Zamora-Mendez Et Al 2017

Journal of Aquatic Food Product Technology
ISSN: 1049-8850 (Print) 1547-0636 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/wafp20
Postmortem Metabolic, Physicochemical, and Lipid

Composition Changes in Litopenaeus vannamei in
Response to Harvest Procedures
Saúl Zamora-Méndez, Arlett Robles-Romo, Erica Marin-Peralta, Olivia Arjona,

Juan P. Apún-Molina, Ana I. Beltrán-Lugo, Elena Palacios & Ilie S. Racotta
To cite this article: Saúl Zamora-Méndez, Arlett Robles-Romo, Erica Marin-Peralta, Olivia Arjona,
Juan P. Apún-Molina, Ana I. Beltrán-Lugo, Elena Palacios & Ilie S. Racotta (2017) Postmortem
Metabolic, Physicochemical, and Lipid Composition Changes in Litopenaeus vannamei in
Response to Harvest Procedures, Journal of Aquatic Food Product Technology, 26:9, 1093-1106,
DOI: 10.1080/10498850.2017.1376236
To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/10498850.2017.1376236
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Sep 2017.
Published online: 05 Sep 2017.
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Download by: [Centro de Investigaciones Biológicas del Noroeste, S.C.] Date: 14 December 2017, At: 12:11
JOURNAL OF AQUATIC FOOD PRODUCT TECHNOLOGY
2017, VOL. 26, NO. 9, 1093–1106
https://doi.org/10.1080/10498850.2017.1376236
Postmortem Metabolic, Physicochemical, and Lipid Composition

Changes in Litopenaeus vannamei in Response to Harvest
Procedures
Downloaded by [Centro de Investigaciones Biológicas del Noroeste, S.C.] at 12:11 14 December 2017
a a,‡
Saúl Zamora-Méndez , Arlett Robles-Romo , Erica Marin-Peraltac, Olivia Arjona a,
b c
Juan P. Apún-Molina , Ana I. Beltrán-Lugo , Elena Palacios a, and Ilie S. Racotta a
a
Centro de Investigaciones Biológicas del Noroeste (CIBNOR), La Paz, B.C.S., Mexico; bCentro Interdisciplinario de
Investigación para el Desarrollo Integral Regional-Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Unidad Sinaloa, Guasave, Sinaloa,
Mexico; cUniversidad Autónoma de Baja California Sur, La Paz, B.C.S., Mexico
ABSTRACT KEYWORDS
Ante-mortem stress is recognized as one of the factors that could reduce shelf Color and texture; freshness
life in fish, although this topic has been scarcely addressed in crustaceans, indicators; emersion stress;
particularly in cultivated penaeid shrimp where common harvest practices lipid composition;
involves stressful conditions such as chasing, emersion, and confinement. nucleotide degradation
This study analyzes indices of freshness in shrimp in response to such practices
before storage in ice for six days. During ice storage, several indicators follow
the typical postmortem pattern, although most of them (hypoxanthine,
change in pH, and color) did not reach critical levels at day 6. Adenosine-5’-
triphosphate (ATP) and degradation products (adenosine monophosphate,
AMP, and inosine monophosphate, IMP), as well as several indicators of fresh-
ness (pH, expressible water, hardness, color, and the overall fatty acid compo-
sition) were not significantly affected by harvest. Other variables such as lower
springiness, higher hypoxanthine, lipid hydroperoxides, and 20:4n-6/20:5n-3
ratio were observed in shrimp subjected to common harvest practices.
However, under the current conditions of harvesting, these effects were mar-
ginal and probably do not substantially affect meat quality for human con-
sumption, but care should be taken at higher environmental temperatures
(e.g. harvest in summer) and for a duration of ice-storage over 6 days.
Introduction
A third of the food produced for human consumption is wasted from spoilage (FAO, 2011). Fresh
seafood is frequently discarded, as consumers shun seafood that is perceived as less fresh (Neil, 2012).
The loss of freshness is conveyed by several factors that occur in different time frames (Haard, 1992; Neil,
2012). Breakdown of adenosine-5’-triphosphate (ATP) is one of the first and main factors in the loss of
freshness; some ATP byproducts improve taste (inosine monophosphate, IMP, and adenosine mono-
phosphate, AMP), while others, like hypoxanthine (Hx), give a bitter unpleasant taste (Tejada, 2009).
Other early indicators of freshness are related to carbohydrate metabolism, specifically lactate and pH
change (Gornik et al., 2010), which affect the quality of flesh, such as toughness, which is perceived and
often spurned by consumers (Fu et al., 2014a; Rahman et al., 2000). Loss of freshness can also be
associated with changes in the lipid structure, particularly in highly unsaturated fatty acids (HUFA),
which are prone to peroxidation under postmortem conditions (Takeungwongtrakul et al., 2012; Okpala
et al., 2014) and give seafood an off-flavor (Shahidi, 1998). To reduce the waning freshness under
CONTACT Ilie S. Racotta iracotta@cibnor.mx Centro de Investigaciones Biológicas del Noroeste (CIBNOR), Calle IPN 195,
Playa Palo de Santa Rita Sur, La Paz, B.C.S., C.P. 23096, Mexico.
‡
Present address: Instituto de Investigaciones Oceanológicas, Universidad Autónoma de Baja California, Carretera Tijuana-Ensenada
3917, Ensenada, B.C. 22860, Mexico
© 2017 Taylor & Francis
1094 S. ZAMORA-MÉNDEZ ET AL.
postmortem conditions, different slaughtering methods as well as storage times and/or temperatures
have been tested to increase the shelf life of penaeid shrimp (Takeungwongtrakul et al., 2012; Fu et al.,
2014b; Okpala et al., 2014; Canizales-Rodríguez et al., 2015).
There are also ante-mortem factors that can affect postmortem freshness. In mammals and fish, a
stressor applied ante-mortem consumes glycogen reserves in muscles for energy production when the
supply of oxygen decreases and anaerobic metabolism kicks in, and this can decrease the postmortem
quality (Poli et al., 2005; Li et al., 2016). Some studies have analyzed ante-mortem hypoxia (Ramírez-
Guerra et al., 2012; García-Sifuentes et al., 2013) on the physicochemical properties of shrimp muscles
during postmortem storage; however, no metabolic consequences were reported. During long-term (12
to 24 h) emersion, ATP is gradually depleted resulting in a strong decrease of the adenylate energy
charge (AEC) and an increase in IMP levels (Paterson, 1993). Other studies have reported postmortem
nucleotide degradation in shrimp, with the initial content of ATP quite variable, from 0.11 (Canizales-
Rodrígez et al., 2015) to 10.3 μmoles g–1 (Qiu et al., 2016). This is probably due to how the shrimp are
captured. Levels of ATP can be reduced during capture as the shrimp struggles to escape, resulting in
low postmortem quality and ATP degradation byproducts, as has been reported for Norway lobster,
Nephrops norvegicus (Albalat et al., 2009; Gornik et al., 2010). Similarly, in different penaeid shrimp,
AEC values were lower, and Hx was higher when the shrimp were captured by trawling compared to
shrimp harvested at farms (Paterson et al., 1995). However, no studies on ATP metabolism and
freshness have been performed regarding common harvest practices in shrimp.
Shrimp harvesting practices depend on commercial production levels. A common practice consists of
capturing shrimp with a cast net. Placing the catch in tanks near ponds implies that shrimp try to escape
from the net, are exposed to air, and finally are confined in a tank. Such conditions would activate
anaerobic metabolism and deplete ATP (Abe et al., 2007; Robles-Romo et al., 2016) before the shrimp are
stocked for several hours or days in ice and then sold as fresh. This study analyzes indices of freshness in
shrimp in response to such practices at harvest and during storage in ice for six days.
Materials and methods

Experimental design
Whiteleg shrimp (Litopenaeus vannamei) were raised on a commercial farm (Servicios Acuícolas
Profesionales, Bay of Ohuira, Sinaloa, Mexico), in 1 ha plastic lined ponds with constant aeration under
natural photoperiod at a density of 300 shrimp m–2. At the time of sampling (19:00 h), the water in the pond
was 24°C, 36 psu, and a dissolved oxygen concentration of 4.1 mg L–1. A batch (300) of shrimp (13 ± 1 g)
was exposed to the normal harvesting procedure. The shrimp were captured with a cast net within 1 min,
confined in a container (dimensions 0.5 × 0.35 × 0.31 m, 54.3 L capacity) without water and exposed 15 min
to air at an ambient temperature of 19°C. Ninety shrimp were then washed with freshwater, placed in
polyethylene bags (n = 10/bag), and maintained in crushed ice for 12, 24, 36, 48, 72, 96, 120, or 144 h. When
necessary, the melted water from the ice was drained, and new ice was incorporated to maintain 0°C. These
shrimp were designated as the harvest group to represent the common practice of harvesting in many
farms. In contrast, shrimp from the control group were captured in the same way but were immediately
placed in polyethylene bags on the water-ice mix and cooled and then kept in polyethylene bags for the
same times of ice storage.
For 0 h time, shrimp from the container (harvest group) or from the net (control group) were
immediately frozen in liquid nitrogen, stored at –76°C, and used only for analyses of nucleotides and
arginine phosphate (Arg-P), as these samplings were done in the field. Thereafter, shrimp were
sampled at the time points mentioned below for the different analysis. The first abdominal segment
was used for Arg-P/nucleotide analyses, including byproducts. The remaining abdominal segments
were used for analysis of lipids, pH, expressible water, texture profile, and color, starting from time
12 h, as the necessary equipment was not available in the field. Only shrimp at the intermolt stage
were analyzed.
JOURNAL OF AQUATIC FOOD PRODUCT TECHNOLOGY 1095
Analysis
Extraction and analysis of nucleotides and arginine phosphate
Extraction and analysis of adenylic nucleotides was performed according to Robles-Romo et al.
(2016), namely, neutralization of supernatant with a mixture of trioctylamine and dicloromethane
(1:5 v/v). Nucleotides were quantified by ion-pairing reversed phase high performance liquid
chromatography (HPLC) (model 1100, Agilent Technologies, Santa Clara, CA, USA) using an
octadecylsilane C18 column (Hyper Clone 150 mm length, 4.6 mm internal diameter, 3 μm particle
size diameter, Phenomenex, Torrance, CA, USA), and a security guard cartridge C18 (40 mm length,
3.0 mm internal diameter, Phenomenex). Separation of nucleotides was performed under isocratic
conditions at a flow rate of 0.8 mL min–1, using a mobile phase of 0.15 M NaH2PO4 buffer, 3 mM
tetrabutylammonium as the ion-pairing agent, and 8% methanol, adjusted to pH 6.0 with 5 N
NaOH. The nucleotides were detected at 254 nm (Agilent detector coupled to HPLC system). The
AEC charge was calculated according to the method of Atkinson (1968): (ATP + 0.5 ADP)/(ATP +
ADP + AMP).
Arg-P was analyzed in an aliquot of the same extract used for nucleotide analysis, using reverse phase
HPLC (Viant et al., 2001). Data are presented as μmol g–1 of tissue (ww).
Lipid classes
Lipids were extracted using chloroform:methanol (2:1 v/v), and lipid samples were run in thin layer
chromatography coupled to detection by flame ionization (Iatroscan TLC/FID MK-5 analyzer),
using chromarod S-III, which were previously brought to a constant humidity in a hydration
chamber (Palacios et al., 2007). Neutral lipid classes were developed for 30 min in a mobile phase
of hexane: ethyl acetate: diethyl ether: formic acid (90:7:3:1). Rods were scanned at a hydrogen flow
rate of 160 mL min–1, airflow of 2000 mL min–1, and a scanning speed of 30 mm min–1. Lipid classes
were identified by comparison of retention times against appropriate external standards (Sigma-
Aldrich, St. Louis, MO, USA), and the concentration was calculated based on the peak areas of the
external standards.
Fatty acid analysis

Lipid samples were transesterified with boron trifluoride-methanol (BF3 14% methanol, Sigma-
Aldrich) and analyzed in a gas chromatograph (G890-N, Agilent Technologies) with DB-23 silica
column (30 m × 0.25 mm ID × 0.25 mm film thickness) with helium as the carrier gas (Toyes-Vargas
et al., 2016).
Lipid hydroperoxides (LOOH)

The LOOH content was estimated from the chloroform–methanol (2:1 v/v) extract by the ferric
thiocyanate method (Chapman and Mackay, 1949; Mihaljevic et al., 1996); with absorbance reading
at 505 nm on a microplate reader (Multiscan GO, Thermo Fisher Scientific, Waltham, MA, USA),
using cumene hydroperoxide (Sigma-Aldrich) as standard.
Physicochemical analysis
The pH was measured using a pH meter (HI9025C, Hanna Instruments, Woonsocket, RI, USA) with
a flat surface sensor (HI1413, Hanna Instruments). Expressible water (EW) was measured according
to Rahman et al. (2000) with some modifications: 1 g of muscle was placed between double layers of
filter paper (Whatman No. 1), then two compression cycles were applied, using a 5 cm diameter
cylinder and 5 kgf compression force. Muscle texture: hardness (expressed as kgf), cohesiveness
(dimensionless), and springiness (dimensionless) was measured (Beltrán-Lugo et al., 2006).
Color was measured in shrimp muscle using a handheld chroma meter (CR-400, Konica Minolta,
Tokyo, Japan), following the methodology of Francis and Clydesdale (1975). The color parameters L*
(lightness), a*, b* (red/green and yellow/blue spectral ranges, respectively), hue angle [H° ab = arctan
(b/a)], and chromaticity C* [C = (a2 + b2)0.5] were obtained for the surface (exterior) of the muscle as
well as for a transversal cut (interior). Whiteness index was calculated from L*, a*, and b* using the
equation: WI = 100 – [(100 – L)2 + a2 + b2]0.5
Statistical analysis
All data were tested for normality and homogeneity of variance; when one of these conditions was
not fulfilled, logarithmic, squared, or inverse transformation was applied. Student’s t-test analysis
was applied to analyze time 0 between harvest and control groups. A factorial analysis of variance
(ANOVA) was performed in which harvest procedure and storage time were the main factors. If
main effects or interactions were significant, Tukey’s posthoc HSD was applied to specify the effects.
To analyze how each biochemical component affected shrimp freshness, principal component
analysis (PCA) with factor loadings ≥0.7 and eigenvalues >1.0 was used. All analyses were performed
using STATISTICA 8.0 (Dell Statistica, Tulsa, OK, USA). The results are expressed as mean ± SE,
and differences were reported as significant if p < 0.05.
Results and discussion

Immediate effect of emersion and confinement on captured shrimp
The immediate effect of emersion and confinement can be observed at time 0 when harvest and
control groups are compared. Shrimp from harvest animals had 70% less IMP compared to controls
(0.07 vs. 0.23 µmol g–1), a result somewhat surprising as IMP could be considered as a stress indicator
that increases with emersion (Paterson, 1993) and in shrimp caught in 15 min trawls (Paterson et al.,
1995). Nevertheless, levels are still very low at time 0, and the difference between both groups (0.16
µmol g–1) is negligible and therefore of minimal physiological meaning. No differences were observed
for ATP, AEC, or Arg-P (Table 1), although an increase in the use of available ATP following emersion
was expected. Abe et al. (2007) reported that shrimp under hypoxic conditions had decreased Arg-P
after 2 h and ATP after 6 h, without changes in AEC. On the other hand, a decrease in ATP and AEC
was expected in both groups as a result of capture with a net, as shrimp captured in this way exhibit a
typical escape response that decreases availability of cell energy in less than 1 min (Robles-Romo et al.,
2016), and this decrease is more intense by delaying freezing even for a few minutes (Robles-Romo
et al., 2014). However, such a decrease apparently did not occur in the present work, as levels of ATP
and AEC are relatively high and comparable to levels obtained in undisturbed shrimp (Robles-Romo
et al., 2014, 2016). A possible explanation for such a lack of effect could be related to the relatively low
temperature of water in the ponds (24°C) and air (19°C) that weaken the response of shrimp to
emersion; this is in contrast to the studies of Robles-Romo et al. (2014, 2016) done at water
Table 1. Levels of arginine phosphate, adenylic energy charge, individual adenylic nucleotides, and their metabolic byproducts in
shrimp captured from ponds with a cast net and immediately frozen (control) and shrimp subjected to common harvest practices
involving emersion and confinement for 15 min (harvest). (n = 10 for each group).
Control Harvest
Arg-P 2.40 ± 0.37 2.20 ± 0.39
AEC 0.90 ± 0.03 0.80 ± 0.04
ATP 8.2 ± 0.3 7.7 ± 0.5
ADP 2.43 ± 0.2 2.80 ± 0.2
AMP 0.24 ± 0.05 0.40 ± 0.10
TAN 10.4 ± 0.4 11.0 ± 0.5
IMP 0.23 ± 0.06 0.07 ± 0.01*
Hx 0.02 ± 0.005 0.01 ± 0.004
Data are presented as μmol g−1 on a wet weight basis. Arg-P (arginine phosphate); AEC (adenylic energy charge); ATP (adenosine
triphosphate); ADP (adenosine diphosphate); AMP (adenosine monophosphate); TAN (total adenylic nucleotides);IMP (inosine
monophosphate); Hx (Hypoxanthine). *p < 0.01 vs. control shrimp.
temperatures of 26–28°C. Moreover, stress response in terms of lactate increase caused by net capture
of shrimp is lower when caught in December compared to August (Racotta, unpublished results).
Similarly, mild hypothermia (a 5°C decrease below ambient temperature) was tested and successfully
used to reduce shrimp stress response (glucose and lactate increase) during sampling from ponds
(Zamora-Méndez, 2012). Finally, other penaeid species such as Marsupenaeus japonicus and Penaeus
monodon can sustain AEC for many hours during emersion, especially at lowered temperature
(Paterson, 1993). As L. vannamei is considered even more tolerant than these species, emersion for
15 min is apparently not metabolically-challenging enough.
Levels of ATP and AEC are strongly regulated at the cellular level at the expense of other energy
reserves. The levels obtained in the present work for the control group for ATP (8.2 µmol g–1) and
AEC (0.9) (Table 1) were within the range reported for undisturbed shrimp (Robles-Romo et al.,
2014, 2016). However, levels of Arg-P in both groups were considerably lower (2.2–2.4 µmol g–1)
compared to previous studies in undisturbed shrimp (7 µmol g–1). Before being subjected to
emersion, shrimp from both groups tried to escape from the net after capture. Such response
involved repeated tail flips that decreased by 75% the amount of Arg-P in 20 seconds (Robles-
Romo et al., 2016). Therefore, levels of ATP were apparently maintained at the expense of Arg-P
hydrolysis, not only in emersed shrimp, but also in the control group. This suggests that Arg-P is a
more sensitive indicator of metabolic challenge and contributes to relatively high amounts of ATP,
which would occur only under more extreme or prolonged conditions (emersion, confinement, etc.)
when stores of Arg-P are already depleted. Indeed, trawled shrimp in the open sea that are confined
in the net for 1-2 h presented ATP and AEC levels considerably lower than harvested shrimp from
ponds (Paterson et al., 1995).
Effect of ante-mortem common harvest practices on long-term postmortem quality

At 12 h after capture, ATP (Figure 1a) and Arg-P (not shown) were no longer detected in both groups. The
resulting AEC declined to very low levels (below 0.1) during the period analyzed (not shown). ADP
decreased significantly by 77% at 12 h and showed a slight, continuous decline afterwards, with no
significant effect as a result of emersion (Figure 1b). AMP increased 22-fold at 12 h, reaching 7.02 µmol
g–1 (global mean, irrespective of ante-mortem emersion) and afterwards continued to decline over time
(Figure 1c). Total concentration of adenylic nucleotides declined over time from 10.7 µmol g–1 at 0 h to 2.4
µmol g–1 at 144 h postharvest (Figure 1d). The concentration of IMP steeply increased from 0.15 µmol g–1
at 0 h to a maximum of 4.50 µmol g–1 at 72 h and then slightly decreased, but not significantly, to 3.57 µmol
g–1 at 144 h (Figure 1e). Changes in the degradation of adenlylic nucletotides, with a simultaneous increase
of IMP and a final increase in Hx, are typical biochemical changes reported in penaeid shrimp (Canizales-
Rodríguez et al., 2015; Qiu et al., 2016). Except for Hx (see below), no differences in nucleotides and related
compounds were observed between both groups as a result of emersion. Therefore, the palatable properties
(sweetness) conferred by AMP and IMP (Tejada, 2009) were not affected by ante-mortem emersion.
Hx presented an initial value of 0.02 µmol g–1 and increased significantly during ice storage; the
significant interaction indicates that the harvest group had a greater increase, reaching 0.6 µmol g–1
compared to 0.53 µmol g–1 in the control group (Figure 1f). Hx is a product of ATP degradation and
is associated with loss of freshness, conferring a bitter taste to seafood (Tejada, 2009). For shrimp,
values of 2 µmol g–1, together with complete depletion of IMP, are indicators of doubtful freshness
(Fatima et al., 1981). In the present study, values of Hx at day 6 (0.53 and 0.6 µmol g–1) were lower
than in the Fatimas’ study, as well as in the study of Qiu et al. (2016) after six days (1 µmol g−1).
Higher values of Hx were expected for the harvest group because the cascade of degradation of ATP
was supposed to be accelerated by ante-mortem emersion, as in the case of Norway lobster, N.
norvegicus (Gornik et al., 2010). This was apparently not the case, because the low values of Hx
attained and the minimal difference between both groups (0.07 µmol g−1). As discussed above, one
of the reasons for the lack of ante-mortem depletion of ATP associated with harvest stress was
related to water temperature in November when most farms are harvesting. Therefore, there is no
Figure 1. Post-mortem changes in the concentrations of (a) ATP, (b) ADP, (c) AMP, (d) TAN, (e) IMP, and (f) Hx in abdominal muscle
of shrimp captured from ponds with a cast net and immediately frozen (C: control) and shrimp subjected to common harvest
practices involving emersion and confinement for 15 min (H: harvest). Two-way ANOVA (storage time-ST × ante-mortmem
emersion-AE) results are inserted in Figure. When the interaction was not significant, different capital letters indicate significant
differences between global means for storage times, irrespective to ante-mortem emersion. Small letters indicate significant
differences between individual means only when the interaction was statistically significant. Data are presented as mean ± SE,
n = 10 shrimp for each storage time × emersion-combination. ATP (adenosine triphosphate); ADP (adenosine diphosphate); AMP
(adenosine monophosphate); IMP (inosine monophosphate; Hx (hypoxanthine); TAN (total adenylic nucleotides).
apparent risk of loss of freshness related to the harvest practice analyzed in the present study that is
very common in several farms. However, in the warmer months, the situation could be different, and
the shelf life should be examined at different ambient temperatures at the time of harvest and to
evaluate the influence of the different harvesting procedures. For sierra fish, Scomberomorus sierra,
extreme practices used by fisherman (catch left for 6 h at summer temperatures up to 40°C without
ice) clearly accelerate the rise in Hx and the corresponding K value, which diminishes shelf life
(Castillo-Yañez et al., 2007).
The pH was not affected by emersion, but it increased during postmortem storage from 6.2 at 12
h to 6.7 at 144 h (global means, irrespective of ante-mortem conditions) (Figure 2a). The increase in
postmortem pH is the result of the endogen enzymatic degradation of amino acids and nucleotides,
as well as the increasing load of bacteria, with the release of ammonia and other nitrogenous
compounds, including trimethylamine and total volatile basic nitrogen (Canizales-Rodríguez et al.,
2015). An increase in pH of 0.44 in the blue shrimp, Litopenaeus stylirostris, (Canizales-Rodríguez
et al., 2015) or 0.8 in whiteleg shrimp, L. vannamei, (Okpala, 2015) stored on ice for six days has
been reported. An increase to pH 8.0 was reached six days after catch in caridean northern prawn,
Pandalus borealis, stored on ice, together with a rejection of appearance and smell by a trained
sensory panel (Zeng et al., 2005). For white gamba, Parapenaeus longirostris, rejection was deter-
mined when pH increased to 7.6 after seven days of storage (Goncalves et al., 2003). Therefore, in the
present study, it can be concluded that pH remained between acceptable levels without any adverse
effect from ante-mortem emersion.
EW significantly increased by 1.2% at 144 h, compared to 12 h, with a pronounced peak at 72 h
(Figure 2b). EW and water-holding capacity express the percentage of water that is released or retained,
Figure 2. Post-mortem changes in (a) pH, (b) EW, (c) hardness, (d) springiness, and (e) cohesiveness in abdominal muscle of
shrimp captured from ponds with a cast net and immediately frozen (C: control) and shrimp subjected to common harvest
practices involving emersion and confinement for 15 min (H: harvest). See Figure 1 for statistics. Data are presented as mean ± SE,
n = 10 (pH and %EW), and n = 6 (hardness, springiness, and cohesiveness) for each storage time × emersion-combination. %EW
(expressible water).
respectively. Although the methodologies for their analysis differ, the results from both can be compared
because the lowest expressible water equals the highest water-holding capacity, which did not change
after six days in L. stylirostris stored at 0°C (Canizales-Rodríguez et al., 2015). Sensory quality was found
to be unacceptable in P. borealis stored on ice when the water-holding capacity decreased 5% over 6 days
(Zeng et al., 2005), but was still acceptable in kuruma shrimp, M. japonicus, stored for six days, with a
10% increase in EW (Rahman et al., 2000). EW was not affected by emersion. In contrast, ante-mortem
hypoxia (5 h; 0.5 mg O2 mL–1) reduced water-holding capacity in muscle of L. vannamei during the first
two days of storage (García-Sifuentes et al., 2013), while infection with necrotizing hepatopancreatitis
bacteria did not affect water-holding capacity (Avila-Villa et al., 2012).
A significant effect of storage time on hardness was observed, and although the interaction was
not significant, this effect was evident only for control group with maximum values of 0.62 kgf at 24
h and minimum values of 0.28 at 120 h (Figure 2c). Similarly, hardness of stored L. vannamei
decreased by 11% over six days at 4°C, but shrimp were still considered acceptable by the sensory
panel (Fu et al., 2014a). In crustaceans, softening of muscles is associated with hydrolysis of
myofibrillar and collagenous proteins (Sriket et al., 2011), and therefore a decrease in hardness is
commonly observed in penaeid shrimp under postmortem conditions (Garcia-Sifuentes et al., 2013;
Fu et al., 2014a). Although no statistical difference for ante-mortem emersion was observed, the
harvest group had lower values at the beginning (24 h) and end (144 h) of the treatment period.
Avila-Villa et al. (2012) found lower hardness from a completely different condition stress—an 18-
day bacterial post-infection in L. vannamei. Springiness (Figure 2d) and cohesiveness (Figure 2e)
were affected by ante-mortem emersion, but not by storage in ice. Samples stored in ice had values
significantly lower in emersed shrimp for springiness (21%) and higher in emersed shrimp for
cohesiveness (4%). Springiness is defined as the rate at which a deformed material returns to its
original form after the force that caused the deformation is not applied, while cohesiveness is defined
as the extent to which a material can be deformed before it ruptures (Szczesniak, 2002). Therefore,
the muscle of emersed shrimp could suffer more deformation before its rupture, but it takes more
time to return to its original form. Muscle springiness was higher in L. vannamei for shrimp killed
by ice emersion than those individually beheaded at ambient temperature (Fu et al., 2014b).
Therefore, higher springiness observed in our study in the control group is likely the result of low
temperature at slaughter, while the harvest group was exposed to ambient temperature for 15
additional minutes. As springiness is associated with flesh quality and decrease in postmortem
conditions due to the disorganization of myofibrils (Fu et al., 2014a), it can be suggested that
lower values could be associated with a lower flesh quality for emersed shrimp.
The surface and internal color of the abdominal muscle is shown in Figure 3. A significant effect of
storage time in chromaticity (C*) occurred in the surface of muscle of emersed shrimp, with a slight
increase from 3.4 to 3.9 in the first 36 h, followed by a decline thereafter, reaching the lowest value
(2.6) at 144 h (Figure 3a). Low values of chromaticity indicate a low intensity of color in the gray zone
(dullness). Similar values were obtained in L. vannamei by Okpala (2014). When chromaticity was
measured in the transversal or internal section of a muscle, C* was even lower than in the surface and
not significantly affected by storage or emersion (Figure 3b). Slight, but significantly higher, values of
hue angle (H°) at the surface occurred at 96 and 120 h (Figure 3c). In contrast, in the internal section,
H° was more variable and the significant influence of storage time was dependent on emersion
conditions: for control shrimp group, no significant differences over time were observed; whereas in
the harvest group, higher values were observed at 36, 72, and 120 h compared to lower values at 12 and
144 h (Figure 3d). Values of H° between 240 and 250 at the surface are similar to those observed by
García-Sifuentes et al. (2013) for raw L. vannamei shrimp, corresponding to the green-blue zone
attributed to crustacyanin. Ante-mortem hypoxia (5 h at 0.5 mg O2 L–1) slightly increased H° to a blue
color in L. vannamei (García-Sifuentes et al., 2013), but apparently not during the short emersion used
in our study. Much lower values of H° (~75) occurred in L. stylirostris and indicate a yellowish color
(Canizales-Rodríguez et al., 2015). These differences could be a result of comparison of different
species, type of ante-mortem stressors, or the portion of meat used for the color analysis. Inside the
Figure 3. Post-mortem changes in color parameters: (a,b) chromaticity, (c,d) spectral angle, and (e,f) whiteness index in abdominal
muscle of shrimp captured from ponds with a cast net and immediately frozen (C: control) and shrimp subjected to common
harvest practices involving emersion and confinement for 15 min (H: harvest). On the left side (a, c, and e), color parameters were
analyzed on the surface of the muscle; whereas, on the right side (b, d, and f), these parameters were analyzed on the interior of
the muscle. See Figure 1 for statistics. Data are presented as mean ± SE, n = 9 for each storage time × emersion-combination.
muscle, H° was considerably lower and quite variable, with the lowest value (110) associated with a
yellowish color. In contrast, no changes occurred in the whiteness index in the surface (Figure 3e), but
the internal whiteness index increased significantly over storage time (Figure 3f), indicating a light-
ening of muscle, in contrast to previous studies that reported decreased lightness during storage with
ice, although this occurred over extended periods of time (Canizales-Rodríguez et al., 2015). The
current study permits a comparison of features of color analysis between the external surface, which
had higher color intensity (C*) and whiteness/lightness (WI and L) compared to the internal section
and relatively constant color in the green-blue zone in the external part; whereas in the internal part,
more variability was observed in H° values.
Among the essential n-3 fatty acids, the proportion of 20:5n-3 was not affected by storage or
emersion (Figure 4a); while 22:6n-3 significantly decreased over ice-storage from 16.9 to 14.7% of
total fatty acids but was not affected by ante-mortem emersion (Figure 4b). These two fatty acids are
the main HUFA that also decreased over time, although the effect depended on emersion conditions,
as shown by a significant interaction. Therefore, the decrease in HUFA levels was evident only in the
control group, with significant differences over time between one and six days (Figure 4c). No
previous studies have analyzed nutritional quality of shrimp during ice storage in terms of n-3 fatty
acids content, except for a decrease over ice-storage during 6 days in 20:5n-3 and 22:6n-3 in non-
edible parts: hepatopancreas and cephalotorax (Takeungwongtrakul et al., 2012). Nevertheless, the
13% decrease observed for 22:6n-3 after 6 days of storage in the present work is not critical for
human nutrition. Further decrease over more extended period of cold storage should be evaluated, as
previous works determined acceptable shelf life of 8 days (Okpala et al., 2014) or even 12 days
(Canizales-Rodríguez et al., 2015). Even if the proportion of 20:4n-6 was not influenced by ice-
storage or ante-mortem emersion (not shown), the ratio 20:4n-6/20:5n-3 was higher in emersed
shrimp, although it was affected by storage time, with significant differences between both groups
only at 24 h (Figure 4d). Triglycerides (TG) were affected by emersion and storage time, with lower
levels in emersed shrimp and a decrease over time in both groups attaining near-zero levels in
emersed shrimp (Figure 5a). In contrast, the proportion of phospholipids, as the main lipids in
muscle (more than 90% of total lipids), increased over storage (Figure 5b); this effect is probably due
to proportionality effect as the other lipids, such as TG; sterols (not shown) and free fatty acids
(FFA) (see above) decreased mainly during the first 36 h. FFA were affected by time, emersion, and
interaction between the two factors (Figure 5c). Emersed shrimp had higher initial levels of FFA, and
the effect of time is evidenced by a decrease of FFA for both groups from 12 to 36 h, followed by
variable increases depending on the group. Taken together, hydrolysis of TG to FFA could be due to
the use of lipids during emersion (Racotta and Palacios, 1998) and to lipid hydrolysis, as the first step
Figure 4. Post-mortem changes in fatty acid composition expressed as proportion of total fatty acids: (a) 20:5n-3, (b) 22:6n-3, (c)
highly unsaturated fatty acids (HUFA), and (d) 20:4n-6/20:5n-3 ratio in abdominal muscle of shrimp captured from ponds with a
cast net and immediately frozen (C: control) and shrimp subjected to common harvest practices involving emersion and
confinement for 5 min (H: harvest). See Figure 1 for statistics. Data are presented as mean ± SE, n = 3 for each storage time ×
emersion-combination.
Figure 5. Post-mortem changes in lipid classes composition expressed as proportion of total lipids, except for peroxidized lipids
(µg g−1 of tissue, fw) : (a) triglycerides (TG), (b) phospholipids (PL), (c) free fatty acids (FFA), and (d) lipids hydoperoxides (LOOH) in
abdominal muscle of shrimp captured from ponds with a cast net and immediately frozen (C: control) and shrimp subjected to
common harvest practices involving emersion and confinement for 15 min (H: harvest). See Figure 1 for statistics. Data are
presented as mean ± SE, n = 3 for each storage time × emersion-combination.
of degradation under postmortem conditions, followed by their oxidation (Losada et al., 2006;
Takeungwongtrakul et al., 2012). Indeed, evidence of primary lipid oxidation is indicated by the
increase in LOOH through time (Figure 5d), as previously found in L. vannamei (Nirmal and
Benjakul, 2009; Okpala et al., 2014). A process of peroxidation is consistent with the observed
changes in FFA and HUFA, as fatty acids in their free form and with more double bonds are more
prone to oxidation (Shahidi, 1998; Takeungwongtrakul et al., 2012). A higher content of LOOH in
emersed shrimp was observed mainly at the beginning and at the end of the storage period. This
suggests that harvest stress could affect flesh quality in terms of sensory perception and nutritional
quality, as oxidized lipids are associated not only with flavor deterioration, but also with negative
effects on human health (Shahidi, 1998). As previously suggested for nucleotide byproducts, perox-
idation of lipids caused by harvest emersion could be enhanced when harvest is performed in
warmer months of the year.
As seen in Table 2, there were three principal factors in the PCA that had eigenvalue >1.0 and,
together, accounted for 76.2% of the total variation. Factor 1 explained 39.6% of variance, factor 2
explained 20.5%, and factor 3 explained 16.2%. Factor 1 had strong negative loadings for cholesterol
(–0.92) and hardness (–0.79) and positive loadings for phospholipids (0.93) and the whiteness index
at the surface (0.68). Factor 2 had negative loadings for the saturation index (−0.87) and springiness
(–0.70) and positive loadings for hypoxanthine (0.80), lipid peroxidation (0.71), and pH (0.66).
Factor 3 had strong positive loadings for cohesiveness (0.88) and 20:4/20:5 (0.77). The first factor is
related to the loss of hardness, which can be affected by the variation of cholesterol and phospho-
lipids, since they are structural components of the cell membrane. Factor 2 is associated with the loss
of freshness, as suggested by the undesired changes produced by increasing Hx, lipid peroxidation,
Table 2. Factor loadings resulting from principal component analysis with eigenvalues >1.
Factor 1 Factor 2 Factor 3
Hypoxanthine 0.16 0.80 0.19
Hardness −0.79 −0.46 0.02
Springiness −0.03 −0.70 −0.46
Cohesiveness 0.03 0.07 0.88
Whiteness index (surface) 0.68 −0.05 0.55
pH 0.54 0.66 −0.32
Sat. index −0.02 −0.87 −0.28
20:4/20:5 −0.03 0.14 0.77
Cholesterol −0.92 0.03 0.08
Phospholipids 0.93 0.21 0.07

Lipid peroxidation 0.13 0.71 −0.16
Eigenvalue 4.36 2.25 1.78
% Total variance 39.63 20.45 16.15
Cumulative % 39.63 60.07 76.23
and pH. Elasticity and the saturation index showed a similar variation that is also related to the loss
of firmness and storage time. The third factor also suggests a relation between texture and lipid
composition. This factor, composed by the 20:4n-6/20:5n-3 ratio and cohesiveness, suggests a
relation between the fatty acids and texture. In addition, this factor was affected by emersion. In
accordance, 20:4n-6/20:5n-3 ratio affects synthesis of prostaglandins because both compete for the
COX enzyme, and 20:4n-6 is associated with crowding stress in shrimp grown at high densities
(Aguilar et al., 2012). The increase in oxidation, as was expected during extended shelf life, can
increase the production of prostaglandins from 20:4n-6 from non-enzymatic mechanisms. However,
the relationship between this ratio and cohesiveness is not clear, but it might be an effect of muscle
contraction similar to rigor mortis.
Conclusion
Cellular energy balance (AEC) was maintained by Arg-P reserves during capture and emersion occurring
during shrimp harvest. Therefore, ATP and its degradation products (AMP, IMP), as well as several
indicators of freshness (pH, expressible water, hardness, color, and the overall fatty acid composition), were
not significantly affected by such harvest practices. However, such practices resulted in a lower elasticity
and a greater muscular cohesiveness that may be due to structural and compositional changes in proteins
and lipids (Fu et al., 2014b). An increase in Hx levels and lipid oxidation over the storage period analyzed
was accentuated in shrimp exposed to ante-mortem emersion when harvested. When considering the
overall variables analyzed, it is concluded that harvest practices evaluated in the present study probably do
not substantially affect the quality of shrimp meat, but care should be taken at higher environmental
temperatures (e.g. harvest in summer) and for a duration of ice-storage over 6 days.
Acknowledgments
We thank Takeo Mastumoto, manager of Servicios Acuícolas Profesionales, for providing pond shrimp. Editing
services was provided by Ira Fogel at CIBNOR.
Funding
This research was supported by CONACYT grants Proinnova 211423 and SEP-2010-156118. S.Z.M. is a recipient of a
doctoral fellowship (CONACYT 353202).
ORCID
Saúl Zamora-Méndez http://orcid.org/0000-0002-9691-5576
Arlett Robles-Romo http://orcid.org/0000-0001-5772-565X
Olivia Arjona http://orcid.org/0000-0001-8864-1213
Juan P. Apún-Molina http://orcid.org/0000-0001-9006-8882
Ana I. Beltrán-Lugo http://orcid.org/0000-0001-5298-6041
Elena Palacios http://orcid.org/0000-0002-3055-2880
Ilie S. Racotta http://orcid.org/0000-0001-8748-8288
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Journal of Aquatic Food Product Technology

ISSN: 1049-8850 (Print) 1547-0636 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/wafp20

Postmortem Metabolic, Physicochemical, and Lipid

Saúl Zamora-Méndez, Arlett Robles-Romo, Erica Marin-Peralta, Olivia Arjona,

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/10498850.2017.1376236

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Postmortem Metabolic, Physicochemical, and Lipid Composition

Materials and methods

Fatty acid analysis

Lipid hydroperoxides (LOOH)

Results and discussion

Effect of ante-mortem common harvest practices on long-term postmortem quality

Phospholipids 0.93 0.21 0.07

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