INTRODUCTION TO SPORTS PSYCHOLOGY

UNIT 1: INTRODUCTION
Definition of terms:
i. Meaning of Sports
ii. Meaning of Psychology
iii. Meaning of Sports Psychology
UNIT 2: Stress and Burnout in Sports
a. The concept of stress in sports
b. Stress and sports performance
c. Theories of stress in sports
d. Burnout in sports
UNIT 3: Aggression in Sports
a. The concept of aggression in sports
b. Theories of aggression in sports
c. Aggression and sports performance
UNIT 4: Anxiety in Sports
a. The concept of anxiety and arousal in sports
b. Theories of anxiety in sports
c. Anxiety and sports performance
d. The state of anxiety/arousal and sports performance
UNIT 5: Personality in sports
a. Meaning of personality
b. Types of personality in sports
c. Theories and Management in Sports
UNIT 6: Motivation, attribution and perception in sports
a. Meaning of motivation
b. Types of Motivation
c. Theories – Maslow and Herzberg
d. Importance of Motivation in Sport
UNIT 7: Arousal in Sports
a. Meaning of Arousal
b. Symptoms
c. Theories – Inverted, Catastrophe and Drive
d. Management
UNIT 8: Mental skills & Simulation in sports
a. Imagery and sports performance
b.Simulation in sports performance
Meaning of Sports

Sport is all forms of competitive physical activity or games which through casual or organized
participation, aim to use, maintain or improve physical ability and skills while providing
enjoyment to participants, and in some cases, entertainment for spectators. Sport is generally
recognised as system of activities which are based in physical athleticism or physical dexterity,
with the largest major competitions such as the Olympic Games.

Sport is usually governed by a set of rules or customs, which serve to ensure fair competition, and
allow consistent adjudication of the winner. Winning can be determined by physical events such
as scoring goals or crossing a line first. It can also be determined by judges who are scoring
elements of the sporting performance, including objective or subjective measures such as technical
performance or artistic impression.

Records of performance are often kept, and for popular sports, this information may be widely
announced or reported in sport news. Sport is also a major source of entertainment for non-
participants, with spectator sport drawing large crowds to sport venues, and reaching wider
audiences through broadcasting.

Meaning of Psychology

Psychology is an academic and applied discipline involving the scientific study of mental
processes and behavior. Psychology seeks to explain the mental processes and behavior of
individuals. Psychology also refers to the application of such knowledge to various spheres of
human activity, including relating to individuals' daily lives and the treatment of mental illness.

Psychology is the study of behavior, mind and thought and the subconscious bases of behavior.
Psychology also refers to the application of such knowledge to various spheres of human activity,
including problems of individuals' daily lives and the treatment of mental illness.

Sports Psychology

Sports psychology is the study of athletes in sports and sports activities. It is a proficiency that
uses psychological knowledge and skills to address optimal performance and well-being of
athletes, developmental and social aspect of sports. Participation and systematic issues associated
with sports settings and organizations, it is an interventions designed to assist athletes and other
sports participants e.g. coaches, administrators, parents from a wide array of settings, level of
competition and ages, ranging recreational youth participation to professional and Olympic
 athletes to master’s level performers. Sports psychology can also be defined as an attempt to study
individuals in sports situations in order to analyse, explain, describe, modify, alter or predict
behavior through various psychological means. It in science that deals with the emotional aspects
of physical performance, in the context of competitive sports it in an attempt to explain and predict
behavior of an athlete in the environment of competitive sports.

Meaning of Personality

Personality is an attributes, behavioral, temperamental, emotional, and mental that characterizes

a unique individual." Personality can also be seen as a relatively stable, consistent, and distinctive
set of mental and emotional characteristics a person exhibits when alone, or when interacting with
people and his or her external environment." Personality is a relatively stable organization of an
individual’s character, temperament, intellect, and physique, which shapes the
individual’s behavior and his or her actions in a given situation. For each individual, there are
core personality components that are quite stable and unchanging.

Personality Theory

The following are theories of personality.

1. Trait Theory

The trait theory suggests that individuals have certain characteristics that will determine how they
behave and perform in non-sport situations and in a sporting situation.
The trait theory also suggests that there are two types of people: introverts and extroverts.

Introverts

• Introverts tend to be shy, quiet, and don’t really share opinions. The trait theory tells us that
introverts do not actively seek excitement. They prefer calm/quiet environments; they prefer tasks
which consist of great concentration; and they also dislike the unexpected. Introverts regularly
play sports which don’t consist of teamwork and competitive situations. Instead, introverts play
individual sports or activities.
• The sports which introverts may play or take part in are games like golf, which needs a fair bit of
concentration and is an individual sport. Another example is snooker, which again takes high
concentration and time to line up your shot and is not a team game. Athletics (track and field) is
 another popular place to see introverts. They like to take part in marathons and 100m sprints
because it is an individual sport.
• BUT, not all introverts play individual sports. Paul Scholes is an example of someone who I would
class as an introvert but plays football, which is a game that includes a lot of teamwork. He is
quiet, but when it comes down to playing football, he is one of the best footballers around.
Extroverts

• Extroverts are the complete opposite. Extroverts are the type of people who are outgoing and loud.
They also tend to be more confident and like to show off. The trait theory also tells us that
extroverts get bored quickly; are poor at tasks that require a lot of concentration; seek excitement
and change; are less responsive to pain; and are more successful in sporting situations.
• Extroverts prefer sports like football and rugby because they involve teamwork and hard work.
They prefer sports that are fast-paced and exciting, and those that sometimes include aggression.
• An example of someone who plays these sports is Steven Gerrard, Liverpool’s captain. As captain,
he has to be confident to lead his team to victories. He is loud, aggressive, and demanding, which
is what is needed.
• But, an example of an extrovert who played an individual sport is Mohamed Ali. He was very
confident, loud, and aggressive, but played an individual sport.
Early theorists, such as Eysench and Cattell, argued that traits are merely inherited and are stable
aspects of a person’s personality. Inherited traits are traits that you gain from your parents. Some
of the traits you may gain from your parents include body type (big or small, lots of fat or little
fat, etc.), and if you are an outgoing person or a shy and quiet person. The trait theory suggests
that the environmental situation has a minimal role on people's personality, so the trait theory fails
to identify the possibility of being able to shape your own personality.

Type A and Type B

Personality traits can be grouped into two headings: Type A and Type B.

• Type A lacks patience, has a strong urge for competition, and has a high desire to achieve goals.
This type always rushes to complete activities, happily multitasks, and has high levels of anxiety.
These people are most likely to play sports like football and rugby.
• Type B is the opposite. They are more tolerant towards others and more relaxed than type A. They
experience low levels of anxiety, and have high levels of imagination and creativity.
Environment is one of the things that can change the personality of an individual.

2. Social Learning Theory

This theory suggests that our personality is not a stable characteristic and that it can constantly
change due to variations in social situations. This includes the people we are around and socialize
with.

It also makes the point that we are highly unlikely to behave in the same way when we are in a
sporting situation and in a non-sporting situation. Furthermore, it suggests that in sporting
situations we learn through two different ways: modeling and reinforcement.

Modeling means that an individual is likely to model him/herself on people he/she can relate to,
such as those in the same sport or are the same gender. It basically says that when we look up to
someone, we copy their actions.

• Reinforcement is important because if an individual's behavior is reinforced or rewarded, it is

likely that the behavior will be repeated. You have to have high attention to retain the skill. Motor
responses and motivation skills have to be high, too.
The difference between trait theory and social theory is that the former suggests that your
personality is stable and nothing can change it, whereas the latter suggests that your personality is
not stable and can change due to many things.

3. Marten's Schematic View and the Interactional Approach

This theory is the only theory that is widely accepted by most sport psychologists. It tells us that
if we are going to accurately predict behavior in a sports setting, it's important that we consider the
situation the individual is in and the individual’s characteristics. This theory is basically a mix
between the social learning theory and Marten's schematic view.
 Marten's schematics view says there are three different levels that relate to each other: the
physiological core, typical responses, and role-related behavior.

• The psychological core is often referred to as the real you: what you believe in, what your interests
are, and your attitude towards work and play.
• Typical responses are the usual ways you respond to any given situation and are also a good
indicator of your psychological core.
• Role-related behavior determines the circumstances you are in. Circumstances are ever-
changing, especially within a sporting environment. For example, in football you won't be the
same all the way through the game because you may get frustrated at some points. Role-related
behavior is seen as the changeable aspect of one's personality.
Marten's schematic view and the interactional approach are very similar in that they both agree
that your personality can change due to the situations you face in sports and non-sporting
environments.

At the end of lesson, students should be able to:

1. Define the term personality in sports

2. Mention the theories of personality

3. Distinguish trait theory and social learning

4. Apply Martens Schematic view in real sports situation

Arousal in Sports

Arousal is referred to as a psychological state of alertness and anticipation that prepares the body
for action. Individual athletes have different levels of arousal and it is either negative or positive
but neutral. Arousal is the level of activation and alertness experienced by a performer. For
example, a judo player may feel highly aroused the moments before a bout and much
less aroused an hour after the contest has ended. Arousal is a blend of physiological and
psychological activity in a person and it refers to the level of motivation, alertness and excitement
at a particular moment. An athlete who has low levels of arousal will under perform and will not
be ready for the intensity and challenges of the game.

Factors Affecting Level of Arousal

The factors that facilitate a person to perform at an optimal level are variable and peculiar to the
individual, however, certain elements are often common, such as:

• workload
• task complexity and difficulty
• task familiarity and past experience
• circadian rhythm (i.e. previous rest/duty cycles and the time of day or night)
• degree of associated risk if failure occurs
• personal, and crew, motivation
• the working environment
• levels of personal stress
• health
• interpersonal relationships at work (cooperation and coordination)
Organisations, teams and individuals can take positive actions to facilitate optimum performance,
such as:

• moderating and adapting the working environment

• pre-planning and briefing to share workload
• cross-monitoring and checking procedures
• fatigue risk management systems
• employee well-being programme (including stress management)
• cultivating a professional safety culture
Symptoms of Arousal
The following are symptoms of arousal. They are

unconsciousness, fatigue, hypoxia, illnesses,panic, aggression, submission, resignation,

withdrawal, irrational behavior, mood swings, unconsciousness.
Theories of Arousal
Catastrophe arousal theory

The Catastrophe theory is a development of the Inverted U theory. In Inverted U theory, there is
a steady fall-off in performance following over-arousal. the Catastrophe theory however is a
theory of arousal that predicts a rapid decline in performance resulting from the combination of
high cognitive anxiety and increasing somatic anxiety.
Catastrophe theory attempts to predict human behaviour and performance rather than
explaining how it occurs. the theory proposes that performance is affected by the relationship
between somatic (Physical) anxiety and cognitive (Mental) anxiety. When cognitive anxiety is
high but somatic anxiety is low performance is enhanced however when both cognitive and
somatic anxiety are high, performance can suddenly deteriorate. Following this sudden decrease
in performance, the performer tries to regain control by decreasing arousal. when they attempt to
do this, their performance doesn't immediately return to its original level but remains low and
only gradually starts to rise as arousal and anxiety returns to much lower levels, it is also possible
that performance will continue to deteriorate.

Hull’s Drive Theory:

This demonstrates a linear relationship between performance and arousal. This means at low
levels of arousal, performance is low and performance increases in line with an increase in
arousal. This is shown in the graph below.

This theory also explains that novices to the sport often do not perform well under pressure and
their skill level decreases due to poor habits and ill- learned techniques. Habits are described as
the performance which is dominant within each person. Experienced athletes tend to perform
better under pressure due to their superior skills and the use of stress management techniques.
This theory can be expressed using the following equation:

Performance = habit x drive (arousal)

Inverted U Law:

This law states that arousal improves performance up to an optimal point. Past this point,
performance begins to decrease. When drawn on a graph this appears as an upside-down U
shape.

There are three rules which surround this theory:

 • Activity: Some sports are better performed at low arousal, mainly those which require
small, precision movements and control, e.g. shooting
• Skill level: Beginners to a sport require all of their attention to be focused on the task in
hand and so do not cope as well with over-arousal. Highly skilled individuals have the
skill well practiced and so do not require such high levels of concentration meaning they
can deal better with the arousal level.
• Personality: Extroverts perform better in high-pressure, high arousal situations.
Introverts tend to do better in a state of low arousal. This is thought to be connected to
a part of the brain called the RAS or reticular activating system. This controls the level of
arousal. Introverts have a highly stimulated RAS and so avoid stressful situations,
whereas extroverts need high arousal situations to stimulate the RAS

Strategies to Manage Arousal

Increase breathing rate.
• Act energized.
• Use mood words and positive statements.
• Listen to music.
• Use energizing imagery.
• Complete a pre-competitive workout.
2. Arousal reduction techniques:
• Somatic:
• Progressive relaxation: Flexion then relaxation of a muscle: teaches the difference between
tension and relaxation, teaches that a muscles can not be both relaxed and tense at the same time,
teaches the release of mental tension.
• Breath control: Rhythmic diaphragmatic breathing.
• Cognitive:
• Relaxation response (meditation):
• No distractions.
• Comfortable position.
• Mental device (repeating a word or thought, eg counting).
• Passive attitude: Allowing thoughts without attending to them.
• In-competition relaxation tips:
• Smile.
• Have fun, enjoy the situation.
• Set up stressful situations in practice.
• Slow down, take your time.
• Stay focused on the present.
• Be prepared with good strategy/game plan.
At the end of the lesson, students should be able to:
1. Define Arousal in sports
2. State various factors affecting arousal
3. Differentiate among the theories of arousal
4. Mention the symptoms of arousal.

Motivation
Motivation is the word derived from the word ’motive’ which means needs, desires, wants or
drives within the individuals. It is the process of stimulating people to actions to accomplish the
goals. In the work goal context the psychological factors stimulating the people’s behaviour can
be -

• desire for money

• success
• recognition
• job-satisfaction
• team work, etc

Types of Motivation

Extrinsic Motivation

Extrinsic motivation is motivation that comes from an outside source. Some of it is tangible, such
as financial or other material rewards, including trophies or medals. Tangible extrinsic motivation
is not necessarily ideal for athletes who become too focused on materialism at the expense of other
aspects of sports. Intangible extrinsic motivation includes praise, recognition and achievement,
which can often be enough to motivate athletes.

Intrinsic Motivation
Intrinsic motivation comes from within the athlete or player. It includes a natural desire to
overcome challenges and enjoyment in the repetition of a skill. These factors can remind athletes
why they participate in a certain sport -- especially during grueling practices. Intrinsic motivation
is often best supported by a series of goals, whether they're enhanced skill sets or victories in
competition.

Theories of Motivation

Herzberg Two Factor Theory

The theoretical framework of this study is hinged on Herzberg two factor theory (also

known as either Herzeberg’s motivation-hygiene theory or dual-factor theory) of 1959. This theory

states that there are certain factors in the workplace that cause job satisfaction, while a separate set

of factors causes dissatisfaction.

Meanwhile, one set of the factors refers to those which, if absent, cause dissatisfaction.

These factors are related to job context, they are concerned with job environment and extrinsic to

the job itself. These factors are the ‘hygiene’ or maintenance factors, which serve to prevent

dissatisfaction. The other set of factors are those that, if present, serve to motivate the individual

to superior effort and performance. These factors are related to job content of the work itself. They

are the ‘motivators’ or growth factors’. The strength of these factors will affect feelings of

satisfaction or no satisfaction, but no dissatisfaction. To motivate coaches to give their best, the

sports councils must give proper attention to the motivators or growth factors. Herzberg

emphasizes that the hygiene factors are not a second class citizen system but are as important as

the motivators. Hygiene factors are necessary to avoid unpleasantness at work and to deny unfair

treatment. Management should never deny people proper treatment at work. The motivator relates

to what people are allowed to do and the quality of human experience at work. They are the

variables which actually motivate people. The work of Herzberg indicates that it is more likely

that good performance leads to job satisfaction rather than the reverse. The process of the working

of this theory is presented in fig.5

 HYGIENE OR MAINTENANCE FACTORS

Salary
Job security
Work condition
Level and quality of supervision
Organization, company policy and
administration
Interpersonal relation

The DISSATISFIERS

MOTIVATION AND JOB SATISFACTION

THE SATISFIERS

Sense of Achievement
Recognition
Responsibility
Nature of the Work
Personal Growth and Advancement

MOTIVATORS OR GROWTH FACTORS

This theory was proposed by Maslow in 1954. Maslow wanted to understand what

motivates people believing that, individuals possess a set of motivation systems unrelated to

rewards or unconscious desires. Maslow stated that people are motivated to achieve certain needs,

and that some needs take precedence over others.

The most basic need is for physical survival, and this will be the first thing that motivates

our behaviour. The five stage model can be divided into deficiency needs and growth needs. The

first four levels are often referred to as deficiency needs and the top level is known as growth or

being needs.
 Self Self-fulfillment need
Actualiza- Including creative activities
Tion:
Achieving
One’s full
potential
Esteem needs:
prestige and feeling
of accomplishment Psychological needs

Belongingness and love needs:

Intimate relationships,
Friends

Safety needs:
Security, safety Basic needs

Physiological needs:
Food, water, warmth, rest

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

The deficiency needs are said to motivate people when they are unmet. Our activity

becomes habitually directed towards meeting the next set of needs that we are yet to satisfy. These

then become our salient needs. For example, in sports, safety and security needs are first satisfied

before expecting to satisfy the psychological needs.

However, growth needs continue to be felt and may even become stronger once they have

been reasonably satisfied until the highest level called self-actualization. Unfortunately, progress

is often disrupted by failure to meet lower level needs. Life experiences such as loss of job may

cause an individual to fluctuate between levels of hierarchy.

Therefore, not everyone will move through the hierarchy in a uni-directional manner but

may move back and forth between the different types of needs. Maslow noted that only one in a
hundred people become fully self-actualized because our society rewards motivation primarily

based on esteem, love and other social needs.

UNIT 2 - STRESS AND BURNOUT IN SPORTS
Definition of stress (Hans Selye 1907 - 1982)
The term “stress”, as it is currently used was coined by Hans Selye in 1936, who defined it as “the
non-specific response of the body to any demand for change”. Selye, who is known as the ‘father
of stress research’, had noted in numerous experiments that laboratory animals subjected to acute
but different noxious physical and emotional stimuli (blaring light, deafening noise, extremes of
heat or cold, perpetual frustration) all exhibited the same pathologic changes of stomach
ulcerations, shrinkage of lymphoid tissue and enlargement of the adrenals. He later demonstrated
that persistent stress could cause these animals to develop various diseases similar to those seen in
humans, such as heart attacks, stroke, kidney disease and rheumatoid arthritis. At the time, it was
believed that most diseases were caused by specific but different pathogens. Tuberculosis was due
to the tubercle bacillus, anthrax by the anthrax bacillus, syphilis by a spirochete, etc. What Selye
proposed was just the opposite, namely that many different insults could cause the same disease,
not only in animals, but in humans as well.
Selye’s theories attracted considerable attention and stress soon became a popular buzzword that
completely ignored Selye’s original definition. Some people used stress to refer to an overbearing
or bad boss or some other unpleasant situation they were subjected to. For many, stress was their
reaction to this in the form of chest pain, heartburn, headache or palpitations. Others used stress to
refer to what they perceived as the end result of these repeated responses, such as an ulcer or heart
attack. Many scientists complained about this confusion and one physician concluded in a 1951
issue of the British Medical Journal that, “Stress in addition to being itself, was also the cause of
itself, and the result of itself.”
Unfortunately, Selye was not aware that stress had been used for centuries in physics to explain
elasticity, the property of a material that allows it to resume its original size and shape after having
been compressed or stretched by an external force. As expressed in Hooke’s Law of 1658, the
magnitude of an external force, or stress, produces a proportional amount of deformation, or strain,
in a malleable metal. This created even more confusion when his research had to be translated into
foreign languages. There was no suitable word or phrase that could convey what he meant, since
he was really describing strain.
In 1946, when he was asked to give an address at the prestigious Collège de France, the
academicians responsible for maintaining the purity of the French language struggled with this
problem for several days, and subsequently decided that a new word would have to be created.
Apparently, the male chauvinists prevailed, and “le stress” was born, quickly followed by “el
stress”, “il stress”, “lo stress”, “der stress” in other European languages, and similar neologisms in
Russian, Japanese, Chinese and Arabic. Stress is one of the very few words you will see preserved
in English in these and other languages that do not use the Roman alphabet.
Stressor, Distress, Eustress
Because it was apparent that most people viewed stress as some unpleasant threat, Selye
subsequently had to create a new word, “stressor” to distinguish stimulus from response. Stress
was generally considered as being synonymous with distress and dictionaries defined it as
“physical, mental, or emotional strain or tension” or “a condition or feeling experienced when a
person perceives that demands exceed the personal and social resources the individual is able to
mobilize.” Thus, stress was put in a negative light and its positive effects ignored. However, stress
can be helpful and good when it motivates people to accomplish more.
The Human Performance/ Function Curve

As illustrated above, increased stress results in increased productivity – up to a point, after which
things go rapidly downhill. However, that point or peak differs for each of us, so you need to be
sensitive to the early warning symptoms and signs that suggest a stress overload is starting to push
you over the hump. Such signals also differ for each of us and can be so subtle that they are often
ignored until it is too late. Not infrequently, others are aware that they may be headed for trouble
before they are.
Any definition of stress should therefore also include “good stress”, or what Selye called
“eustress”. For example, winning a race or election can be just as stressful as losing, or more so.
A passionate kiss and contemplating what might follow is stressful, but hardly the same as having
a root canal procedure.
Selye struggled unsuccessfully all his life to find a satisfactory definition of stress. In attempting
to extrapolate his animal studies to humans so that people would understand what he meant, he
redefined stress as “The rate of wear and tear on the body”. This is actually a pretty good
description of biological aging so it is not surprising that increased stress can accelerate many
aspects of the aging process. In his later years, when asked to define stress, he told reporters,
“Everyone knows what stress is, but nobody really knows.”
As noted, stress is difficult to define because it is so different for each of us. A good example is
afforded by observing passengers on a steep roller coaster ride. Some are hunched down in the
back seats, eyes shut, jaws clenched and white knuckled with an iron grip on the retaining bar.
They can’t wait for the ride in the torture chamber to end so they can get back on solid ground and
scamper away. But up front are the wide-eyed thrill seekers, yelling and relishing each steep plunge
who race to get on the very next ride. In between you may find a few with an air of nonchalance
that borders on boredom. So, was the roller coaster ride stressful?
The roller coaster analogy is useful in explaining why the same stressor can differ so much for
each of us. What distinguished the passengers in the back from those up front was the sense of
control they had over the event. While neither group had any more or less control their perceptions
and expectations were quite different. Many times, we create our own stress because of faulty
perceptions we can learn to correct. You can teach people to move from the back of the roller
coaster to the front, and, as Eleanor Roosevelt noted, nobody can make you feel inferior without
your consent. While everyone can’t agree on a definition of stress, all of our experimental and
clinical research confirms that the sense of having little or no control is always distressful – and
that’s what stress is all about.
In summary, stress has been defined by a couple of scientists over the years, evolving through
research and in various dimensions. Ultimately, stress is viewed generally as the response of the
body or an individual to stimuli based on one’s perception, environmental demands or factors,
state of events, adaptive responses, underload/overload, maintaining equilibrium, challenges and
stressors. Some of such definitions in different dimensions are given thus:
Hans Selye who is credited as being the modern-day father of stress defined stress in 1936 as “the
non-specific response of the body to any demand for change”. Hans Selye’s stress definition later
expanded in 1979 as he explained further that “stress is a ‘perception’. It is the demands that are
imposed upon us because there are too many alternatives”. (PERCEPTION)
Holroyd and Lazarus in their research explained in 1982 that “psychological stress requires a
judgment that environmental and/or internal demands exceed the individual’s resources for
managing them”. (ENVIRONMENTAL DEMANDS)
Whereas, Skinner in 1985 defined stress as “a reaction of a particular individual to a stimulus
event”. (EVENTS)
Later in 1988, Eliot concluded that “stress may be viewed as the body’s response to any real or
imagined event perceived as requiring some adaptive response and/or producing strain”. Then in
the 1990s a number of researchers studying stress and stress management developed further useful
definitions to increase our understanding of stress terms. (ADAPTIVE RESPONSES)
In 1990, Steinberg and Ritzmann considered that “stress can be defined as an underload or overload
of matter, energy or information input to, or output from, a living system”. (UNDERLOAD AND
OVERLOAD)
Later in 1992, Humphrey found that “stress can be considered as any factor, acting internally or
externally that makes it difficult to adapt and that induces increased effort on the part of the person
to maintain a state of equilibrium both internally and with the external environment”.
(MAINTAINING EQUILIBRIUM)
The following year in 1993, McEwen and Mendelson explained that “stress is a term for certain
types of experiences, as well as the body’s responses to such experiences. The term generally refers
to challenges, real or implied, to the homeostatic regulatory process of the organism”.
(CHALLENGES)
Further in 1996, Levi in his research concluded that “stress is caused by a multitude of demands
(stressors), such as an inadequate fit between what we need and what we are capable of, and what
our environment offers and what it demands of us”. (STRESSORS)

STRESS AND COPING: Stress as a Response

Stress as a response model, initially introduced by Hans Selye (1956), describes stress as
a physiological response pattern and was captured within his general adaptation syndrome
(GAS) model. This model describes stress as a dependent variable and includes three concepts:
➢ Stress is a defensive mechanism.
➢ Stress follows the three stages of alarm, resistance, and exhaustion.
➢ If the stress is prolonged or severe, it could result in diseases of adaptation or even death.
Later, in The Stress Concept: Past, Present and Future (1983), Selye introduced the idea that the
stress response could result in positive or negative outcomes based on cognitive interpretations of
the physical symptoms or physiological experience. In this way, stress could be experienced
as eustress (positive) or distress (negative). However, Selye always considered stress to be a
physiologically based construct or response. Gradually, other researchers expanded the thinking
on stress to include and involve psychological concepts earlier in the stress model.
General Adaptation to Stress (GAS) Model

The response model of stress incorporates coping within the model itself. The idea of adaptation
or coping is inherent to the GAS model at both the alarm and resistance stages. When confronted
with a negative stimulus, the alarm response initiates the sympathetic nervous system to combat
or avoid the stressor (i.e., increased heart rate, temperature, adrenaline, and glucose levels). The
resistance response then initiates physiological systems with a fight or flight reaction to the
stressor, returning the system to homeostasis, reducing harm, or more generally accommodating
the stressor, which can lead to adaptive diseases such as sleep deprivation, mental illness,
hypertension, or heart disease. Thus, along with the early conceptualization of stress as a
physiological response, early research on coping was also born.
Coping with Stress
There are many ways that people strive to cope with stressors and feelings of stress in their lives.
A host of literature, both popular and academic, extols the practice of stress management and
whole industries are devoted to it. Many techniques are available to help individuals cope with the
stresses that life brings. Some of the techniques listed in the table below, “Stress Management
Techniques,” induce a lower than usual stress level temporarily to compensate the biological
tissues involved; others face the stressor at a higher level of abstraction. Stress management
techniques are more general and range from cognitive (mindfulness, cognitive therapy, meditation)
to physical (yoga, art, natural medicine, deep breathing) to environmental (spa visits, music, pets,
nature).

Stress Management Techniques

Stress coping, as described by researchers such as Lazarus and Folkman, implies a more specific
process of cognitive appraisal to determine whether an individual believes he or she has the
resources to respond effectively to the challenges of a stressor or change. The appraisal literature
explains the response or coping process in terms of problem-focused coping or emotion-focused
coping, also referred to as active and passive coping styles. As well, approach and avoidance-
style measures of coping exist involving assertiveness or withdrawal. When faced with a
challenge, an individual primarily appraises the challenge as either threatening or non-threatening,
and secondarily in terms of whether he or she has the resources to respond to or cope with the
challenge effectively. If the individual does not believe he or she has the capacity to respond to the
challenge or feels a lack of control, he or she is most likely to turn to an emotion-focused coping
response such as wishful thinking (e.g., I wish that I could change what is happening or how I
feel), distancing (e.g., I’ll try to forget the whole thing), or emphasizing the positive (e.g., I’ll just
look for the silver lining). If the person has the resources to manage the challenge, he or she will
usually develop a problem-focused coping response such as analysis (e.g., I try to analyze the
problem in order to understand it better; I’m making a plan of action and following it). It is
theorized and empirically demonstrated that a person’s secondary appraisal then determines
coping strategies. Coping strategies vary from positive thinking to denial (see “COPE Inventory”
below) and are measured and tested using a variety of instruments and scales such as the COPE
inventory.
Burnout in Sports
The pressure of being a successful athlete entails non-stop activity of games, practice and physical
conditioning.
Games and practice have traditional and non-traditional seasons, usually encompassing six or more
months of the year. For many athletes, summers are spent on campus working out or practicing.
Conditioning sessions that are physically taxing can take place as early as 5 a.m. to accommodate
class or work schedules. Additional “voluntary” sessions of physical conditioning, film study, or
skill development, along with the rigors of school work, the modern athlete is on “overload” as a
result of participation demands from the moment they step on campus until they leave school. This
can create, for the athlete, a condition of chronic stress physically and, more importantly, mentally.
The attitude of “more is better” in terms of constant activity in a quest for individual or team
success is prevalent in today’s sports world, starting at the youth level and continuing through the
secondary school and collegiate levels. Interestingly, professional sports have in place, through
their collective bargaining agreements, mandated time off for the athletes to recover from the rigors
of their season.
Burnout is a response to chronic stress of continued demands in a sport or activity without the
opportunity for physical and mental rest and recovery. Burnout is a syndrome of continual training
and sport attention stress, resulting in staleness, overtraining and eventually burnout. Many athletes
experiencing burnout report feeling trapped by circumstances of sports participation. The athlete
first starts feels stale or overwhelmed, but is encouraged by coaches, strength staff, athletic trainers,
teammates or parents to push through symptoms of overtraining and potential burnout to continue
with a demanding schedule in order to feel a part of the team, maintain their starting position or
keep their scholarship.
Other athletes self-induce their burnout with personal motivation for success. This type of athlete
applies more personal demands on their physical conditioning and skill sessions, or is fully
consumed by sports participation as a way to fulfill their identity as an athlete. Either way, the
chronic stress the athlete experiences without the opportunity to rest and recover from the rigors
of such stress places the athlete at risk for burnout. For some athletes, burnout may be the triggering
mechanism in developing or exacerbating a mental health disorder that negatively impacts the
athlete’s life and relationships.
Burnout affects the athlete in various stages:
➢ The athlete is placed in a situation that involves new or varying demands on their physical
ability and time management
➢ The athlete at some point – usually early on as a young athlete, or later if a more
experienced athlete – views the demands as excessive or non-productive
➢ The athlete feels as if their performance is being hampered by the demands of participation
and the inability to rest and recover
➢ The athlete starts experiencing subtle signs and symptoms of physical and mental burnout
➢ Burnout takes place and the physical and mental toll on the athlete impacts their lives and
performance on and off the field, perhaps even discontinuing sports participation
Signs and symptoms of burnout include:
➢ Levelling off or diminished performance or conditioning, including strength and stamina
losses, chronic fatigue
➢ Physiological signs such as having a higher resting heart rate and blood pressure
➢ Cognitive issues such as difficulty in concentration or diminished work in school,
forgetfulness
➢ Illnesses as a result of suppressed immune system
➢ Emotional issues such as disinterest, moodiness, irritability
➢ Low self-esteem, increased anxiety and depression as a result of falling short of sport
demands
Athletic trainers can help in identifying and preventing burnout in athletes through an awareness
of the signs and symptoms, and in communication with coaches and strength staff to monitor the
athletes for overtraining, which is a large contributor of burnout. Whenever an athlete, particularly
a younger athlete new to the level of participation, exhibits some signs and symptoms of burnout,
a physician evaluation for a physical cause is warranted. After the physician exam and any testing
prove negative, consideration should be given to modifying the activity to permit more athlete rest
and recovery. If physical causes for signs and symptoms of burnout are negative, consideration
should be given to referring the athlete for a psychological evaluation and care.
Coaches and strength staff should be educated on burnout and consider modifications to workouts
both in terms of intensity and length of time in order to preserve optimal levels of performance
and to prevent burnout. Some measures such as heart-rate monitoring during practice and
conditioning are one of several approaches teams are utilizing to monitor potential overtraining.
Rest and time away from sport are the two best methods to prevent and treat athlete burnout.
Athletes, like most students and American adults, do not get enough sleep to feel rested and ready
for physical and mental activity throughout the day. Seven to eight hours of sleep are recommended
daily. Considering that many athletes rise before or at dawn for conditioning sessions and practice,
their sleep cycle is hampered to be fully effective in providing the rest necessary for daily activities
and optimal school and sports performance. This results in a state of constant fatigue, placing the
athlete at risk for developing burnout and mental health issues, especially when the athlete feels
there is no escaping the time and physical demands of their sport and school.
Time away from sport is another method of preventing burnout. Being away from the demands of
their sport, even for a short period several times a year, provides an athlete with an opportunity to
attend to their schoolwork and relationships that are necessary to leading a more rounded life that
leads to enhanced motivation once they return to sport.
Burnout is a very real and underreported state that many athletes experience. Knowing the signs
and symptoms of escalating burnout, along with an appreciation how burnout occurs, are important
steps in prevention and treatment of this situation, and may well prevent the start or worsening of
a mental health disorder in an athlete.
UNIT 3 - AGGRESSION IN SPORTS
Meaning of Aggression: There is no general consensus about the meaning of aggression. This is
because different authorities believe that aggression is relative. What counts as aggressive
behaviour is determined by the social norms and conventions around the behaviour in question.
Aggression is defined as the infliction of an aversive stimulus, physical, verbal, or gestural, upon
a person or property by another. It has also been defined as any behavior directed toward another
individual that is carried out with the proximate (immediate) intent to cause harm. In addition, the
perpetrator must believe that the behavior will harm the target, and that the target is motivated to
avoid the behavior (Bushman & Anderson 2001, Baron & Richardson 1994, Berkowitz 1993, Geen
2001). This definition of aggression includes such wide-ranging acts engaged by athletes, coaches
and/or spectators, as physically hitting another individual and verbal abuse. Most people view
aggression as a negative psychological characteristic; however, some sport psychologists agree
that aggression can improve performance. Thus, a modicum of aggression is necessary to preserve
the spirit of sports and to gain competitive edge in competition.
Accidental harm is not aggressive because it is not intended. Harm that is an incidental by-product
of helpful actions is also not aggressive because the harm-doer believes that the target is not
motivated to avoid the action (e.g., pain experienced during a dental procedure)
Anger is not seen as aggression but a state of emotional and physiological arousal. Aggression is
usually seen as the destructive behavioural expression of anger.
Three factors have been suggested as qualifying an act to be deemed aggressive. These are:
• The act must actually happen either physically or verbally, the act of thinking an aggressive
action is not enough.
• It must result in a damage/harm to another person either physically or emotionally or
damage to property.
• It must be an intentional action, sometimes this will be pre-meditated.

Forms of Aggression
Aggression can take a variety of forms, including: physical, verbal, mental, or emotional.
Aggression can also be direct (when it is meted out on the stimulus) or indirect (when it is
transferred to other persons or things not directly responsible for the aggressive act)
Aggression can also be displayed for the following purposes:
• To express anger or hostility
• To assert dominance
• To intimidate or threaten
• To achieve a goal
• To express possession
• A response to fear
• A reaction to pain
• To compete with others

Types of aggression
In sport, aggression has been divided primarily into two categories:
1. Hostile aggression and
2. Instrumental aggression
Hostile: This is when the main aim of the aggressive act is to cause harm or injury to the victim.
Hostile aggression has historically been conceived as being impulsive, thoughtless (unplanned),
driven by anger, having the ultimate motive of harming the target, and occurring as a reaction to
some perceived provocation. It is sometimes called affective/emotional, impulsive, reactive, or
retaliatory aggression.

Instrumental: Instrumental aggression, in contrast to hostile aggression, is a means to an end.

This is when the main aim of the aggressive act is not to cause harm, but to win the game or achieve
another goal other than inflicting harm. Instrumental aggression, also referred to as predatory or
goal-oriented aggression, is conceived as a premeditated means of obtaining some goal other than
harming the victim, and being proactive rather than reactive

In trying to end the confusion of the word aggression, the term assertive behaviour was suggested
by Husman and Silva (1984).

Assertive Behaviour
This is defined as behaviour that involves the use of legitimate physical or verbal force to achieve
one’s purpose. Assertive behaviour reflect behaviours that are physically vociferous, but do not
contravene rules nor do they have the intent to harm, rather they are aimed at imposing influence
and dominance. A behavior is said to be assertive if it satisfies the following conditions:
• Goal directed behaviour
• Use of legitimate verbal or physical force
• Behaviour which has no intention to harm or injure
• Behaviour which doesn’t violate rules/laws of game

Theories of aggression in sports

Theories of aggression are explanations of possible causes of aggression. Although several theories
of aggression exist in the literature, the theories themselves overlap considerably, which is why
there were early attempts to integrate them into a broader framework. Three main theories of
aggression guide most current research, these are:
1. Instinct theory
2. Frustration-aggression theory
3. Social learning theory

Instinct Theory
This was the first theory for aggression in sport and was defined by Freud, and Lorenz (1966). In
psychology, the term instinct means an innate tendency to behave in a certain way. This theory is
based on a nature approach. It argues that aggressive behaviour is innate, genetically inherited and
as a result inevitable. It suggests aggression is due to our evolutionary development, our life
instinct and our death instinct. Aggression is a trait of our self-destructive death instinct and this
clashes with our life instincts until it is balanced.
The theory suggests aggression is built up and needs to be released to maintain our wellbeing. This
aggression can be directed towards another person or displaced and it argues that sport allows this
release through a Catharsis. Catharsis is where feelings of aggression are released through socially
acceptable means such as sporting activities. Rather than releasing our aggression in an
inappropriate place we may wait until a more appropriate time to release it, and we use
displacement when we want to do something that we know is not acceptable. The concept of
catharsis holds that sports and exercise can provide avenues to channel aggressive urges into more
socially desirable behavior.

However, the theory has criticisms:

i. Levels of aggression actually tend to increase in sport not decrease as Freud suggests
(Berkowitz,1972).
ii. No innate aggressive characteristics have ever actually been found and there has never
been any support found for Catharsis.
iii. Aggressive sports players often don’t show the same aggressive characteristics in society
away from their sport.
iv. Aggressive behaviour is often learnt and is linked to culture not just innate.

Frustration-aggression theory
The second theory is the frustration-aggression theory. This holds that aggression comes from
being frustrated by not achieving goals or having progress towards a goal blocked. This theory
doesn’t have a lot of support or evidence to back up the theory. For example, when you begin to
become frustrated, there are ways to control it, before it gets to the aggression stage.
There is a revised version of this theory which states the same, but combines it with the social
learning theory, saying that aggression occurs in certain situations where you may become
frustrated. If you cannot control this frustration and what comes along with it (anger and arousal)
it is then when you are likely to become aggressive. This theory states that you are only more likely
to become aggressive if the aggressive acts are supported

Success catharsis

Drive to Obstacle Frustration Aggression

Goal to goal

Punishment
The Frustration-aggression model

Criticism of frustration-aggression theory

Critics point out that:
• Not all frustration leads to aggression in sport
• Aggression can be a learned response, and doesn’t always happen as a result of frustration
• The theory does not take into account individual and situational differences
• The theory does not uphold the cathartic effect of aggression in sport
• Some aggressive participants have been shown to become more aggressive through
participation in sport.

Social Learning Theory

This theory sees aggression as being influenced by learning. It holds that aggression is not
instinctive but a learned response. According to social learning theories, people acquire aggressive
responses the same way they acquire other complex forms of social behavior. That is, either by
direct experience or by observing others. Social learning theory explains the acquisition of
aggressive behaviors via observational learning processes. The theory states that aggression is a
behaviour that we learn from observing others and experiencing reinforcement for such
behaviours. The theory holds that the reason people demonstrate aggressive behaviours in sports
is because they have watched others do the same and were not reprimanded for doing it thereby
creating the impression that it is acceptable to be aggressive.
A performer can learn to be aggressive if aggression has paid off or coach approval has been given.
If high sports performers are aggressive and get away with it, this will encourage younger players
to imitate. Observational learning usually happens very early in a performer’s development as a
performer will quickly learn what behaviour is acceptable or unacceptable in various specific
situations.
When expected rewards are seen to outweigh expected punishment, a player will be prepared to
transgress the rules. Social learning theorists believe that reinforcement values and punishment
values are major factors in influencing the selection of aggressive behaviour.

Social Learning Theory Cont’d (Albert Bandura)

Learning is a remarkably complex process that is influenced by a wide variety of factors. As most
parents are probably very much aware, observation can play a critical role in determining how and
what children learn. As the saying goes, kids are very much like sponges, soaking up the
experiences they have each and every day.
Because learning is so complex, there are many different psychological theories to explain how
and why people learn. A psychologist named Albert Bandura proposed a social learning theory
which suggests that observation, imitation, and modelling play a primary role in this process.
Children observe the people around them behaving in various ways. This is illustrated during the
famous Bobo doll experiment by Bandura in 1961.
Individuals that are observed are called models. In society, children are surrounded by many
influential models, such as parents within the family, characters on children’s TV, friends within
their peer group and teachers at school. These models provide examples of behaviour to observe
and imitate, e.g., masculine and feminine, pro and anti-social, etc.
Children pay attention to some of these people (models) and encode their behaviour. At a later
time, they may imitate (i.e., copy) the behaviour they have observed. They may do this regardless
of whether the behaviour is ‘gender appropriate’ or not, but there are a number of processes that
make it more likely that a child will reproduce the behaviour that its society deems appropriate for
its gender.
First, the child is more likely to attend to and imitate those people it perceives as similar to itself.
Consequently, it is more likely to imitate behaviour modelled by people of the same gender.
Second, the people around the child will respond to the behaviour it imitates with either
reinforcement or punishment. If a child imitates a model’s behaviour and the consequences are
rewarding, the child is likely to continue performing the behaviour. If a parent sees a little girl
consoling her teddy bear and says “what a kind girl you are,” this is rewarding for the child and
makes it more likely that she will repeat the behaviour. Her behaviour has been reinforced (i.e.,
strengthened).
Bandura's theory combines elements from behavioural theories, which suggest that all behaviours
are learned through conditioning, and cognitive theories, which take into account psychological
influences such as attention and memory.
How Does Social Learning Theory Work?
During the first half of the 20th-century, the behavioural school of psychology became a dominant
force. The behaviourists proposed that all learning was a result of direct experience with the
environment through the processes of association and reinforcement. While Bandura's theory is
also rooted in many of the basic concepts of traditional learning theory, he believed that direct
reinforcement could not account for all types of learning.
For example, children and adults often exhibit learning for things with which they have no direct
experience. Even if you have never swung a baseball bat in your life, you would probably know
what to do if someone handed you a bat and told you to try to hit a baseball. This is because you
have seen others perform this action either in person or on television.
While the behavioural theories of learning suggested that all learning was the result of associations
formed by conditioning, reinforcement, and punishment, Bandura's social learning theory
proposed that learning can also occur simply by observing the actions of others. His theory added
a social element, arguing that people can learn new information and behaviours by watching other
people. Known as observational learning, this type of learning can be used to explain a wide variety
of behaviours, including those that often cannot be accounted for by other learning theories.
How Observational Learning Affects Behaviour
Three (3) Things You Should Know About Social Learning Theory
There are three core concepts at the heart of social learning theory. First is the idea that people can
learn through observation. Next is the notion that internal mental states are an essential part of this
process. Finally, this theory recognizes that just because something has been learned, it does not
mean that it will result in a change in behaviour.
"Learning would be exceedingly laborious, not to mention hazardous, if people had to rely solely
on the effects of their own actions to inform them what to do," Bandura explained in his 1977
book Social Learning Theory. "Fortunately, most human behaviour is learned observationally
through modelling: from observing others one forms an idea of how new behaviours are
performed, and on later occasions this coded information serves as a guide for action."
Let's explore each of these concepts in greater depth.
1. People can learn through observation.
In one of the best-known experiments in the history of psychology, Bandura demonstrated that
children learn and imitate behaviours they have observed in other people. The children in
Bandura’s studies observed an adult acting violently toward a Bobo doll. When the children were
later allowed to play in a room with the Bobo doll, they began to imitate the aggressive actions
they had previously observed.
Bandura identified three basic models of observational learning:
➢ A live model, which involves an actual individual demonstrating or acting out a behaviour.
 ➢ A verbal instructional model, which involves descriptions and explanations of a behaviour.
➢ A symbolic model, which involves real or fictional characters displaying behaviours in
books, films, television programs, or online media.
As you can see, observational learning does not even necessarily require watching another person
engage in an activity. Hearing verbal instructions, such as listening to a podcast, can lead to
learning. We can also learn by reading, hearing, or watching the actions of characters in books and
films.
As you can imagine, it is this type of observational learning that has become a lightning rod for
controversy as parents and psychologists debate the impact that pop culture media has on kids.
Many worry that kids can learn bad behaviours such as aggression from violent video games,
movies, television programs, and online videos.

2. Mental states are important to learning

Just observing someone else's actions is not always enough to lead to learning. Your own mental
state and motivation play an important role in determining whether a behaviour is learned or not.
While the behavioural theories of learning suggested that it was external reinforcement that created
learning, Bandura realized that reinforcement does not always come from outside sources. Bandura
noted that external, environmental reinforcement was not the only factor to influence learning and
behaviour. He described intrinsic reinforcement as a form of internal reward, such as pride,
satisfaction, and a sense of accomplishment. This emphasis on internal thoughts and cognitions
helps connect learning theories to cognitive developmental theories. While many textbooks place
social learning theory with behavioural theories, Bandura himself describes his approach as a
'social cognitive theory.'
3. Learning does not necessarily lead to a change in behaviour.
So how do we determine when something has been learned? In many cases, learning can be seen
immediately when the new behaviour is displayed. When you teach a child to ride a bicycle, you
can quickly determine if learning has occurred by having the child ride his or her bike unassisted.
But sometimes we are able to learn things even though that learning might not be immediately
obvious. While behaviourists believed that learning led to a permanent change in behaviour,
observational learning demonstrates that people can learn new information without demonstrating
new behaviours.
How Does Observational Learning Happen?
It is also important to note that not all observed behaviours are effectively learned. Why not?
Factors involving both the model and the learner can play a role in whether social learning is
successful. Certain requirements and steps must also be followed.
The following steps are involved in the observational learning and modelling process:
Attention: In order to learn, you need to be paying attention. Anything that distracts your attention
is going to have a negative effect on observational learning. If the model is interesting or there is
a novel aspect of the situation, you are far more likely to dedicate your full attention to learning.
Retention: The ability to store information is also an important part of the learning process.
Retention can be affected by a number of factors, but the ability to pull up information later and
act on it is vital to observational learning.
Reproduction: Once you have paid attention to the model and retained the information, it is time
to actually perform the behaviour you observed. Further practice of the learned behaviour leads to
improvement and skill advancement.
Motivation: Finally, in order for observational learning to be successful, you have to be motivated
to imitate the behaviour that has been modelled. Reinforcement and punishment play an important
role in motivation. While experiencing these motivators can be highly effective, so can observing
others experiencing some type of reinforcement or punishment. For example, if you see another
student rewarded with extra credit for being to class on time, you might start to show up a few
minutes early each day.

A Few Applications for Social Learning Theory

Social learning theory can have a number of real-world applications. For example, it can be used
to help researchers understand how aggression and violence might be transmitted through
observational learning. By studying media violence, researchers can gain a better understanding
of the factors that might lead children to act out the aggressive actions they see portrayed on
television and in the movies.
But social learning can also be utilized to teach people positive behaviours. Researchers can use
social learning theory to investigate and understand ways that positive role models can be used to
encourage desirable behaviours and to facilitate social change.
Conclusion
In addition to influencing other psychologists, Bandura's social learning theory has had important
implication in the field of education. Today, both teachers and parents recognize how important it
is to model appropriate behaviours. Other classroom strategies such as encouraging children and
building self-efficacy are also rooted in social learning theory.
As Bandura observed, life would be incredibly difficult and even dangerous if you had to learn
everything you know from personal experience. So much of your life is rooted in your social
experiences, so it is no surprise that observing others plays such a vital role in how you acquire
new knowledge and skills. By better understanding how social learning theory works, you can gain
a greater appreciation for the powerful role that observation can play in shaping the things we
know and the things we do.
Factors Influencing Aggression
Gender
Men are more likely to engage in aggressive behavior. Men are also more likely to display
aggressive attitudes and beliefs. This may be due to:
➢ Elevated levels of androgens (e.g., testosterone)
➢ Evolutionary benefit to aggression in terms of status and dominance
➢ Socialization of aggressive tendencies during development
➢ Majority of aggressive acts in sport are committed by men and it is more endorsed by men
Arousal
Arousal is heightened with physical exertion and remains elevated for a while thereafter. Evidence
suggests that such arousal may be misinterpreted as anger or frustration, and could sometimes
actually influence aggressive behaviours. Feelings of anger may be elevated in intense sports and,
if the group norm legitimizes it, may be expressed as aggression.
Hormones and Steroid Abuse
One side effect of misuse of steroids for performance enhancement is aggressive behaviour
Personality
It is believed that extroverted people are often involved in sports which require a degree of
aggression. Aggression can be a negative concept, although as long as it is controlled, it can also
become a positive concept.
Controlling and Reducing Aggression
Effective control of aggression and aggressive tendencies depends on the understanding of the
causes of aggression. Some identified causes of aggression are:
Causes of aggression:
➢ When defeat is imminent
➢ When officiating is perceived as unfair
➢ Embarrassment
➢ Physical pain
➢ When playing below expectations
➢ Demands of professional sports encourage aggression
➢ Competition
➢ Media intervention and comment
➢ Over emphasis on winning
➢ Crowd reaction
➢ Increased rewards
➢ Coaches and parents

Controlling individual and Spectator aggression

➢ This can be addressed through the following:
➢ Limit or ban the use of alcohol,
➢ reduce levels of rivalry,
➢ remove aggressive spectators,
➢ seating control,
➢ words with coaches on inciting aggression,
➢ media support for non-aggressive behaviour,
➢ making sports situations more family orientated etc.

Collective Aggression
This is a violent, unified behaviours displayed by a group or crowd of people with intent to cause
harm or injury to another group or individual. Collective aggressive behaviour is prevalent in sport,
particularly among crowds of spectators or fans. Sport is ingrained in the social fabric, and the
mood, emotions, and motivation of fans are rooted in the fortunes of their supported team. Thus
such fortunes of the team goes a long way to affect the aggressive tendencies of the fans and
spectators.

Theoretical Accounts of Collective Aggression

Social Identity Theory
This theory aims to describe the mechanisms by which groups influence individuals’ behaviour.
Individuals forgo their individual identity and assume the attitudes, beliefs, expectations, and
norms of the group. This is called deindividuation
As group members self-esteem is tied in with the fate of the group, a threat to the group is a threat
to each individual Individuals self-stereotype themselves as typical group members. Members
from the in-group (‘us’) are viewed unequivocally positively and out-groups (‘them’) likely to be
viewed negatively. This can lead to prejudice and discrimination towards outgroup members.
Deindividuation occurs as group members assume the attributes of prototypical group members.
Individuals behave less as individuals and more as group members. This may result in the
expression of values and behaviours not normally expressed as individuals. Individual
responsibility for actions is reduced as anonymity is pronounced in a group situation.
In sports situations violence is seldom seen, aggressive behaviours (threats and displays) are often
sufficient to galvanize in-group cohesiveness and self-esteem

UNIT 4 - ANXIETY IN SPORTS

What is Anxiety?
Anxiety is both a psychological and physiological phenomenon. Anxiety is related to emotions
such as fear, and negative thoughts such as not being able to cope. The physiological aspects of
anxiety include sweating, not sleeping, feeling tense, headaches, raised blood pressure and
problems with eating/digestive functions.
Barlow (2002) defines anxiety as an unpleasant inner state in which we are anticipating something
dreadful happening that is not entirely predictable from our actual circumstances. Anxiety is
therefore a complex blend of physiological, behavioural and cognitive components.
The common characteristics of anxiety such as, physical tension, a high degree of bodily arousal
and persistent feelings of worry are not accidental symptoms, but they are the result of our ‘fight
or flight mechanism. These symptoms are crucial indicators to help us to prepare for either ‘fight’
or ‘flight’. Despite the lack of ‘threat to survival’ in sport, the mechanism is the same although the
threat is more likely to be towards your ‘self-concept’.
Anxiety is therefore a useful motivator but can be both adaptive and maladaptive. Where a little
anxiety can be positive and encourage you, high levels of anxiety can actually discourage your
engagement due to fear, therefore becoming maladaptive.
Anxiety, Fear and Worry
The difference between fear/worry and anxiety is uncertain. However, fear is generally considered
to be due to an identifiable source of danger which is usually obvious, as it is a specific
person/situation/object. With anxiety it is more difficult to specify exactly what the danger is, as
it is more of a general level of worry and/or apprehension. The state of ‘worry’ refers to a cognitive
element in anxiety and includes whether a person perceives that they have sufficient resources to
cope with a situation. Whereas, ‘emotionality’ refers to the amount of physiological response to
anxiety, such as headaches and sweating.

Types of Anxiety
State anxiety is short term anxiety. It is the state of emotional arousal following a perceived threat
or other particular reason or circumstance and links to the fight or flight reaction. In short, state
anxiety is a temporary condition in response to some perceived threat, such as anxiety prior to
speaking in public. State anxiety is that anxiety that is experienced in one particular situation. It is
generally an emotional response to a situation which is threatening. An example of this situation
is a performer who doesn’t usually experience anxiety but will feel anxiety when in situations such
as cup finals.

Trait anxiety is long term anxiety and means the individual has anxiety as a personality trait. This
trait refers to individual differences in responding to a situation with state anxiety, which means
producing an arousal response. For example, people with higher trait anxiety are more likely to be
aroused in certain situations than others. Trait anxiety is a general disposition to perceive situations
as threatening, it is a relatively stable personality trait. High trait anxiety leads to high state anxiety.
It is a trait that is genetically passed on. A performer with trait anxiety will experience high levels
of anxiety before taking part in any sporting activity. Their parents will also suffer from high levels
of anxiety.
Cognitive Anxiety
Cognitive Anxiety has to do with the mental thought process related to anxiety which is effected
by the situation for example, an important game like the Champions League Final. Cognitive
Anxiety is associated with; Apprehension, worry, self-doubt, inability to concentrate and fear of
negative evaluations. Symptoms caused are: panicking, nervous distraught and the inability to
think. An example of someone suffering from cognitive anxiety is a footballer such as John Terry,
who was about to take a penalty kick in the Champions League Final and the crowd (the crowd
situation puts pressure on the shooter when they take the kick) caused him to miss because of the
inability to concentrate.
Somatic Anxiety

Somatic Anxiety is anxiety that effects the person physically such as: increase in heart rate and
blood pressure, sweating muscular tension and nausea. Symptoms of somatic anxiety are;
vomitting, ventilating/short breath, feeling stiff, being jumpy, legs feeling unstable, heavy
breathing, sweating, talking to selves, screaming and stuttering speech. Somatic anxiety is
triggered by cognitive anxiety. An example is Zinedine Zidane who was about to take a penalty
after extra time and vomitted beforehand due to somatic anxiety.
Anxiety and sports performance
What is Anxiety?
Anxiety takes place when there is a great imbalance between an individual’s perception of their
ability and their performance of the demands and importance of the situation. Stressors that can
cause anxiety are; crowd situations, scouts’ presence, hostile environment, the fear of failure, the
importance of the event, the climate, any past experiences, previous injuries, coaches, the
opposition and team performances.
With regards to sport, whilst a moderate level of anxiety or worry can actually ensure that athletes
are adequately prepared for performance, high anxiety levels often cause people to perform below
their usual standard of performance. An obvious example of this is a penalty shoot-out in football,
used to decide tied games in major football competitions. The burden of responsibility on the
players chosen to take the penalties frequently lead to spectacular misses as they are unable to
handle the pressure.
‘Choking’ in sport is an extreme symptom of anxiety which occurs due to athletes focusing on the
execution of component parts of a skill rather than allowing them to flow automatically, without
conscious effort. However, if you accept anxiety as a normal psychological reaction to
competition, it will be less likely to affect your performance. Understanding what is anxiety is
important for every athlete and coach.
Causes of Anxiety
According to Kremer and Moran (2008) one reason why we tend to get uptight before competition
could be related the pressure of being observed. Spectators of any sport are constantly evaluating
the skills of the athletes they are watching and this can be extremely daunting to those who are not
trained to deal effectively with this pressure. Not wanting to fail can heap more strain on a player
when as they become more aware of being observed and so the stress continues to grow.
Feelings of anxiety can also be confused with fear but there is a significant difference between
these two emotions. A fear or “phobia” is a negative feeling about a specific object (spiders) or
experience (talking in front of a large group) however anxiety is more general and often athletes
recognize that they are anxious about something but cannot put their finger on it.
Tackling Anxiety
For a lot of athletes’ anxiety can be a very unpleasant feeling with physiological symptoms
including a racing heartbeat, sweaty palms and muscle tension. In fact, Ray and Weise-Bjornstal
(1999) outlined seven possible categories in which an athlete can experience stress including
affective, cognitive and behavioural. So how can it be managed?
Sport psychologists can teach techniques one can use to control anxiety. One technique involves
the athlete “labelling” these thoughts and feelings described above as a way of priming them for
competition. Through the process of labelling the athlete can learn to associate those former
negative thoughts and feelings with preparing to compete. For example, a cyclist can learn to
recognize his/her increased heart rate as a positive indication that they are well prepared for
competition.
Green and Green (1977) studied Indian yoga practitioners and discovered they were able to control
various physiological functions voluntarily including brain waves, body temperature and blood
pressure. It was also relatively simple to teach others how to control their physiological feelings
too. The study was able to demonstrate how the mind and body are linked which brings us to the
next technique. Performing a simple exercise such as breathing effectively can enable an athlete
to relax and prepare for competition as more oxygen gets carried in the blood which in turn
facilitates the working muscle. Diaphragmatic breathing involves a muscle in the abdomen called
the diaphragm. A simple way to learn this technique is to place your left hand on your abdomen
and the right on your upper chest. As you breathe in your left hand should move out and your right
hand should remain relatively still. This is a sign you are breathing effectively using your full lung
capacity. Try to exhale for twice as long as you have inhaled. This helps to slow the heart rate and
in turn aids relaxation.
By performing these simple techniques during training or when you have some free time can help
to calm those nerves and also view them in a different way so that they do not interfere with your
performance.
 UNIT 8 - INTRODUCTION TO IMAGERY
The human body is a magnificently designed sporting machine, comprising, among other things,
muscles that can be trained to the peak of fitness and nerves that control the muscles. The nerves
are massively linked in the brain. Part of the reason that human children take so long to reach
maturity relative to animals is that humans have many more nerve cells in their brain. Initially,
brains are very disorganized. Much of the process of growing up, being educated, and becoming
mentally mature is the process of organizing the vast chaos of the interconnectedness of the nerves
in the brain into useful pathways.
Much of the process of learning and improving sporting reflexes and skills is the laying down,
modification, and strengthening of nerve pathways in our body and brains. Some of these nerve
pathways lie outside our brain in nerves of the body and spine. These need to be trained by physical
training. Many of the pathways, however, lie within the brain. These pathways can be effectively
trained by the use of mental techniques such as imagery and simulation.

Imagery
Imagery, sometimes called guided imagery, visualization, mental rehearsal, or self-hypnosis,
refers to specific techniques often used by psychologists to help individuals visualize or mentally
rehearse a desired event. It involves using all of the senses to create an imagined experience that
feels real. By using all your senses, you create a very real experience of having the desired
outcome.
Imagery is the process by which we can create, modify or strengthen pathways important to the
co-ordination of muscles, by training purely within the mind. Imagination is the driving force of
imagery. Imagery rests on the important principle that we can exercise these parts of our brain with
inputs from our imagination rather than from senses: the parts of the brain that we train with
imagery experience both imagined and real inputs similarly, with the real inputs being merely more
vividly experienced. Thus, in its least effective form you can use imagery merely as a substitute
for real practice to train the parts of your mind that it can reach.
Even at this inferior level of use, imagery is useful in training where:
• An athlete is injured, and cannot train in any other way
• The correct equipment is not available, or practice is not possible for some other reason
• Rapid practice is needed
However, just to use imagery for the reasons above is to undervalue its effectiveness grossly.
Unleashing the Power of Imagery
The real power of imagery lies in a number of much more sophisticated points:
• Imagery allows you to practice and prepare for events and eventualities you can never expect to
train for in reality. With practice it allows you to enter a situation you have never physically
experienced, with the feeling that you have been there before and achieved whatever you are trying
to achieve.
• Similarly, imagery allows you to prepare and practice your response to physical and psychological
problems that do not occur normally, so that if they occur, you can respond to them competently
and confidently. Imagery can be used to train in sports psychology skills such as stress and
distraction management.
• It allows you to pre-experience the achievement of goals. This helps to give you confidence that
these goals can be achieved, and so allows you to increase your abilities to levels you might not
otherwise have reached.
• Practicing with imagery helps you to slow down complex skills so that you can isolate and feel the
correct component movements of the skills, and isolate where problems in technique lie.
Imagery can also be used to affect some aspects of the 'involuntary' responses of your body such
as releases of adrenaline. This is most highly developed in Eastern mystics, who use imagery in a
highly effective way to significantly reduce e.g., heart beat rate or oxygen consumption.
Using Imagery in Training
You can significantly improve the quality of your training sessions by effective use of imagery.
By performing the skill being practiced in your mind before you execute it, you can focus on all
the important parts of the skill. For example, if a golfer images a perfect golf swing before he
actually carries one out, he is more likely to remember all the points that go into making a good
swing, and maintain focus throughout the skill.
Imaging of an activity before its execution has the following advantages:
• It forces focus and concentration on execution of skills when otherwise you might just be tempted
to go through the motions.
• It allows you to slow down and analyze fine skills or complex techniques to form as perfect a
model of the technique as possible.
• It reminds you what to concentrate on to execute the skill perfectly.
• It allows you to compare how the physical movement compared with the perfect image. This helps
you to detect faults in technique. Alternatively, if the technique was better than the image, the
image can be adjusted.
In addition, imagery can be used in training to practice sports psychology skills. For example, you
might imagine appearing before a large hostile crowd, and experience the stress and anxiety
symptoms that you might expect. Within your mind you can practice some stress management
skills.
You might use imagery to practice pushing through pain barriers, or might practice keeping
technique good when you imagine that your limbs feel exhausted.
Alternatively, you might use imagery to rehearse and perfect strategies that will be used during a
real performance.
Uses of Imagery
You can use imagery in a number of important ways:
• To feel and practice moves and routines perfectly within your mind. This helps to programme and
strengthen the nerve pathways within the brain that control the correct execution of the skill -
remember that your mind is the control centre of your body in performance.
• To prepare for events that cannot be easily simulated for in practice. This gives you both the
confidence to deal with these events as they arise, and the self-confidence that comes with
preparation for any reasonable eventuality.
• To experience achievement of a goal in your mind before you physically achieve it. This helps you
to build the confidence that that goal can be achieved and expand your perceptions of the
boundaries of your abilities.
• To get a feeling or experience of 'having been there before' the first time you compete at a higher
level.
• To practice and programme your mind when you cannot practice and programme mind and body
together:
➢ When you are physically tired, or do not want to tire yourself before a performance
➢ When the correct equipment is not available
➢ When weather is too bad to train
➢ When injury stops normal training
➢ When you do not have the time to practice a particular skill physically
• To practice a particularly boring skill many times - concentrating your mind on imagery of the
skill forces concentration on the skill.
• To study your technique in your mind, either reducing complex movements to simple skills, or
slowing the movements down to analyze them for faults in technique.
• To relax - by imaging and enjoying a pleasant, quiet scene. This can be used most effectively in
conjunction with biofeedback.
Imagery works best as a way of practicing and improving known skills, with known feelings and
body positions. Whether or not it is an effective method or acquiring completely new skills is still
a matter of debate.

A strong and potent image will be more effective and 'real' than a weak one when it is
presented to the appropriate nerve pathways in your brain. Images can be made more real by:
• Using all your senses in an image. Touch, sound, smell, taste and body position (kinaesthesia)
should be combined with visual imagination to create highly 'real' images.
• Observing detail of sensations such as the feeling of the grip of a bat, the texture of clothes, the
smell of sweat, the feeling and flow of a karate punch, the sound of a large crowd, or the size and
shape of a stadium in which you will compete. These can be observed in detail in reality, and then
incorporated into imagery later to make it more vivid.
• Imagining yourself within your body feeling and sensing all going on around you rather than
looking on at yourself from a remote position. If you imagine yourself within yourself, then the
image is more connected, realistic and involved than a remote view.

How to Use Imagery - Step-by-Step Guide

The first time you try imagery it's helpful to have a skilled facilitator or practitioner walk you
through the process. This is referred to as guided imagery. You can also use CDs or tapes, or record
your own script to use as your guide. After you are comfortable with the technique, it's easy to
practice these techniques on your own.
1. Sit in a comfortable place where you won’t be interrupted.
2. Relax your body and take several long, slow breaths.
3. Close your eyes and create a vivid and convincing image. This image can be one you've previously
experienced, or one you simply desire.
4. If you become distracted or find you are thinking about something else, simply acknowledge it
and let it go.
5. Focus on your breathing if you lose the image.
6. Maintain a positive attitude.
7. Imagine the sights, sounds, tastes, feelings, and even smells of the experience.
8. Take note of as much detail of the scene as possible. What are you wearing, who is there, what are
you hearing, how do you feel?
9. If your imagery session is not going the way you want it to, simply open your eyes and start over
with your breathing.
10. Always end an imagery session with a positive image.
Athletes have many opportunities to try the various imagery or self-hypnosis techniques. From
injury recovery to improved sports performance, these techniques are showing promise as a
standard part of an athlete's training programme

Simulation
Simulation is similar to imagery in that it seeks to improve the quality of training by teaching the
brain to cope with circumstances that would not be otherwise met until an important competition
was reached.
Simulation, however, is carried out by making the physical training circumstances as similar as
possible to the 'real thing' - for example by bringing in crowds of spectators, by having
performances judged, or by inviting press to a training session. Simulation seeks to make the
training environment as similar to the competition environment as possible.
In many ways, simulation is superior to imagery in training, as the stresses introduced are often
more vivid because they exist in reality. However, simulation requires much greater resources of
time and effort to set up and implement, and necessarily is less flexible in terms of the range of
eventualities that can be practiced for. One should therefore use simulation and imagery together
for maximum effect.
While imagery relies on use of imagination, simulation relies on manipulation of the training
environment by actually recreating the stresses under which we will perform. Effectively, you can
consider normal training only to train muscles and nerve pathways directly involved in the control
of muscles. Imagery is a good way of training these nerve pathways in the brain, as well as those
related to performance and sports psychology. It does not train muscles and body nerves nearly as
effectively.
Simulation, however, seeks to train all parts of your brain and body by helping you to physically
perform the skills being trained under a physical environment that recreates all the stresses and
distractions of competition. This helps you to develop good mental skills such as stress
management, distraction management, goal focus and imagery. It enables you to actually feel that
you have been in the situation before.

Aspects of Simulation
You can try introducing the following stresses into a training session to make a practice as realistic
as possible:
• Noise: Loud noises can be played such as the sound of a large crowd at a football match
• Spectators: Spectators can be allowed in to view a training session. The more well-known
you are, the more people will turn up to watch training.
• Officials: Referees and judges can be invited along to criticize and score your performance.
• Bad Refereeing Decisions: Bad or biased refereeing decisions can be made to train you to
focus on performance, not outcome goals. This should be used relatively rarely.
• Cameras: Television cameras, flash photographers and press can be brought into the
training session.
 • Arena: If possible, training should occur on the course or in the arena where competition
will take place.
• Weather: Every opportunity should be taken to train in the worst weather conditions
possible for competition.
• Fatigue: Push yourself to perform effectively when tired, so that you can learn how to keep
concentration on good technique when your resources are low.
• Training when you have just eaten: This helps you to cope with the consequences of
having to perform effectively unexpectedly.
If you simulate conditions that are much worse than the real conditions under which you will
perform, then you will have the following advantages:
• Confidence that you can handle anything thrown at you
• Well practiced skills to handle the stresses and distractions of performance
• Confidence in your stamina and ability to keep technique good even under poor physical
conditions such as tiredness, bad weather, poor equipment etc.
You can also use simulation, in the form of role-play to handle non-sporting stresses associated
with performance, such as press interviews, etc.

Improving Technique
Imagery and simulation can be used effectively in improving technique, particularly when used in
conjunction with close study of the technique of high-level performers in your sport.
By selecting athletes whose performance, you admire in a particular exercise, and either watching
or videoing them executing technique, you can see how they execute every stage of a skill. Using
a video recorder, you can slow the action down so that the components of the skill can be isolated.
Once you have done this you can practice these components of the skill being observed, and can
build them up into a complex action or a good image of the skill as it should be executed.
Alternatively, you can video your execution of a skill, and compare your technique as it is with
how it should be or how better performers carry it out.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
German Obj.
1. The term “stress”, as it is currently used was coined by _____________________ in ________.
2. Any definition of stress should therefore also include “good stress”, or what Selye called
__________.
3. _____________ in sport is an extreme symptom of anxiety which occurs due to athletes focusing
on the execution of component parts of a skill rather than allowing them to flow automatically,
without conscious effort.
4. __________________ is the process by which we can create, modify or strengthen pathways
important to the co-ordination of muscles, by training purely within the mind.
5. _____________________ in sport is an extreme symptom of anxiety which occurs due to
athletes focusing on the execution of component parts of a skill rather than allowing them to flow
automatically, without conscious effort.
Theory
1. Describe the “confusion” that played out in Selye’s usage of the term “stress” and its usage in
physics.
2. Differentiate between the terms, “Stressor”, “Eustress” and “Distress”.
3. Using a situational example, differentiate between fear, worry and anxiety.
4a) Choose a sport, identify moments of aggression in a play situation and use a theory of
aggression to further explain these moments of aggression.
b) Give a notable example of aggression expressed in any sport of your choice.
NOTE: Question 4 above is a term paper and will be recorded as your CA for first semester.
Hint – For a) - Define Aggression; give the types and theories of aggression; choose a sport; list
and describe skills and techniques in the sport that require aggression; associate such techniques
to any of the three theories of aggression that is most suitable.
For b) – The media is very instrumental in ensuring that news on moments of aggression is widely
circulated; give an account of one of such notable moments in sports.