conditions apply not only during thrust buildup (starting) and shutdown of all rocket propulsion
systems, but also with cooling techniques that never reach equilibrium; such as with ablative
materials.

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General Steady-State Heat Transfer Relations:

For heat transfer conduction the following general relation applies,
where Q is the heat transferred per unit across a surface A, dT/dL the temperature gradient with
respect to thickness L at the surface A, and x the thermal conductivity expressed as the amount
of heat transferred per unit time through a unit area of surface for 1 ° temperature difference over
a unit wall thickness. The negative sign indicates that temperature decreases as thickness
increases.
The steady-state heat transfer through the chamber wall of a liquid-cooled rocket chamber can
be treated as a series type, steady-state heat transfer problem with a large temperature gradient
across the gaseous film on the inside of the chamber wall, a temperature drop across the wall,
and, in cases of cooled chambers, a third temperature drop across the film of the moving cooling
fluid. It is a combination of convection at the boundaries of the flowing fluids and conduction
through the chamber walls. The problem is basically one of heat and mass transport associated
with conduction through a wall.
The important quantities for controlling the heat transfer across a rocket chamber wall are the
fluid film boundaries established by the combustion products on one side of the wall and the
coolant flow on the other. The gas film coefficient largely determines the numerical value of the
heat transfer rate, and the liquid film largely determines the value of the wall temperatures. The
temperature drop across the inner wall and the maximum temperature are reduced if the wall is
thin and is made of material of high thermal conductivity. The wall thickness is determined from
strength considerations and thermal stresses, and some designs have as little as 0.025 in.
thickness.
Surface roughness can have a large effect on the film coefficients and thus on the heat flux.
Measurements have shown that the heat flow can be increased by a factor of up to 2 by surface
roughness and to higher factors when designing turbulence-creating obstructions in the cooling
channels. Major surface roughness on the gas side will cause the gas locally to come close to
stagnation temperature. However, surface roughness on the liquid coolant side of the wall will
enhance turbulence and the absorption of heat by the coolant and reduce wall temperatures.

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4.5COMBUSTION INSTABILITY IN LIQUID PROPELLANT ROCKETS:

If the process of rocket combustion is not controlled (by proper design), then combustion
instabilities can occur which can very quickly cause excessive pressure vibration forces (which
may break engine parts) or excessive heat transfer (which may melt thrust chamber parts).
Chugging, the first type of combustion instability stems mostly from the elastic nature of the
feed systems and structures of vehicles or the imposition of propulsion forces upon the vehicle.
Chugging of an engine or thrust chamber assembly can occur in a test facility, especially with
low chamber pressure engines (100 to 500 psi), because of propellant pump cavitation, gas
entrapment in propellant flow, tank pressurization control fluctuations, and vibration of engine
supports and propellant lines. It can be caused by resonances in the engine feed system (such as
an oscillating bellows inducing a periodic flow fluctuation) or a coupling of structural and feed
system frequencies.
When both the vehicle structure and the propellant liquid in the feed system have about the
same natural frequency, then force coupling can occur, not only to maintain, but also to strongly
amplify oscillations. Propellant flow rate disturbances, usually at 10 to 50 Hz, give rise to low
frequency longitudinal combustion instability, producing a longitudinal motion of vibration in
the vehicle. This vehicle flight instability phenomenon has been called pogo instability since it is
similar to pogo jumping stick motion. Pogo instabilities can occur in the propellant feed lines of
large vehicles such as space launch vehicles or ballistic missiles.

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Buzzing, the intermediate type of instability, seldom represents pressure perturbations greater
than 5% of the mean in the combustion chamber and usua lly is not accompanied by large
vibratory energy. It often is more noisy and annoying than damaging, although the occurrence of
buzzing may initiate high- frequency instability. Often it is characteristic of coupling between the
combustion process and flow in a portion of the propellant feed s ystem. Initiation is thought to
be from the combustion process. Acoustic resonance of the combustio n chamber with a critical
portion of the propellant flow system, sometimes originating in a pump, promotes continuation
of the phenomenon. This type of instability is more prevalent in medium-size engines (2000 to
250,000 N thrust or about 500 to 60,000 lbf) than in large engines.
Screeching or Screaming, has high frequency and is most perplexing and most common in the
development of new engines. Both liquid and solid propellant rockets co mmonly experience
high- frequency instability during their development phase. Since energy content increases with
frequency, this type is the most destructive, capable of destroying an engine in much less
than 1 sec. Once encountered, it is the type for which it is most difficult to prove that the
incorporated "fixes" or improvements render the engine "stable" under all launch and flight
conditions. It can be treated as a phenomenon isolated to the combustion chamber and not
generally influenced by feed system or structure.
One possible source of triggering high- frequency instability is a rocket combustion
phenomenon called popping. Popping is an undesirable random highamplitude pressure
disturbance that occurs during steady-state operation of a rocket engine with hypergolic
propellants. It is a possible source for initiation of high- frequency instability. "Pops" exhibit
some of the characteristics of a detonation wave. The rise time of the pressure is a few
microseconds and the pressure ratio across the wave can be as high as 7:1. The elimination of
popping is usually achieved by redesign of the injector rather than by the application of baffles or
absorbers.

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4.6 PECULIAR PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH OPERATION OF CRYOGENIC

ENGINES:
Cryogenic propellants cool the tank wall temperature far below the ambient air temperature.
This causes condensation of moisture on the outside of the tank and usually also formation of ice
during the period prior to launch. The ice is undesirable, because it increases the vehicle inert
mass and can cause valves to malfunction. Also, as pieces of ice are shaken off or break off
during the initial flight, these pieces can damage the vehicle; for example, the ice from the
Shuttle's cryogenic tank can hit the orbiter vehicle.
For an extended storage period, cryogenic tanks are usually thermally insulated; porous
external insulation layers have to be sealed to prevent moisture from being condensed inside the
insulation layer. With liquid hydrogen it is possible to liq uify or solidify the ambient air on the
outside of the fuel tank. Even with heavy insulation and low-conductivity structural tank
supports, it is not possible to prevent the continuous evaporation of the cryogenic fluid. Even
with good thermal insulation, all cryogenic propellants evaporate slowly during storage and
therefore cannot be kept in a vehicle for more than perhaps a week without refilling of the tanks.
For vehicles that need to be stored or to operate for longer periods, a storable propellant
combination must be used.
Prior to loading very cold cryogenic propellant into a flight tank, it is necessary to remove or
evacuate the air to avoid forming solid air particles or condensing any moisture as ice. These
frozen particles would plug up injection holes, cause valves to freeze shut, or prevent valves
from being fully closed. Tanks, piping, and valves need to be chilled or cooled down before they
can contain cryogenic liquid without excessive bubbling. This is usually done by letting the
initial amount of cryogenic liquid absorb the heat from the relatively warm hardware. This initial
propellant is vaporized and vented through appropriate vent valves.
If the tank or any segment of piping containing low-temperature cryogenic liquid is sealed for
an extended period of time, heat from ambient-temperature hardware will result in evaporation
and this will greatly raise the pressure until it exceeds the strength o f the container. This self-
pressurization will cause a failure, usually a major leak or even an explosion. All cryogenic tanks
and piping systems are therefore vented during storage o n the launch pad, equipped with
pressure safety devices (such as burst diaphragms or relief valves), and the evaporated propellant
is allowed to escape from its container.

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For long-term storage of cryogenic propellants in space vacuum (or on the gro und) some form
of a powered refrigeration system is needed to recondense the vapors and minimize evaporation
losses. The tanks are refilled or topped off just before launch to replace the evaporated vented
propellant. When the tank is pressurized, just before launch, the boiling point is usually raised
slightly and the cryogenic liquid can usually absorb the heat transferred to it during the several
minutes of rocket firing. With cryogenic propellants the pipes, pumps, cooling jackets, injectors,
and valves have to be cooled to the cryogenic fluid temperature prior to start, by bleeding cold
propellant through them; this cooling propellant is not used to produce thrust. Its periodic flow
has to be controlled.
4.7 INTRODUCTION TO HYBRID ROCKET PROPULSION:

Rocket propulsion concepts in which one component of the propellant is stored in liquid
phase while the other is stored in solid phase are called hybrid prop ulsion systems. In this hybrid
motor concept, oxidizer is injected into a precombustion or vaporization chamber upstream of
the primary fuel grain. The fuel grain contains numerous axial combustion ports that generate
fuel vapor to react with oxidiser. In this hybrid motor concept, oxidizer is injected into a
precombustion or vaporization chamber upstream of the primary fuel grain. The fuel grain
contains numerous axial combustion ports that generate fuel vapor to react with the injected
oxidizer. An aft mixing chamber is employed to ensure that all fuel and oxidizer are burned
before exiting the nozzle.

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4.8 STANDARD AND REVERSE HYBRID SYSTEMS:
A hybrid, as the name suggests, is an engine that shares components from both solid-
propellant rocket and liquid-propellant rocket design. It has a tank supplying liquid or gaseous
propellant into a combustion chamber that contains a solid propellant. The conventional
„forward‟ hybrid stores liquid oxidizer in the tank, and solid fuel within the chamber. With a
„reverse‟ hybrid, the fuel is the liquid in the tank, and solid oxidizer is in the chamber.
4.9 COMBUSTION MECHANISM IN HYBRID PROPELLANT ROCKETS:
A hybrid fuel grain is ignited by providing a source of heat, which initiates gasification of the
solid fuel grain at the head end of the motor. Subsequent initiation of oxidizer flow provides the
required flame spreading to fully ignite the motor. Ignition is typically accomplished by injection
of a hypergolic fluid into the motor combustion chamber. A mixture of triethyl aluminum (TEA)
and triethyl borane (TEB) is injected into the vaporization chamber. The TEA/TEB mixture
ignites spontaneously on contact with air in the combustion chamber, vaporizing fuel in the
dome region. Subsequent injection of liquid oxygen completes ignition of the motor. TEA.
High performance stems from high combustion efficiency that is a direct function of the
thoroughness with which unburned oxidizer exhausting from the combustion port is mixed with
unburned fuel from within sublayers of the boundary layer. Multiple combustion ports serve to
promote high combustion efficiency as a result of the turbulent mixing environment for
unreacted fuel and oxidizer in the mixing chamber region downstream of the fuel grain. As the
fuel grain of a hybrid typically contains no oxidizer, the combustion process and hence the
regression of the fuel surface is markedly different from tha t of a solid rocket motor. Because the
solid fuel must be vaporized before combustion can occur, the fuel surface regression is
intrinsically related to the coupling of combustion port aerodynamics and heat transfer to the fuel
grain surface. The primary combustion region over the fuel grain surface has been shown to be
limited to a relatively narrow flame zone occurring within the fuel grain boundary layer.
Factors affecting the development of the fuel grain boundary layer and, hence, fuel regression
characteristics include pressure, gas temperature, grain composition, combustion port oxidizer
mass flow rate, and combustion port length.

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The Regression rate depends upon the draught (Mass flux rate) of gas passing over the surface
of the solid fuel, which we can increase, akin to using bellows or opening–up the flue on the
chimney, to increase performance. In a simple forward hybrid, o xidizer, such as nitrous oxide,
flows down the single central hole (or Port) running down the center of a thick-walled pipe of
solid propellant fuel, such as plastic.
Once the hybrid has been ignited, some of the hot combusted gas is carried via the turbulence
within the Boundary layer to the surface of the solid propellant where its heat is conducted into
the top layer of this fuel. (a process known as „forced convection‟; radiation plays a minor role.)
The heat then melts a layer of fuel off of the exposed surface of the fuel charge, and what
happens next depends upon the type of fuel used.
'Melt' isn't quite the right phrase with plastic fuel- grains, because the long polymerised
hydrocarbon molecules in plastics are too long and entangled ever to have solidified completely
at low temperature like the nice, ordered atoms of a solid metal: they never really froze.
Instead, they're supercooled liquids with phenomenally high viscosity as with glass, but once
heated above a critical „Glass Transition Temperature‟, they will flow like a liquid, albeit treacle.
As the surface is heated further, the remaining liquid vaporizes to gas.

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A „melt layer‟ appears to rest on the surface of the fuel, though infact this liquid layer is
constantly being replenished from underneath, and removed from above. It tends to be
extremely thin, and if its viscosity is low (i.e. NOT a melted polymer) then it breaks up into a
series of ripples and roll waves due to the flow of gas.
With further heating, the remaining fuel in the melt layer, or the cracked hydrocarbons in the
case of polymers, vaporize to gas and get carried off into the main flow. This is the second
transport mechanism that gets the fuel and oxidizer mixed, occurs at high temperature.
Once transported into the port flow, the vaporized fuel burns in a narrow zone within the
boundary layer known as the flame zone or flame sheet, which is at a depth between the fuel
grain below and the oxidizer flow above that is close enough to stochiometric to support
combustion.
4.10 APPLICATIONS AND LIMITATIONS:
APPLICATIONS OF HYBRID ROCKET:

Hybrid propulsion is well suited to applications or missions requiring throttling, command
shutdown and restart, long-duration missions requiring storable nontoxic propellants.
Hybrid rockets can be employed successfully for small range tactical missiles and launch
vehicles.
ADVANTAGES:
(1) Safety during fabrication, storage, or operation without any possibility of explosion or
detonation.
(2) Start-stop-restart capabilities.
(3)Relatively low system cost.

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(4) Higher specific impulse than solid rocket motors and higher density-specific impulse than
liquid bipropellant engines.
(5) The ability to smoothly change motor thrust over a wide range on demand.
DISADVANTAGES:
(1) Mixture ratio and, hence, specific impulse will vary somewhat during steady-state operation
and throttling.
(2) Lower density-specific impulse than solid propellant systems.
(3) Some fuel sliver must be retained in the combustion chamber at end-of burn, which slightly
reduces motor mass fraction.
(4) Unproven propulsion system feasibility at large scale.

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UNIT V
ADVANCED PROPULSION TECHNIQUES
Electric rocket propulsion– types of electric propulsion techniques - Ion propulsion – Nuclear
rocket – comparison of performance of these propulsion systems with chemical rocket propulsion
systems – future applications of electric propulsion systems - Solar sail.
5.1 ELECTRIC ROCKET PROPULSION:

Electric rocket propulsion devices use electrical energy for heating and/or directly ejecting
propellant, utilizing an energy source that is independent of the propellant itself.
The basic subsystems of a typical electric propulsion thruster are:
(1) a raw energy source such as solar or nuclear energy with its auxiliaries such as
concentrators,heat conductors, pumps, panels, radiators, and/or controls.
(2) conversion devices to transform this energy into electrical form at the proper voltage,
frequency, pulse rate, and current suitable for the electrical propulsion system.
(3) a propellant system for storing, metering, and delivering the propellant.
(4) one or more thrusters to convert the electric energy into kinetic energy of the exhaust.
5.2 TYPES OF ELECTRIC PROPULSION TECHNIQUES:
THE ARC JET:

For certain space missions, it would be desirable to have a specific impulse considerably higher
than can be obtained with a chemical rocket. This requires much greater energy content per unit
mass of propellant than is supplied by the process of combustion. It has been suggested that one
way to obtain the necessary energy content is to use on electric arc discharge to heat the fluid in
a device called an arc jet or plasma jet.

95
Figure shows an arc jet schematically. propellant is heated to high temperature in an electric
arc and then expanded in a conventional nozzle. It the propellant were to be have as a perfect gas
and if the expansion were isentropic, the exhaust velocity would be give by
Ve = √ * ( )+
Actually this represents a considerable oversimplification of actual performance but it does

indicate the desirability of propellants which have high stagnation temperature avoid low
molecular weight. Although hydrogen has the lowest molecular weight, it will be shown that
helium is actually a more attractive propellant largely because it is monatomic and, therefore
cannot dissociate.
The high-current-density are discharge is maintained by a sufficient voltage difference
between cathode and anode. The behaviour of high current discharges in relatively high pressure
gases is not well understood. In general, the arc consists of three zones a central “arc column”
and zones of high potential gradient immediately near the anode and cathode surfaces. The arc
column occupies most of the discharge space. Although the potential gradients within it are
relatively low, the arc column should have most of the total pressure drop in order that a large
fraction of the arc power be liberated within the main flow. The potential drop across the anode
and cathode zones may be several volts, while the potential across the arc may be of the order of
hundreds of volts. However, the anode and cathode zones are very thin, so that heart transfer into
the electrodes can be several near the cathodes, the discharge is non-uniform, tending to
concentrate in “spots‟, especially at high current density. If the local current density increase
slightly, so does the joule heating and the local conductivity. This leads to further increase in
current density and to concentrated heat transfer.
Near the anode the electrons acquire considerable energy as they fall through the potential
drop. If the density is sufficiently high, this energy may be largely consumed through collisio n
with the surface. Likewise, ion acceleration in the cathode sheath can lead to ion energies
sufficient to cause sputtering of the cathode, that is, removable surface material as a result of ion
impact. Thus, these phenomena govern the behavior of the arc in the vicinity of the electrode
surfaces. These may have very strong effects on electrode life. It has been found that arc spots
which would otherwise cause burnout can be tolerated if kept in motion on electrode surface.

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Spot motion may be produced by imparting vertex motion to the p ropellant gas before it enters
the arc, or by the presence of a suitable magnetic field which interacts with the arc current and
induces motion of the arc transverse to the current and induces motion of the arc transverse to the
current direction.
Most of the transmission energy to the propellant occurs in the arc column. Electrons and
ions, accelerated in the electrostatic field, transfer their energy by collision to neutral gas
particles. Since gas conductivity increase rapidly with temperature, attempts to produce high
exhaust velocity are hampered by the associated decrease of arc column resistance relative to the
rest of the arc circuit. This results in a decreasing fraction of total electrical power liberated in
the arc column.
RESISTOJETS:
These devices are the simplest type of electrical thruster because the technology is based on
conventional conduction, convection,and radiation heat exchange. The propellant is heated by
flowing over an ohmically heated refractory-metal surface, such as
1. Coils of heated wire

2. Through heated hollow tubes
3. Over heated knife blades
4. Over heated cylinders
Power requirements range between 1W and several kilowatts; a broad range of terminal
voltages AC and- DC can be designed for and these are no special requirements for power
conditioning. Thrust can be steady or intermittent as programmed in the propellant flow.

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Because of the material limitations around 2700K the maximum specific impulse are
yielding of about 300 sec. The higher specific impulse can be obtained with Hydrogen because
of the lower density, causes propellant storage to be bulky. But cryogenic propellant storage is
unrealistic for space missions. Other propellants are such as O 2 , H2 0, CO2 , NH3 , CH4 and N2
.Also hot gases resulting from catalytic decomposition of hydrazine(which produces
approximately one volume of NH3 and 2 volume of H2 ) has the advantage of being compact and
catalytic c77Xo section preheats the mixed gas to about 700 *C prior to their seeing heated
electrically to an even high temperature; this reduces the required electric power while taking
advantage of a well-proven space chemical propulsion concept.
Resistojets have been proposed for manned long duration deep space missions. Unlike
the ion engine and the hall thruster, the same resistojet design can be used with different
propellants. In common with rarely all electric propulsion systems, Resistojets have a propellants
feed system that has to supply either from high pressure-storage tank or liquid under zero gravity
conditions. Liquids require positive tank expulsion mechanisms and pure hydrazine need heaters
to keep it from freezing.
Electromagnetic Thrusters:
This third major type of electric propulsion devices accelerates propellant gas that has
been heated to a plasma state. Plasmas are mixture of electrons, positive ions, and neutrals that
readily conduct electricity at temperatures usually above 5000k. According to electromagnetic
theory, wherever a conductor carries a current perpendicular to q magnetic field, a body force
exerted on the conductor in a direction at right angles to both the current and the magnetic field.
Unlike the ion engine, this accelerated process yields a neutral exhaust beam. Another advantage
is the relatively high thrust density, or thrust per unit area, which is normally about 10 to 1000
times of the engines.
For all electromagnetic thrusters, the plasma is part of the current-carrying electrical
circuit and most are accelerated without the need for area changes. Motion of propellant,
moderate – density plasma or in some cases a combination of plasma and cold gas particles, is
due to a complex set of interactions. This is particularly true of short duration (3 to 10
microsecond) pulsed plasma thrusters where nothing reaches an equilibrium state, Basically, the
designer of an electromagnetic thruster tries to

98
1. Create a body of electrically conductive gas

2. Establish a high current within by means of an applied electric field and
3. Accelerate the propellant to a high velocity in the thrust vector direction with a
significantly intense magnetic field (often self-induced)
Magneto-plasma-Dynamics (MPD) and Pulsed-Plasma (PPT) electromagnetic thrusters is

based on the faraday accelerator. In its simplest form, a plasma conductor carries a current in the
direction of an applied of an applied field but perpendicular to a magnetic field, with both of
these vectors in turn normal to the direction of plasma acceleration.
From figure shows the simplest plasma accelerator, employing a self- induced magnetic
field. This is a pulsed plasma thruster (PPT) accelerating plasma struck between two rail
electrodes and fed by a capacitor through the plasma quickly discharges the capacitor and hence
the mass flow rate must be pulsed according to the discharge schedule. This discharge current
form a current forms a current loop, which induces a strong magnetic field perpendicular to the
plane of the rails. Analogous to a metal conductor in an electric motor, the Lorentz force acts on
the plasma, accelerating it along the rails. For a rail width is the total internal acceleration force
has the value, F=sIB, where I is the total current and B is the magnitude of the self- Induced filed.
Hence no area changes are required to accelerate the propellant. Some electrical energy is lost to
the electrodes and the ionization energy is never recovered: moreover, this particular plasma
does not exit well collimated and propellant utilization tends to be poor.
In addition to the overall simplicity of the device, there are no tanks, valves,
synchronizing controls or zero gravity feed problems. Another advantage is that pulsed thrusting
is very compatible with precise control and positioning where the mean thrust is varied by
changing the pulse rate. Besides its very low efficiencies, the big disadvantages of this thruster
are the size and mass of the power conditioning equipment.
From figure shows a hybrid electro thermal-electromagnetic concept. It produces
continuous thrust. Compared to an elector thermal arcjet these device operate at relatively lower
pressures and must higher electric and magnetic fields. Hydrogen and argon are common
propellants for such MPD arcjets. As with other electromagnetic thruster, exhaust beam
neutralization is unnecessary. Problems of electrode, erosion, massive electrical component, and

99
low efficiencies (with their associated heat dissipation) have slowed implementation of these
devices.
Half – Effect thruster:
When plasma densities are low enough and or magnetic fields are high enough the hall-
effect electric field becomes quite significant. This is the same phenomenon that is observed in
the semiconductor hall effect where a voltage raises transverse to the applied electric fields. The
hall current can be understood to represent the motion of the election “guiding center” in a
crossed electric field arrangement where collisions must be relative insignificant. The hall
thruster is of interest becomes it represents a practical operating region for space propulsion . this
is also called as stationary plasma thruster or SPT, since a portion of the electron current swirls
in place.

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101
5.3 ION PROPULSION:
The basics of electrostatic or ion propulsion is simply the acceleration of charged particles by
an electric field. Figure shows schematically a typical ion thrust system. The propellant source
feeds neutral atoms to an ion source and the positive ions generated are accelerated by one or
more sets of electrodes which are maintained at zero potential the ion source being at a high
potential. The negative ions or electrons have to be returned eventually to the positively charged
exhaust stream to maintain a neutral beam. The propellant can in principle be any substance
capable of ionization solid, liquid or gas, and may be in atomic, molecular or particle form. Our
object have is to look at the problems involved to analyze the operation form the point of view
of understanding the performance and major design factors.
While designing the ionization propulsion system, one has to consider the following areas.
1. Production of ions, including choice of propellant
2. Production of a uniform, parallel ion bean accelerated to the necessary level.
3. Neutralization of the positively charged beam.
There are presently three main methods of generating ions:
1. Surface contact
2. Electron bombardment and
3. Electric arc.

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5.4 NUCLEAR ROCKET:

Three different types of nuclear energy sources have been investigated for delivering heat to a
working fluid, usually liquid hydrogen, which subsequently can be expanded in a nozzle and that
accelerated to a high ejection velocity (6000 to 10000 m/sec). However, a none can be
considered fully developed today and none have flown. They are the fission reactor, the radio
isotope decay source, and the fusion reactor. All three types are basically extensions of liquid
rockets engines. The heating of the gas is accomplished by energy derived from turns formations
within the propellants, but in nuclear of atoms, in chemical rockets, the energy is obtained is
obtained within the propellants, but in nuclear rockets the power source is usually separate from
the propellant.
In the nuclear fission reactor rocket, heat can be generated by the fission of uranium in
the solid reactor material and subsequently transferred to the working fluid, the nuclear fission
rocket is primarily a high thrust engine (above 40,000N)with specific impulse values up to
900sec. Fission rockets were designed and tested in the 1960s. Ground tests with hydrogen as a
working fluid culminated in a thrust 980,000N at a graphite core nuclear reactor level of
4100MW with an equivalent altitude specific impulse of 848sec and a hydrogen temperature of
about 2500K. there were concerns with the endurance of the material at the high
temperature(above 2600K) and intense radiations, power level control, cooling a reactor after
operation, moderating the high-energy neutrons, and designing light weight radiation shields
for a manned space vehicle.
In recent years there have been renewed interests in nuclear fission rocket propulsion
primarily for a potential manned planetary exploration mission. Studies have shown that the
high specific impulse (around 1100sec) allows shorter interplanetary trip transfer times, smaller

103
vehicles, and more flexibility in the launch time when planets are not in their optimum relative
poison.
In the isotope decay engine, a radioactive material gives off has been used successfully
for generating electrical power in space profiles. The released energy can be used to ratio the
temperature of a propulsive working fluid such as hydrogen or perhaps drive an electric
propulsion system. In provides usually a lower thrust and lower temperature than the other types
of nuclear rockets. As yet. Isotope decay rocket engines have not been developed or flown.
Fusion is the third nuclear method of creating nuclear energy that can heat a working
fluid. Update, many concepts have been studies, but not yet tested and also not feasible or
practical. Concerns about an accident with the inadvertent spreading of radioactive materials in
the earth environment and high cost of a development programs have to date prevented a
renewed experimental development of a large nuclear rocket engine.
5.5 COMPARISON OF PERFORMANCE OF THESE PROPULSION SYSTEMS WITH

CHEMICAL ROCKET PROPULSION SYSTEMS:
Comparison of Electrical Propulsion Systems:
Resistojet (Electro thermal)
Advantages:
1. Simple device and easy to control

2. Simple power containing
3. Low cost and relatively high thrust and efficiency.
4. Can use many propellants including hydrazine augmentation.
Disadvantages:
1. Lowest Isp , heat loss;
2. Dissociation of gas.
3. Indirection of heating of gas and erosion.
Arc Jet (Electro thermal and Electromagnetic):
Advantages:
1. Direct heating of gas

2. Low voltage

104
3. Relatively simple device and high thrust

4. Can use catalytic hydrazine augmentation: inert propellant.
Disadvantages:
1. Low efficiency.
2. Erosion at high power and low specific impulse
3. High current, heavy wiring, heat loss
4. More complex power conditioning.
Ion propulsion (Electrostatic): it is used in satellites (DSI)
Advantages:
1. High specific impulse
2. High efficiency
3. inert propellant.(Xenon)
Disadvantages:
1. complex power conditioning and heavy power supply
2. high voltages, single propellant only
3. low thrust per unit area.
Pulsed Plasma (PPT) (Electromagnetic)
Advantages:
1. Simple device and low power
2. Because of solid propellant. No need of gas or liquid feed system and there are no zero-g
effects on propellants.
Disadvantages:
3. Low thrust; Teflon reaction products are toxic; may be corrosive or condensable;
4. Inefficient.
MPD (Steady State Plasma) (Electromagnetic):
Advantages:
1. Can be relatively simple
2. High specific impulse
3. High thrust per unit area.

105
Disadvantages:
1. Difficult to stimulate analytically
2. High specific power
3. Heavy power supply
Hall Thruster (Electromagnetic):
Advantages:
1. Desirable Isp range,
2. Compact, relatively simple power conditioning
3. Inert propellant (Xe)
Disadvantages:
1. Single propellant
2. High beam divergence
3. Erosion.
Electric propulsion systems have a set of unique applications with low thrusts, low
accelerations, trajectories exclusively in space, high specific impulse, long operating times, and
generally a relatively massive power supply system.
 Electric thrusters typically use much less propellant than chemical rockets.
 Allow for more sustained flight.
 Electric propulsion can provide a small thrust for a long time.
Electric propulsion offers several advantages. First it is safer. Electric-propulsion engines are
also more efficient than chemical ones, in the sense that they require much less propellant to
produce the same overall effect, i.e. a particular increase in spacecraft velocity. The propellant is
ejected up to twenty times faster than from classical thrusters and therefore the same propelling
force is obtained with twenty times less propellant. The only negative point is that chemical
engines can eject massive amounts of propellant, while electric thrusters work with very small
flows, so that they push the spacecraft very gently compared with chemical systems –
comparable with the reactive force generated by an ant walking on a sheet of paper!
Consequently, it takes much longer to achieve a particular speed and hence when high
acceleration is critical electrical propulsion cannot be used, at least in its current forms. On the
other hand, the force it produces can be applied continuously for very long periods – months or

106
even years. For interplanetary missions, therefore, the target destination can sometimes be
reached more quickly than with chemical propulsion.
Electric thrusters also give the ability to regulate the force applied to the spacecraft very
accurately, making it possible to control the spacecraft‟s position and orientation along its orbit
with incomparable precision. More sophisticated high-precision scientific missions, such as
gravitational wave detectors, space interferometers and advanced space observatories.
5.6 FUTURE APPLICATIONS OF ELECTRIC PROPULSION SYSTEMS:

1. Space craft thrusters for deep space missions.
2. Satellites.
3. Orbital maneuvering systems.
4. Missions involving interplanetary travel.
5.7 SOLAR SAIL:
NASA has been experimenting with giant solar sails that could be pushed through the cosmos by
light. There are three components to a solar sail-powered spacecraft:
1. Continuous force exerted by sunlight
2. A large, ultrathin mirror
3. A separate launch vehicle
A Solar sail-powered spacecraft wouldn‟t need traditional propellant for power, because its
propellant would be sunlight and the sun would be its engine. Light is composed of
electromagnetic radiation that exerts force on objects it comes on contact with NASA researchers
have found that at I astronomical unit (AU), which is the distance from the sun to Earth, equal to
93 millions miles (150 million km), sunlight can produce about 1.4 kilowatts(kw) of power. If
you take 1.4kw and divide it by the speed of light, you would find that the force exerted by the
sun is about 9 newtons (N)/square mile (i.e., 2 Jb/km2 or 78 Ib/mi2 ). In comparison, a space
shuttle main engine can produce 1.67 million N of force during liftoff 2.1million N of thrust in a
vacuum. Eventually, however, the continuous force of the sunlight on a solar sail could propel a
spacecraft to speeds five times faster than traditional rockets.

107
To use the force of sunlight, NASA is testing materials that could be used to build a solar sail.
Such a sail would have to be gigantic in size to capture an adequate amount of power to move it.
Early plans have been made to develop a solar that is nearly half a kilometer wide that would be
launched on board a surrogate vehicle and unfurled in space. Once unfurled, the solar sail would
act as a giant mirror reflecting the sunlight. The electromagnetic radiation of light will hit this
reflective solar sail, moving it forward.
While solar sails have been designed before, materials available until rece ntly were much too
heavy to design a practical solar sailing vehicle. This new sail is promising because it would be
made out of lightweight carbon fibers only a few microns thick. In fact, a solar sail used for
space travel would need to be almost as thin as a piece of notebook paper. This carbon fiber
material is stiff and can withstand the intense heat from the sun, while capturing the sun‟s
energy. This means a solar sail could fly closer to the sun to capture even more thrust from
sunlight.
With just sunlight as power, a solar sail would never be launched from the ground. More likely, a
second spacecraft would launch the solar sail, which would then be deployed in space. However,
another possible way to launch a solar sail would be with microwave or laser beams provided by
a satellite or other spacecraft. These energy beams could be directed at the sail to launch it into
space and provide a secondary power source during its journey. In a recent experiment at
NASA‟s Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL), sails were driven to liftoff using microwave beams,
while laser beams were used to push the sail forward.
APPLICATION OF SOLAR SAIL:
A rocket less spacecraft powered by a solar sail would begin its journey at a slow but steady
pace; gradually picking up speed as the sun continues to exert force upon it. Sooner or later, no
matter how fast it goes, the rocket ship will run out of power. In contrast, the solar sail craft has
an endless supply of power from the sun. Additionally, the so lar sail could potentially return to
Earth, whereas the rocket powered vehicle would not have any propellant to bring it back.
As it continues to be pushed by sunlight, the solar sail – propelled vehicle will build up
speeds that rocket powered vehicles would never be able to achieve. Such a vehicle would
eventually travel at about 56 mi/sec (90 km/sec), which would be more than 200,000 mph
(324,000 kph). That speed is about 10 times faster than the space shuttle‟s orbital speed of 5

108
mi/sec (8 km/sec). to give you an idea how fast that is, you could travel from New York to Los
Angeles in less than a minute with a solar sail vehicle traveling at top speed.
If NASA were to launch an interstellar probe powered by solar sails, it would take only eight
years for it to catch the Voyager I spacecraft (the most distant spacecraft from Earth), which has
been traveling foe more than 20years. By adding a laser or magnetic beam transmitter, NASA
said it could push speeds to 18,600 mi/sec (30,000 km/sec), which is one-tenth the speed of light.
At those speeds, interstellar travel would be an almost certainty.

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Propulsion - II Notes Department of Aeronautical Engineering

UNIT I HYPERSONIC AIRBREATHING PROPULSION 8

UNIT II FUNDAMENTALS OF CHEMICAL ROCKET PROPULSION 9

UNIT III SOLID ROCKET PROPULSION 10

UNIT IV LIQUID AND HYBRID ROCKET PROPULSION 10

Propulsion - II Notes Department of Aeronautical Engineering

UNIT V ADVANCED PROPULSION TECHNIQUES 8

Propulsion - II Notes Department of Aeronautical Engineering

1.1 INTRODUCTION TO HYPERSONIC AIR BREATHING PROPULSION

DEFINING HYPERSONIC FLOW

Propulsion - II Notes Department of Aeronautical Engineering

Propulsion - II Notes Department of Aeronautical Engineering

1.2 HYPERSONIC VEHICLES AND SUPERSONIC COMBUSTION NEED FOR

Propulsion - II Notes Department of Aeronautical Engineering

1.3 SALIENT FEATURES OF SCRAMJET ENGINE AND ITS APPLICATIONS FOR

Propulsion - II Notes Department of Aeronautical Engineering

PARTS OF SCRAMJET ENGINE

Propulsion - II Notes Department of Aeronautical Engineering

Propulsion - II Notes Department of Aeronautical Engineering

This phenomenon, known as pseudo shock or shock-train, is characterized by a region of

Propulsion - II Notes Department of Aeronautical Engineering

Propulsion - II Notes Department of Aeronautical Engineering

The weight of a fully-expanded nozzle would be prohibitive at most hypersonic flight

APPLICATIONS FOR SCRAMJET ENGINES

Propulsion - II Notes Department of Aeronautical Engineering

Propulsion - II Notes Department of Aeronautical Engineering

1.4 PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH SUPERSONIC COMBUSTION

Propulsion - II Notes Department of Aeronautical Engineering

1.5 ENGINE/AIRFRAME INTEGRATION ASPECTS OF HYPERSONIC VEHICLES

Propulsion - II Notes Department of Aeronautical Engineering

HYPERSONIC AIRBREATHING PROPULSION CHALLENGES

Propulsion - II Notes Department of Aeronautical Engineering

 Accomplishing stable, efficient mixing and combustion in a supersonic flow within a

Propulsion - II Notes Department of Aeronautical Engineering

1.6. VARIOUS TYPES OF SUPERSONIC COMBUSTORS

DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS OF SUPERSONIC COMBUSTOR:

Propulsion - II Notes Department of Aeronautical Engineering

Propulsion - II Notes Department of Aeronautical Engineering

Propulsion - II Notes Department of Aeronautical Engineering

1.7 FUEL INJECTION SCHEMES IN SCRAMJET COMBUSTORS

Propulsion - II Notes Department of Aeronautical Engineering

Propulsion - II Notes Department of Aeronautical Engineering

1.8 ONE DIMENSIONAL MODELS FOR SUPERSONIC COMBUSTION USING

Propulsion - II Notes Department of Aeronautical Engineering

Tb is the overall total temperature rise ratio in the burner.

Most analyses of supersonic combustion have assumed constant-A combustion, as the

Propulsion - II Notes Department of Aeronautical Engineering

Propulsion - II Notes Department of Aeronautical Engineering

2.1 OPERATING PRINCIPLE:

Propulsion - II Notes Department of Aeronautical Engineering

The momentum equation for any such control volume M is,

Fx = Force component in the x direction

Ux = velocity component of the fluid in x direction

m = mass flow rate of flow (positive for out flow)

Propulsion - II Notes Department of Aeronautical Engineering

Combining equation 1,2 and 3, we obtain,

The condition pa =pe is called correct or optimum expansion because it corresponds to

Propulsion - II Notes Department of Aeronautical Engineering

Effective exhaust velocity, Vj= Ve + (Pe-Pa) (2.6)

2.2 SPECIFIC IMPULSE OF A ROCKET:

He term specific impulse, Isp is usually defined by,

1. The working substances (or chemical reaction products) is homogenous.