SOLIDS NOTES 5, George G.

Chase, The University of Akron

5. FLUIDIZATION

5.1 The Phenomenon of Fluidization

When a fluid is pumped upward through a bed of fine solid particles at a very low flow
rate the fluid percolates through the void spaces (pores) without disturbing the bed. This
is a fixed bed process.
If the upward flow rate is very large the bed mobilizes pneumatically and may be swept
out of the process vessel. At an intermediate flow rate the bed expands and is in what we
call an expanded state. In the fixed bed the particles are in direct contact with each other,
supporting each other’s weight. In the expanded bed the particles have a mean free
distance between particles and the particles are supported by the drag force of the fluid.
The expanded bed has some of the properties of a fluid and is also called a fluidized bed.
As shown in Figure 5-1, the velocity of the fluid through the bed opposite to the direction
of gravity determines whether the bed is fixed, expanded, or is swept out. There is a
minimum fluidization velocity, Vom, at which the bed just begins to fluidize. When the

(a) Slow Flow (b) High Flow (c) Intermediate

Rate, Fixed Rate, Mobilized Flow Rate, Fixed
Bed, VOm > VO Bed, u t < VO Bed, VOm < VO < u t

Figure 5-1. Fixed, mobilized, and expanded beds. The fixed bed (a) occurs when
the approach velocity, Vo, is much smaller than the minimized fluidization
velocity, Vom. The pneumatically mobilized bed (b) occurs when the approach
velocity is much greater than the particle terminal velocity, ut, and the expanded
bed (c) occurs when the approach velocity is intermediate between the minimum
fluidization velocity and the terminal velocity.

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SOLIDS NOTES 5, George G. Chase, The University of Akron

approach velocity, Vo (otherwise known as the empty tank velocity, given by the fluid
volumetric flow rate divided by the cross-sectional area of the vessel), is greater than or
equal to the minimum fluidization velocity and it is less than the terminal velocity of the
particles Vom ≤ Vo < u t then the bed forms a fluidized bed. When Vo < Vom then the bed
remains as a fixed bed. At the other extreme, when Vo ≥ ut , the bed mobilizes.
In many liquid-solid systems an increase in velocity above Vom results in a smooth
progressive expansion of the bed. Large scale instabilities and heterogeneities are not
observed. A bed such as this is called a homogeneous fluidized bed. This is typically
observed when the fluid and solids have similar intrinsic densities.
When there is a large difference in the densities of the fluid and solid phases an increase
in fluid velocity typically causes large bubbles or other such instabilities. Several types
of instabilities are described by Kunii and Levenspeil, Figure 1 page 2 (D. Kunii and O.
Levenspeil, Fluidization Engineering, 2ed., Butterworth-Heineman, Boston, 1991).
In turbulent and pneumatically mobilized beds a significant part of the bed may be
carried out of the vessel. For steady-state operations the particles must be recovered such
as with a cyclone (Kunii & Levenspeil, Figure 2).
A spouted bed is a variation on the fluidized bed in which the flow of the fluid is
localized along the center axis and the solids move downward along the vessel walls
(Kunii & Levenspeil, Figure 3).
Fluidized beds display a number of liquid-like properties:
• Lighter objects float on top of the bed (ie., objects less dense than the bulk
density of the bed),
• The surface stays horizontal even in tilted beds,
• The solids can flow through an opening in the vessel just like a liquid,
• The beds have a “static” pressure head due to gravity, given by ρ 0 gh ,
• Levels between two similar fluidized beds equalize their static pressure heads.
There are a number of ways in which to design and operate gas-fluidized systems for
continuous operations. Figure 5-2 shows a counter current column and a cross flow
system.

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SOLIDS NOTES 5, George G. Chase, The University of Akron

SOLIDS GAS OUT

IN
GAS OUT
SOLIDS
IN

SOLIDS OUT GAS IN OUT

GAS IN

COUNTER CROSS FLOW

CURRENT
COLUMN

Figure 5-2. Counter current and cross flow methods of continuous contacting in fluidized
bed designs.

5.2 Comparison of Contacting Methods

Kunii and Levenspiel (ibid, Figure 7) provide a table comparing different types of
fluidized beds to the fixed bed. Beds include:
• Fixed bed
• Moving bed
• Bubbling/turbulent bed
• Fast fluidized bed
• Rotary cylinder
• Flat hearth

The advantages of fluidized beds include:

• Liquid like behavior, easy to control and automate,
• Rapid mixing, uniform temperature and concentrations,
• Resists rapid temperature changes, hence responds slowly to changes
in operating conditions and avoids temperature runaway with
exothermic reactions,
• Circulate solids between fluidized beds for heat exchange,
• Applicable for large or small scale operations,
• Heat and mass transfer rates are high, requiring smaller surfaces.

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SOLIDS NOTES 5, George G. Chase, The University of Akron

The disadvantages of fluidized beds include:

• Bubbling beds of fine particles are difficult to predict and are less
efficient,
• Rapid mixing of solids causes non-uniform residence times for
continuous flow reactors,
• Particle comminution (breakup) is common,
• Pipe and vessel walls erode due to collisions by particles.

5.3 Uses of Fluidization

The uses for fluidized beds are limited to our imaginations. Typical uses include
• Reactors
◊ Cracking hydrocarbons
◊ coal gasification
◊ carbonization
◊ calcination
• heat exchange
• Drying operations
• Coating (example, metals with polymer)
• Solidification/Granulation
• Growth of particles
• Adsorption/desorption
• Bio fluidization
• others

5.4 Geldart Classification of Particles

Geldart (Powder Technology, 7, 285-292, 1973) observed the nature of particles
fluidizing. He categorized his observations by particle diameter versus the relative
density difference between the fluid phase and the solid particles. (HANDOUT 5.1).
Geldart identified four regions in which the fluidization character can be distinctly
defined.
Group A particles are characterized by
• Bubbling bed fluidization,
• The bed expands considerably before bubbling occurs,
◊ Gas bubbles rise more rapidly than the rest of the gas,
◊ Bubbles spit and coalesce frequently through the bed,
◊ Maximum bubble size is less than 10 cm,
◊ Internal flow deflectors do not improve fluidization,
• Gross circulation of solids occurs.

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SOLIDS NOTES 5, George G. Chase, The University of Akron

10 B
SAND-LIKE
(BUBBLING
BED)
(EASY TO D
FLUIDIZE) SPOUTABLE

(ρ − ρg )
BED
A
s
AERATABLE
1 BED

(g / cm )
(EASIEST TO
3
FLUIDIZE)

C
COHESIVE
(DIFFICULT TO
FLUIDIZE)

0.1
10 100 1000 10000
dp (µm )
Figure 5-3. Geldart classification of fluidized beds. Particle properties are related to the
type of fluidized beds. (Geldart, Powder Technology, 7, 258-292,1973).

Group B particle beds are the most common. These beds

• Are made of coarser particles than group A particles and more dense,
• Form bubbles as soon as the gas velocity exceeds Vom,
• Form small bubbles at the distributor which grow in size throughout the bed,
• Have bubble sizes independent of the particle size, and
• Have gross circulation.
Group C particles
• Are difficult to fluidize and tend to rise as a slug of solids,
• Form channels in large beds with no fluidization, and
• Tend to be cohesive.
Group D particles
• Are very large, dense particles,
• Form bubbles which coalesce rapidly and grow large,
• Form bubbles which rise slower than the rest of the gas phase,
• Form beds whose dense phase surrounding the bubbles has low voidage,
• Cause slugs to form in beds when the bubble size approaches the bed
diameter, and
• Spout from the top of the bed easily.

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SOLIDS NOTES 5, George G. Chase, The University of Akron

Kunii and Levenspeil present a more generalized diagram (ibid, Figure 16) for
classifying fluidization regimes. They plot a dimensionless particle diameter, d p *
versus a dimensionless velocity u * where

⎡ ρ( ρ p − ρ ) g ⎤
1

( )
3 1
dp*= dp ⎢ =
2 3
⎥ 3
CD Rep (5-1)
⎢⎣ µ2 ⎥⎦
4

and
1
⎡ ρ2 ⎤ 3
⎛ 4 Rep ⎞
1
3
u* = u ⎢ ⎥ =⎜ ⎟
( )
. (5-2)
⎢ µ ρp − ρ g ⎥ ⎝ 3 CD ⎠
⎣ ⎦
With the data arranged this way they identify several interesting features including:
• Geldart’s classification,
• Terminal velocity, ut ,
• Minimum fluidization velocity, umf , and
• Types of fluidization (spouted beds, bubbling, fast fluidized beds and
pneumatic transport).

5.5 Prediction of Minimum Fluidization

A minimum velocity is needed to fluidized a bed. If the velocity is too small the bed
stays fixed and operates as a packed bed.
Recall the Ergun Equation is presented in dimensionless form in Eq.(4-25) which relates
the pressure drop to the flow rate through a packed bed. At the onset of fluidization the
particles are still close enough together that the pressure drop is related to the velocity by
the Ergun Equation. Also, a free body diagram tells us that the force due to pressure drop
is also related to the net weight of the solids in the bed

(
∆P A = ρ p − ρ 1 − ε f)( )( A L ) gg f
c
(5-3)

where the right side of Eq.(5-3) is the weight of the solids minus the buoyant force due to
the displaced fluid. The subscripts f mean that the quantity is for a fluidized bed.
If we consider a total mass balance on the solids, assuming that no solids are entrained
and carried out of the bed, then the total mass of solids is constant given by

( )
M solids = ρ p 1 − ε f AL f = constant (5-4)

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SOLIDS NOTES 5, George G. Chase, The University of Akron

At different fluidization rates the porosity, ε , and the bed height, L , vary but the rest of
the terms in Eq.(5-4) are constants. This means that at the porosities and bed heights at
flow rates 1 and 2 are related by
(1 − ε ) L = (1 − ε ) L .
1 1 2 2 (5-5)
For liquids and for gases, as long as the pressure drop is small, the fluid phase density is
constant. Hence, the right hand side of Eq.(5-3) is constant and thus the pressure drop in
a fluidized bed is constant independent of the velocity.
Experimental data show this to be true. A typical plot of the pressure drop versus the
velocity is shown in Figure 5-4.
Substitution of Eq.(5-3) into Eq.(4-25) gives the modified Ergun Equation for fluidized
beds
1.80 180(1 − ε f )
Rep f + Rep f = N GA
2
(5-6)
εfΦ
3
ε 3f Φ 2
where
ρVof d p
Rep f = (5-7)
µ

and N GA =
(
d p3 ρ ρ p − ρ g ) . (5-8)
µ 2

DENSE PACKED
(FIRST TIME BED IS FLUIDIZED)

P
LOOSE PACKED

PACKED BED FLUIDIZED BED

OPERATION OPERATION

Vm
V
Figure 5-4. Typical pressure drop versus velocity plot for fluidized beds. Initially if the
bed is densely packed the pressure drop overshoots the fluidization pressure until the
particles separate and fluidize.

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SOLIDS NOTES 5, George G. Chase, The University of Akron

For small Rep f < 1 , such as with very small particles, we can neglect the Rep f 2 term and
get the Blake-Kozeny expression
180(1 − ε f )
Rep f = N GA for Rep f < 1 (5-9)
ε 3f Φ 2

d p2 (ρ p − ρ )g ε 3f Φ 2
Vof =
or
180µ (1 − ε )
f
(5-10)

which relates the fluidization velocity to the void volume fraction of the expanded bed.
To estimate the onset of fluidization, we can estimate the minimum fluidization
conditions. The minimum fluidization porosity, ε m , can be estimated from Figure 4-1 for
loose packing and known sphericity, Φ . Using this value for ε m we can solve the Ergun
Equation, Eq.(5-6) for the minimum fluidization velocity, Vo m .
When ε m and Φ are not known, we can still estimate the minimum fluidization velocity.
The modified Ergun Equation, Eq.(5-6) is rewritten as
K 2 Rep m + K 1 Rep m = N GA
2
(5-11)

180(1 − ε m ) 1.8
where K 1 = and K 2 = 3
ε mΦ
3 2
ε mΦ
Wen and Yu (AIChE J, 12(3), 610-612, 1966) noted that K 1 and K 2 stay nearly constant
over a wide range of particles and for 0.001 < Rep m < 4000 ; thus giving a prediction of
Vo mf with a 34% standard deviation.

Equation (5-11) can be solved for the minimum fluidization velocity, provided K 1 and
K 2 are known, gives
2
⎛ K ⎞ 1 ⎛ K ⎞
Rep m = ⎜⎜ 1 ⎟⎟ + N GA − ⎜⎜ 1 ⎟⎟ (5-12)
⎝ 2K 2 ⎠ K2 ⎝ 2K 2 ⎠

⎛ K1 ⎞ 1
for which Wen and Yu determined ⎜ ⎟ = 33.7 and = 0.0408 .
⎝ 2K 2 ⎠ K2
Since the work of Wen and Yu, others have determined values for K 1 and K 2 . Table 5-1
summarizes values for fine and coarse particles.

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SOLIDS NOTES 5, George G. Chase, The University of Akron

Table 5-1. Values for constants in Wen and Yu’s correlation, Eq.(5-12).
PARTICLES ⎛ K1 ⎞ 1 SOURCE
⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2K 2 ⎠ K2

Fine 33.7 0.0408 Wen and Yu, AIChE J, 12(3), 610-612, 1966.
Coarse 28.7 0.0494 Chitester et.al., Chem. Eng. Sci., 39,253,1984.

5.6 Wide Size Distributions of Particles

The previous discussion applies predominately to beds of narrow size distribution of
particles. Now lets consider what happens when there is a large size distribution of
particles in a fluidized bed.
In such a bed the minimum fluidization velocity, Vo m , must be determined for the
particular size distribution in actually in the bed. This may differ significantly from the
size distribution in the fresh feed due to elutriation of fines, attrition, or agglomeration of
particles.
One can estimate Vo m by using the average particle size (a permeability average is most
appropriate). However, as fluid flows upward and the flow is increased, the fine particles
in the voids between the larger particles will fluidize before the larger particles. This
partial fluidization will occur at a smaller velocity than the average Vo m .
Estimating Vo m for a wide size range of particles is analogous to measuring the boiling
point of a liquid mixture. The boiling point is not fixed, but varies with the composition.
To obtain a conservative estimate, to fluidize the whole bed, Vo m should be estimated for
the largest particle. You must also check the terminal velocity of the smallest particles to
make sure that you do not entrain fines and carry them out of the top of the bed.
If a bed of particles has a bimodal distribution, it has two size ranges as for example
given in Figure 5-5. Several fluidization conditions can exist for fluidized beds with
bimodal size distributions. These conditions are shown in Figure 5-6. (HANDOUT 5.2)

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SOLIDS NOTES 5, George G. Chase, The University of Akron

Bimodal
Distribution

Number

Particle Size
Figure 5-5. Bimodal distribution of particle sizes showing two peaks (modes) in the
number of particles of each size.

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SOLIDS NOTES 5, George G. Chase, The University of Akron

dp small dp small

dp large dp large

dp avg ε FLOW

(a) Complete segregation of particles into a region of predominately

small particles and a region of predominately large particles. The
segregation may also be characterized by an abrupt change in bed
porosity.

dp small dp small

dp mixed
dp mixed

dp large dp large

dp avg ε FLOW

(b) Partial segregation into two regions with different particle sizes
separated by a layer of mixed particle sizes.

dp mixed
dp mixed.

ε FLOW
dp avg

(c) No segregation of particles. The average particle size may gradually

vary throughout the depth of the bed.
Figure 5-6. Fluidized beds with bimodal size distribution.

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