LESSON 1

Sport and Exercise Psychology

- The scientific study of people and their behaviors in sport and exercise activities and
the practical application of that knowledge

Two Objectives of Sport and Exercise Psychology

- Understand the effects of psychological factors on physical and motor performance.
Understand the effects of participation in physical activity on psychological development,
health, and well-being.

Objective 1: Typical Questions Studied in Sport and Exercise Psychology

 How does anxiety affect a basketball player’s accuracy in free-throw shooting?
 Does lacking self-confidence influence a child’s ability to learn to swim?
 How do a coach’s reinforcement and punishment influence a team’s cohesion?
 Does imagery training facilitate the recovery process in injured athletes and
exercisers?

Objective 2: Typical Questions Studied in Sport and Exercise Psychology

 Does running reduce anxiety and depression?
 Do young athletes learn to be overly aggressive from participation in youth sports?
 Does participation in daily physical education classes improve a child’s self- esteem?

Applies to a Broad Population Base

 Seniors
 Children
 Elite athletes
 Average athletes
 Persons who are physically and mentally challenged
 Average athletes and fitness leaders

Roles of the Sport and Exercise Psychologist

Research: Inquiry aimed at advancing knowledge and sharing it through professional
meetings and journal articles
Teaching: Teaching university courses in either psychology or exercise and sport
science
Consulting: Working with athletes of all ages and abilities in the fitness industry and in
sports medicine and physical therapy

Sport Psychology Specialties

 Clinical sport psychologists
 Educational sport psychology specialists

Clinical Sport Psychologists

- are licensed psychologists
- are trained to work with people with severe emotional disorders
- are trained to help athletes with problems such as eating disorders and substance
abuse.
Educational Sport Psychology Specialists
-use mental coach approach—understand psychology of human movement.
-have training in physical education, kinesiology, or exercise and sport science.
-educate and increase athletes’ and coaches’ awareness of issues such as anxiety
management and confidence development.
 SPORT AN EXERCISE PSYCHOLOGY
Sport Science Knowledge Domain ─ Psychology Knowledge Domain
─ Biomechanics ─ Abnormal psychology
─ Exercise Physiology ─ Clinical psychology
─ Motor Development ─ Counselling psychology
─ Motor Learning and control ─ Developmental psychology
─ Sport medicine ─ Experimental psychology
─ Sport Pedagogy ─ Personality psychology
─ Sport sociology ─ Physiological psychology

Historical Periods in Sport and Exercise Psychology

Period 1 - The early years 1893 to 1920
Period 2 - The Griffith era 1921 to 1938
Period 3 - Preparation for the future 1939 to 1965
Period 4 - Establishment of academic 1966 to 1967
sport psychology
Period 5 - Multidisciplinary science and 1978 to 2000
practice in sport and exercise
Psychology
Period 6 - Contemporary sport and 2001 to present
exercise psychology

Science of Sport and Exercise Psychology

- A process, or method, of learning about the world through the systematic, controlled,
empirical, and critical filtering of knowledge acquired through experience.

Goals of Science
Theory derives from the following:
 Describing
 Explaining
 Predicting
 Controlling
Scientific Guidelines
 Systematic
 Controlled
 Empirical
 Critical
Scientific Study: Theory
 A set of interrelated facts presenting a systematic view of some phenomenon in order
to describe, explain, and predict its future occurrences
 Example: Social facilitation theory

STUDY VS. EXPERIMENTS

- Study: The investigator observes or assesses without changing the environment in any
way.
- Experiment: The investigator manipulates variables while observing them, then
examines how changes in one or more variables affect changes in others.

Professional practice knowledge - is what we learn through experience, using many

methods of knowing
Methods of Knowing
─ Scientific method
─ Systematic observation
─ Single case study
─ Shared (public) experience
─ Introspection
─ Intuition

Integrating Scientific and Professional Practice Knowledge

─ Apply scientific principles in your professional work setting.
─ Evaluate the utility of scientific principles in the particular context in which you are
involved.
─ Keep current by updating and modifying your scientific knowledge base.
─ Hold realistic expectations relative to the strengths and limitations of scientific
principles.

Sport and Exercise Psychology as an Art and a Science

─ The science of coaching, teaching, or leadership focuses on using general scientific
principles.
─ The art of coaching, teaching, or leadership is knowing when and how to individualize
these general principles. Contextual intelligence is critical.

Three Approaches to Sport and Exercise Psychology

─ Psychophysiology orientation
─ Social–psychological orientation
─ Cognitive–behavioral orientation

Psychophysiological Orientation
 Examines underlying psychophysiological processes of the brain in terms of primary
causes of behavior.
 Example: Biofeedback to trained marksmen

Social–Psychological Orientation
 Behavior is determined by a complex interaction of the social environment and the
personal makeup of the athlete or exerciser.
 Example: How a leader’s style and strategies foster group cohesion

Cognitive–Behavioral Orientation
 Behavior is determined by both the environment and thoughts (cognitions).
- Example: Studying differences in confidence and anxiety among tennis players with or
without burnout
The Present and Future of Sportand Exercise Psychology
1. More people are interested in acquiring training in psychological skills and applied
work.
2. There is greater emphasis on counseling and clinical training for sport and exercise
psychologists.
3. Ethics and competence issues are receiving greater emphasis.
4. Specialization and new subspecialties are developing.
5. Tension continues to exist between practitioners of academic and applied sport
psychology.
6. Qualitative research methods are receiving more attention.
7. Applied sport psychologists have more work opportunities than ever but only limited
chances for full-time positions.
8. Sport psychology is gaining increased acceptance and recognition of its usefulness.
9. The positive psychology movement in general psychology helps sport and exercise
psychology expand into new areas such as business, music, and the performing arts.
10. Embracing the globalization of sport and exercise psychology is paramount for
contemporary students of the field and will increase in years to come.

Ethical Standards for Sportand Exercise Psychologists

 Competence. Maintain the highest standards in your work and recognize the limits
of your expertise.
 Integrity. Clarify roles and do not falsely advertise.
 Professional and scientific responsibility.
Always place the interests of clients first.
 Respect for people’s rights and dignity. Respect such fundamental rights as
privacy and confidentiality among clients.
 Concern for the welfare of others. Always contribute to the welfare of those with
whom you work.
 Social responsibility. Contribute to knowledge and human welfare while always
protecting participants’ interests.

LESSON 2 : Personality and Sport

Personality and Its Structure

Personality: The characteristics or blend of characteristics that make a person unique

The structure of personality:

─ Psychological core
─ Typical responses
─ Role-related behavior
Figure 2.1

Psychological Core
- The most basic and deepest attitudes, values, interests, motives, and self-worth of a
person—the “real” person
Example: A person’s religious values

Typical Responses
- The way one typically adjusts or responds to the environment
Example: Being happy-go-lucky, shy

Role-Related Behavior
- How one acts in a particular social situation
Example: Behavior as a student, parent, or friend

Approaches to Understanding Personality

 Psychodynamic approach
- Behavior is determined by several unconscious, constantly changing factors that
often conflict with one another.
- Emphasis is placed on understanding the person as a whole rather than identifying
isolated traits.
 Trait approach
- Behavior is determined by relatively stable traits that are fundamental units of
personality.
- These traits predispose one to act in a certain way, regardless of the situation.
 Situational approach
- Behavior is determined largely by the situation or environment.
- The situation is a more important determinant of behavior than particular personality
traits.
-The situational approach is not as widely embraced by most sport psychologists.
 Interactional approach
- Behavior is determined by both the person and the situational factors as well as by
their interaction.
- The majority of contemporary sport and exercise psychologists favor the interactional
approach.
 Phenomenological approach
- Behavior is best determined by accounting for situational and personal
characteristics.
- A person’s understanding and interpretation of one’s self and environment are
critical.
- The phenomenological view is often stressed by today’s sport psychologists.

Big 5 Model of Personality Components

─ Neuroticism
─ Extroversion
─ Openness to experience
─ Agreeableness
─ Conscientiousness

Perfectionism
- has been one of the most widely studied personality characteristics in sport
psychology in recent years.
Perfectionism is a multidimensional construct that consists of various components,
including setting high standards, feeling concern over mistakes, and being highly
organized.

Research Support for Psychodynamic Approach

Current impact: Has little influence and hasn’t been adopted by most contemporary
sport psychologists.
Weakness: Focuses almost entirely on internal determinants of behavior, giving little
attention to the social environment.
Contribution: Has increased awareness that unconscious determinants of behavior
exist.

Research Support for Trait Approach

Current impact: Has little influence.
Weakness: Knowing traits will not always help predict behavior in particular situations.
Contribution: Emphasizes the importance of traits and the measurement of such
dispositions.

Research Support for Situational Approach

Current impact: Has little influence.
Weakness: Situation will not always influence individual behavior.
Contribution: Emphasizes the importance of the situation.

Researh support for Interactional Approach

Current impact: Has considerable influence and has been adopted by most
contemporary sport psychologists.
Weakness: None.
Contribution: Emphasizes the consideration of both trait and situational variables and
their interaction.

Reasearch support for Phenomenological Approach

Current impact: Has considerable influence and has been adopted by many
contemporary sport psychologists.
Weakness: None.
Contribution: Emphasizes the contribution of a person’s interpretation of one’s self and
environment while considering both trait and situational variables and their interaction.
Measuring Personality: Traits and States
 Measure both traits and states.
 A trait is a typical style of behavior.
 State is the situation’s effect on behavior—a “right now” feeling that can change from
moment to moment.

Measuring Personality
 There are general versus situation-specific (sport-specific) measures.
 Situation-specific trait tests predict behavior more accurately than do general trait
measures.
 It is often more effective to compare personality test scores to a person’s own previous
test results than to group norms.
 Projective tests are interesting but difficult to score.

Dos and Don’ts in Personality Testing

 DO inform participants about the purpose of the personality test and exactly how it will
be used.
 DO allow only qualified individuals who have an understanding of testing principles
and measurement error to give personality tests.
 DO integrate personality test results with other information obtained about the
participant.
 DO use sport- and exercise-specific tests whenever possible, giving them in
consultation with a sport psychologist.
 DO use both state and trait measures of personality.
 DO provide participants with specific feedback concerning the results of the test.
 DO compare individuals against their own baseline levels rather than against
normative information.
 DON’T use clinical personality tests that focus on abnormality to study an average
population of sport and exercise participants.
 DON’T use personality tests to decide who makes a team or program and who doesn’t.
 DON’T give or interpret personality tests unless you are qualified to do so by the APA
or another certifying organization.
 DON’T use personality tests to predict behavior in sport and exercise settings without
considering other sources of information.

Selected Findings in Personality Research

Some relationship exists between personality traits and states and sport performance,
but it is far from perfect or precise.
No single definitive personality profile has been found that consistently distinguishes
athletes from nonathletes.
Few personality differences are evident between male and female athletes, particularly
at the elite level.
Morgan’s (1980) mental health model shows that successful athletes exhibit greater
positive mental health than do less successful athletes. However, precise predictions
have not been achieved and should not be used for team selection.
Selected Findings in Personality Research
 Type A behavior patterns (particularly the anger–hostility component) are associated
with cardiovascular disease and appear to be altered via exercise.
 Exercise and increased fitness appear to be associated with increases in self-esteem
especially in individuals with low self- esteem.
Cognitive Strategies and Athletic Success
 Cognitive strategies and mental strategies are among the skills and behaviors that
athletes use in competition.
 Although they’re not personality traits in the traditional sense, cognitive strategies
reflect the behavior aspect of personality and interact with personality characteristics.
 Athletic Success (continued)
 Both quantitative and qualitative cognitive strategy measures have been shown to
differentiate between more and less successful athletes.
 Overachieving high school athletes scored higher on coachability, concentration,
coping with adversity, and total cognitive strategy than average and underachieving
athletes
 Cognitive strategies have been shown to be related to superior performance in elite
sport.
 Elite athletes show superior ability to cope with adversity and mentally prepare
compared to non-elite athletes.
 Olympic medal-winning wrestlers more often used positive self-talk, had a narrower
and more immediate focus of attention, and were better prepared mentally for
unforeseen negative events.
 Mental preparation and planning are critical components of athletic success.

Cognitive Strategies and Athletic Success: Guidelines for Practice

 Enhance confidence and practice specific plans to deal with adversity during
competition.
 Practice routines to deal with unusual circumstances and distractions before and
during competition.
 Concentrate wholly on the upcoming performance and block out irrelevant events and
thoughts
 Use several mental rehearsals before competition.
 Don’t worry about other competitors before a competition; instead, focus on what you
can control.
 Develop detailed competition plans.
 Learn to regulate arousal and anxiety.
Your Role in Understanding PERSONALITY
─ Consider both personality traits and situations.
─ Be an informed consumer.
─ Be a good communicator.
─ Be a good observer.
─ Be knowledgeable about mental strategies.