Ch 1.

 Introduction to Graphic Design

What is Graphic Design? - Definition &
Explanation
Graphic design plays an intricate part in marketing techniques used by companies. In this
lesson, we will discuss what graphic design is and how it is used for brochures, logos, and
packaging.

Graphic Design
Can you imagine advertisements, brochures, or packages without pictures and words? A
successful company utilizes pictures and text to help capture the attention of its
audience. Graphic design involves a combination of images and text used to communicate
information and messages to an audience. Graphic design is used to produce billboards,
brochures, logos, magazines, newspapers, packaging, and websites. Graphic design
tools include software like Adobe Illustrator, InDesign, and Photoshop; CorelDraw; GIMP;
Inkscape; and Serif Drawplus. When using these tools, graphic designers must make sure
their designs do not infringe on anyone else's copyright and strive to be creative and
original.

Brochures
A brochure is a form of informational material that captures the essence of a business
through the use of its logo and images. A brochure should include relevant information
about the business and be clear and visually interesting so consumers feel compelled to
read it and understand what the company is trying to convey.

Logos
A logo can consist of an image, symbol, and/or text used to represent a business. It should
convey the intended message to consumers in a meaningful way. A logo should also be
easily recognizable by consumers and memorable. For example, the YouTube logo is simply
the name of the company imposed on a bold graphic to help it stand out.

Package Design
Can you imagine a product package that has absolutely no images or text? Not only would it
be boring, it wouldn't compel customers to buy the product. A good package design must
include eye-catching images and/or words that provide consumers with some insight about
the product and help it stand out from its competition. Key elements include a unique font,
bold text, bright images, and color. Graphic design plays a huge role in retail because it
conveys a company's brand message. It also gives companies a way to make their product
stand out in stores.
Impact of Poor Design
Bad graphic design can have an enormous effect on the success of a company. For
example, it may make it hard for customers to understand the company's message if its
brochure or website is poorly designed. If customers don't understand what a product is
about when reading an ad or looking at the packaging, they'll most likely not want to buy the
product. When graphic design is not done properly, customers may have a negative outlook
about a company.

For instance, imagine you're going to book a vacation on a cruise line and are comparing two
different brochures. One company is called Sail Away, and the other is called Island Vacation.
The Island Vacation brochure includes clear descriptions and pictures of the destinations.
Sail Away contains some information about the destinations, but there are few pictures, and
it's not clear where the pictures were taken. As a consumer, you'll most likely be drawn to
the Island Vacation brochure. That's because you'll have a clear idea of what your vacation
will entail.

Lesson Summary
Let's review. Graphic design involves a combination of images and text used to
communicate information and messages to an audience. Graphic design tools, like Adobe
Illustrator, InDesign, and Photoshop; CorelDraw; GIMP; Inkscape; and Serif Drawplus, can be
used to produce billboards, brochures, logos, magazines, newspapers, packaging, and
websites. A brochure is a form of informational material that captures the essence of a
business through the use of its logo and images. A logo can consist of an image, symbol,
and/or text used to represent a business. A good package design must include eye-catching
images and/or words that provide consumers with some insight about the product and help
it stand out from its competition. Bad graphic design can have an enormous effect on the
success of a company and make it hard for customers to understand a company's message.
Graphic designers must make sure their designs do not infringe on anyone else's copyright
and strive to be creative and original.

The Difference Between Graphic Design & Art

It seems like they would be one and the same, but they're not. In this lesson, you'll learn
about the difference between graphic design and art as well as some misconceptions about
the former.

One and the Same?

What is art? What is graphic design? Are they one and the same? These are actually quite
difficult questions because on many levels we can argue they are, or they're not. In this
lesson, we're going to delineate the main ways by which these concepts are different. We'll
also go over some common misconceptions related to graphic design.
Art vs. Graphic Design
Art is a term for a very broad, all-encompassing, range of human endeavors that express or
apply human creativity and imagination in forms such as painting, music, dance, and
literature. Visual art, such as painting, has the primary intent of expressing emotion or
showcasing beauty.

Although now used to sell museum tickets, the world

Graphic design is a visual communication technique that relies on the creation and use of
images and typography in order to represent an idea or convey a message.

There is definitely a lot of overlap between art in general and graphic design but we can
generalize their differences as follows:

 Art is often there for its own sake. Beauty for the sake of beauty. Graphic design
often has a purpose, such as to sell you something (as per graphics in an
advertisement).
 Art may not use any typography while graphic design often heavily relies on
combining text and pictures.
 Art may not solve any problem (other than hanging it up to hide a hole in the wall).
Graphic design, however, is more utilitarian and may help people answer questions
or solve everyday problems (think: infographics).
What Graphic Design is Not
There are also quite a few misconceptions surrounding graphic design. Let's address a few
of these.

A lot of people think that graphic design is just drawing pretty things. This isn't true.
Remember, graphic design (unlike art generally) is not focused on beauty for beauty's sake.
There is a purpose to it all. And that purpose is to elicit a response from a person viewing the
visual. So, the pretty drawings aren't randomly pretty, there are very carefully crafted to an
end.

Another misconception is that graphic design is not important. Again, this couldn't be furthest

from the truth, especially if you own a company. How your product looks, what the box it's
found in looks like, and what that advertisement about the product looks like can easily
make or break your sales regardless of how functional or useful the underlying product
actually is. So, yeah, graphic design is pretty important!

Graphic design is just Photoshop, right? Nope. Another myth. Good graphic design isn't just
about the tool, Photoshop. It's about the in-depth knowledge and understanding of how to
use that tool to get what you need out of it. Good graphic designers are masters at using
Photoshop to express their deep understanding of things like marketing, human nature, and
the visual arts.

There are plenty of other misconceptions, but we'll end this lesson on one more. Graphic
design is easy. Have you heard of this one? After all, is it really that hard to draw something as
easy as what we see on a cereal box? No, it's not. With a lot of practice, anyone can draw
Tony the Tiger on a breakfast cereal. But that's missing the point.

Graphic design isn't limited to the actual process of drawing something. It's about thinking
through what you need to draw, how to draw it, where to place it in relation to other
elements, who your audience is, and how to manipulate the visual field in order to bring
about a response that you need (such as buying that cereal).

Lesson Summary
Art is the term for a range of human activities that express human creativity and
imagination in forms such as painting, music, dance, and literature.

Graphic design is a visual communication technique that uses images and typography in
order to represent an idea, convey a message, or elicit a response.

Graphic design is often misunderstood. Some think it's easy because it's just about drawing
things using Photoshop. But graphic design is more than just knowing how to draw
something using Photoshop. It's about piecing together illustration, human psychology, and
marketing in a way that elicits a very specific response from a target, such as a customer.
The Rational Model & Graphic Design
How does the design process work? In this lesson, we will examine one of the more common
models used to describe it, and see how it may influence both the designer and the graphic
design.

Graphic Design
How do designers think? If you could look inside a graphic designer's head, what would you
see? You might start to see a method emerging, something that describes the process of
creative design.

Traditionally, there have been two main ways to depict the design process. They're called the
rational model and the action-centric model. In brief, the rational model claims that design
is propelled by plans and known constraints, while the action-centric model states that
design is motivated by improvisation and emotion.

In this lesson, we will focus on the goal-oriented rational model, which is the more
traditional of the two. But, what does this actually mean, and is it possible to map out a
fundamental design process? According to some, it is the only rational thing to do!

Rational Model Design Process

The rational model was described by both the American economist Herbert Simon and the
German theorists Gerard Pahl and Wolfgang Beitz, all of whom basically came to the same
conclusions on their own that the design process is naturally and inherently motivated by
known objectives and parameters. A designer gets a project and begins to create his or her
design based on what he or she knows about both the desired outcome and the restrictions.
The rational model, therefore, claims that structure is essential to the design process.
 Herbert Simon was one of the first to define the rational model.

Within this goal-oriented and planned process, the rational model suggests that designs are
achieved through research. Through both previous and new empirically-sourced knowledge,
the designer works to create a design that fits within his or her parameters and will meet the
objective of the design. This very scientific and methodical approach relies heavily on a
design process that is controlled and regulated by dividing it into a clear progression of
stages. Designers must work within this scheduled and planned system in order to create
the best design. There are a number of formulas for these stages, but here are the general
steps of the design process in the rational model:

First, generate initial designs based on initial understandings of objectives and parameters.
The steps include (1) producing an initial declaration of the design goals that will define the
project, then analyzing these objectives, (2) researching how other designs respond to
similar objectives, then using this to further define the design needs, objectives, and
parameters, and (3) recording the solutions you develop to overcome design challenges.

Next, start actually creating the design based on your knowledge and research. As you do,
try implementing your design solutions in a methodical way and record the results. Once
you have created the design, test it out: see if it works, as well as if it meets the necessary
objectives and parameters. If need be, go back to the beginning in order to re-design
elements that need correcting. In the end, write a description and analysis of the entire
process, noting what worked and what did not for future projects.

As you can tell, the rational model is very methodical and systematic. It is based on clear
stages and steps to the process from which the designers cannot deviate.
 Regardless of the actual steps, the rational model is all about planning and following a
formulaic procedure.

Pros & Cons

So, what do people think about the rational model of design? Is this the best description of
what the design process is or should be? Unsurprisingly, people look at it in different ways.

Those who support the rational model claim that it is the most efficient form of the design
process for designers who are contracted by someone else. Basically, if someone hires you
to design a website, you are given the objectives and parameters from the start, and this
model ensures that the end product will fit within those requirements.

However, there are also many people who oppose the rational model on both theoretical
and practical grounds. People who favor the action-centric model claim that the rational
model is simply unrealistic. Studies of designers have found that most designers do not
actually work this way; the design process in action is not one that can be proscribed into
specific steps and stages.

The goals of a design can change frequently, and many objectives are not actually known
when the project begins, so they cannot be incorporated into the plan from the start. This is
the biggest criticism of the rational model. According to its critics, it simply does not capture
what the design process really is! Maybe it is not something that is always so rational after
all.

Lesson Summary
There are two main methods for describing the graphic design process. The more traditional
of these is the rational model, which sees the design process as motivated by planning and
conducted through distinct stages. According to the rational model, the design process is
defined by known objectives, requirements, and parameters, and the designer creates his or
her design through developing, testing, and analyzing the ideas about the project.

The rational model is favored by some who work in client-based design and are given clear
objectives and parameters. It is opposed by others who see it as unrealistic and not
representative of the actual fluidity of the design process. So, how rational is the rational
model? You decide.

The Action-Centric Model & Graphic Design

How would you describe the design process? Is it methodical, or improvisational? In this
lesson, we are going to explore the action-centric model of the design process and see how
it compares to other models.

The Action-Centric Model

Have you ever noticed how some people need to plan things out, while others just jump
right in and learn by doing? The process of design may be very similar. Generally, there are
two accepted models to describe the overall process by which designers create products.

The rational model is all about planning. You think through the entire process and follow
concrete, sequential steps. This is the most traditional model. However, many people have
found that they don't actually work that way. For them, the design process is encapsulated in
the action-centric model, which defines design in terms of personal creativity and fluidity,
not objectives and parameters. It's a model favored by those who like to get straight to the
action.

How does the design process work? That is an important question to many designers.
The Design Process in the Action-Centric Model
So, how does the design process work according to the action-centric model? While the
rational model stresses the need to define your goals and restrictions first and foremost, the
action-centric model sees design as beginning with emotion, creativity, and personal
aesthetic judgments made by the designer. Basically, you can't plan out the entire process,
but have to make the evaluations as new objectives and restrictions become apparent
during the design process. The key to the action-centric model, therefore, is improvisation.

This means that the action-centric model is not one of a strict, sequential series of stages or
steps. You don't follow a formulaic pattern in the way you create a design. Instead, the
stages of design, analysis/testing, and implementation occur simultaneously and recursively.
Instead of one always coming before the other, you bounce between all three.

We can think of this in the metaphor of juggling. In the rational model, you handle one ball at
a time, and toss it repeatedly until it's perfected. In the action-centric model, you're juggling
all three balls together, dealing with each one as it comes up, but being free to switch
between them freely. You can drop one ball for a minute, and pick it up again later, or start
juggling in the reverse direction. The design process is fluid and dynamic because you deal
with challenges as they emerge. This is generally a circular, rather than sequential, process,
where design, analysis, and implementation build upon each other.

The action-centric model involves juggling various stages of the design process at the
same time.

So, do the rational and action-centric models have anything in common? Well, both do agree
that the designer has to make decisions based on research, as well as their own knowledge.
Of course, in the rational model this knowledge comes from working within a controlled,
sequential process. In the action-centric model, knowledge and research come from the
designer's intuition, minute-by-minute decisions, and experience.
Pros and Cons
The action-centric model is much younger than the rational model, but is already very
popular with many designers and theorists. Many people complain that the rational model
simply fails to accurately describe what the design process is like in practice. It makes a nice
theory, and looks great when plotted onto a chart, but doesn't reflect the realistic process of
design. There are some empirical studies of designers to support this conclusion.

This is why the action-centric model is so popular. It's seen as a more accurate depiction of
what the design process is like in practice, not just in theory. This is because it's very rare
that a designer actually knows all the objectives, restrictions, goals, and parameters of their
project from the very beginning. Without knowing these, you can't plan out a sequential
order of stages. Instead, you have to be able to improvise and deal with goals and
restrictions that arise throughout the project. The action-centric model depicts this process.

This isn't to say that the action-centric model is without criticism. Some people like the idea
of a process that can be clearly charted into sequential stages. To them, the action-centric
model is too poorly defined, too open, and does not present an easy-to-understand formula
for the design process. Again though, this debate is relatively young, as the action-centric
model continues to gain attention. As it stands, however, it looks like more and more people
are wanting to get in on the action.

Lesson Summary
In design, there are two main models for describing the design process. The rational
model requires a formulaic approach based on known objectives and parameters, while
the action-centric model is a more improvised approach. In the action-centric model, it's
the designer's creative intuition, judgments, and experience that drive the design, not pre-
set goals or restrictions. The stages of the design process are circular, not sequential,
building on each other simultaneously.

Advocates of the action-centric model see it as a truer representation of the design process,
as designers must often deal with new goals and restrictions throughout the course of their
work. It's a design process for those who like to stop planning and take action.

Practical Application: Evaluating the Action-

Centric Model of Graphic Design
Here, you'll be asked to apply your knowledge to write a response evaluating the action-
centric model of graphic design. Before starting the task, we'll review the basics of this
model and the opposing model, the rational model.

Action-Centric Model of Graphic Design

Pretend you have to make a new dish to bring to a potluck event at work. Do you find a new
recipe, assemble the ingredients and carefully measure each one using a scale before you
start cooking? Or, do you go with a recipe you're familiar with and wing it as you go, tasting
and adjusting the sauce or stew as needed? These two kitchen strategies represent two
different schools of thought in design.

As you read in the lesson, The Action-Centric Model & Graphic Design, the two different
models for design are the rational model and the action-centric model. The rational model is
like trying out a new recipe in that the design process involves a formulaic, objective-
oriented approach where each step is done in order.

The action-centric model is similar to following a familiar recipe in that you're

simultaneously using multiple steps in the design process and relying on your creativity,
instinct and improvisation to lead you through the process. Although both models are valid
forms of design, many designers feel like the action-centric model better represents what
actual design is like: messy, passionate and slightly disorganized at times.

Today, you're going to get a chance to formulate your own opinion about the action-centric
model of graphic design. Using the questions below, write your own evaluation of this
model, and then we'll analyze the process together.

Evaluation
Some designers prefer the newer model of graphic design, the action-centric model. Do you
agree or disagree that this model is more useful and better represents what the real design
process is like? Write your response in the form of a short paragraph, including at least two
pieces of evidence based on your personal experience or research to support your point of
view.

Analysis
What did you decide to write about in your evaluation? Ask yourself the following questions
about the action-centric model of graphic design:

 How did you think the action-centric design model fits with your own professional
practice?
 Were you able to find examples from your own experience to support your claim?
 What is the role of the rational and action-centric models in design?
 How did it feel to reflect on these two models? What was difficult or easy about the
task?
 How does reflecting on these models impact your growth as a designer?

Now take a moment to consider the opposite point of view, as compared to the position you
took in your evaluation (agreed or disagreed that the action-centric model is more suitable
to the design process).
Visual Elements & Principles of Design
How things are made and function is very important, and design is a large contributing
factor. In this lesson, we'll take a look at what design is, as well as the visual elements and
principles that contribute to it.

Design & Utility

These days, it isn't enough for an item to simply exist. It has to have a purpose. For example,
would you have a dresser, if it didn't organize your clothes and keep them off of the floor?
Would you have a car, if it didn't get you where you want to go? And would you have a cell
phone, if it didn't keep you connected with the world? The fact is, if an item didn't serve a
useful purpose, you wouldn't have it. But it goes farther than that. Items must be visually
appealing, in addition to their utility, and that's where design comes in.

Design Definition
Design is the process of creating, or using and balancing, the elements of art. For example,
architects design buildings, electronic engineers design circuits, and chefs design meals.
Every item we see and use has an associated design. Some are very simple, like that of a
pencil, and others are extremely complex, like that of the largest building in your city. Design
takes into account every aspect of the item in question, including color, shape, size, texture,
and weight. Good design optimizes each of these characteristics for utility or use and visual
appeal.

Visual Elements
A visual element is any aspect of something that we can see. This includes a number of the
following characteristics:

 A line is a mark made by a brush, pen, or pencil, or the divider between two areas. In
a drawing of a city street, a line would represent the edge of a building, or the edge
of the curb on the street.
 A shape is an enclosed area that can be geometric or organic. In an image of an
orange, the shape would basically be a circle, filled with an orange color.
 Direction is an attribute of a line, such as horizontal, vertical, or skewed. In a drawing
of a city street, the building edges would be vertical, while the curb edges would be
horizontal and skewed.
 Size is the area occupied by a shape. In a drawing of a city street, you'd have small
buildings and large buildings where the area occupied by each would indicate their
size.
 Texture is the visual description of a surface, or the tactile sensation something
presents. In an image, texture would represent the surface qualities of a shape, such
as dull or shiny, while in a physical item it would be how the object feels to the touch,
such as rough or smooth.
 Color is the hue from the visible spectrum an object shows or projects. For a stop
sign, the color would be red.
  Value is the shade of a color, or how light or dark it is. On a sunny day, the sky is light
blue, or the leaves on the trees various shades of green.

Design Principles
There are a number of design principles for using visual elements. Think of them as
suggestions that lead to easier understanding and/or visual appeal. They can vary in their
relative effects depending on the design effort underway. These principles include:

 Balance, or the relative amount of something and its opposite. Think of the position
or location of items relative to the center, or the relative amount of light and dark.
 Gradation is the use of progressive tones or color values. Uniform tones indicate
solidity and permanence, while gradation indicates movement or change.
 Repetition is the use of copies of the same element. Multiple items that don't
change are boring, while multiple items that vary slightly are interesting.
 Contrast refers to opposites placed close together. For example, large beside small,
dark beside light, and square beside round will make both elements stand out.
 Harmony is how well the elements work together. The whole will be more pleasing
than the individual parts.
 Dominance means giving an element or elements significance so they stand out,
such as a unique color, shape, or size. This could mean placing one big circle in the
middle of small circles, or one dark square in the middle of some light squares.
 Unity refers to how all of the elements relate to a purpose or theme. The driver's
seat of a car, for example, shouldn't have a movie screen.

Lesson Summary
To recap, design is the process of creating, or using and balancing, the elements of art.
A visual element is any characteristic that we can see, including line, shape, direction, size,
texture, color, and value. The design principles for using these elements include balance,
gradation, repetition, contrast, harmony, dominance, and unity. Good design optimizes all of
these elements and principles for utility or use and visual appeal.

Ch 2. Basic Graphic Design Elements

Basic Graphic Design Elements Overview

Color, shape and line. Texture and space. These things are used in advertisements and
branding that's all around us. In this lesson, learn about some basic important elements of
graphic design.

What Is Graphic Design?

Look around you. Does your favorite pair of shoes have a logo? Are you reading a stylish
website?
Chances are, both have been impacted by graphic design. Graphic design, sometimes also
called visual communication or communication design is the art of combining words and
pictures to convey ideas and experiences. Graphic design is an essential component of
things like advertising, print media and digital platforms. It's also used for branding, and
creating images like those logos that identify your favorite shoes or preferred brand of
cereal. Graphic design even helps you find your way on the highway. It's used to maximize
the effectiveness of all those exit and attractions signs.

Graphic design combines words and images to convey ideas

Graphic design is used for many purposes and in many different industries. Graphic
designers, people who work in graphic design, are skilled professionals who learn how to
use a wide variety of elements, combining them to create effective designs. In this lesson,
we'll explore some of the most important of those elements.

Important Elements Of Graphic Design

Effective graphic design includes many elements. It's all about communicating a message or
idea by using them in combination.

One of the most fundamental components of graphic design is line. Line, in its most basic
sense, is any two connected points. A line may be long or short, thick or thin. It can also be
broken into dots or dashes. Lines can be straight but also curved and looping, circling and
surrounding important elements of a design. In design, lines are often used to divide
important areas and surround elements like text.

Color creates a sense of emotion or mood. Combining bright colors or pastels results in

completely different feelings in graphic design. Graphic designers will often use contrasting
colors to highlight elements, and it's helpful for them to know a thing or two about color
theory, the understanding of how colors relate to one another and how we see them.
Designers might also use a color wheel, which shows the colors in relation to each other.
For example, complementary colors, those opposite each other on the color wheel, create a
very different effect than using pops of neon pink or green against black.

Example of a color wheel

Shape includes geometric figures like squares, circles and triangles. It also

includes abstract shapes that don't look like anything in the real world, as well as more
organic or natural-looking shapes. For the latter, think of things like leaves or flowers.
Shapes often use elements like line and color to define their boundaries.

Texture is interesting surfaces, perhaps with patterns or designs on them or surfaces that
resemble substances like brick or a textile. In this case, texture doesn't convey something
you touch, but rather an appearance of a surface. You'll often see texture incorporated into
graphic design through interesting backgrounds.
 Textures can create interesting backgrounds in design

Value means the lightness and darkness of a given part of a design. Think of how much
contrast can be created with areas of white images and letters placed against a dark black
background. Effective use of contrasting values can heighten a design's impact.

Space is the idea of where elements are placed on a page or screen. An important
consideration with regard to space is the idea of negative space, areas that don't have
words or images in them. Think of negative spaces as those areas that surround and
connect design elements. Effective use of negative space can really pull a design together.

Negative space is the area between words and images

Another important element is size and the related idea of scale. Size is a specific number,
say a letter that's one inch tall. Scale is how that letter relates to other text that might be
larger or smaller. In other words, scale is how varying sized elements relate to each other.
Designers use scale to create a visual hierarchy, where some ideas are more important
than others. The main idea of a design might be in larger text than less important points.
These important elements together help designers create effective graphic designs. Take a
look around you and see if you can notice how these elements are used in advertising in
your neighborhood or on things you use in your home.

Lesson Summary
Graphic design, also called visual communication or communication design, is the art of
using words and pictures to convey ideas. It's done by people called graphic designers.
Good graphic design uses several important elements. These include line, or any two
connected points that might be straight or curved. Color creates emotion and engagement.
Designers need to know color theory and how to use the color wheel, which shows how
colors relate to each other. Graphic design is full of shapes, whether geometric, natural
or abstract. It uses interesting textures, sometimes as background. Contrasting values or
degrees of dark and light can make for effective graphic design. Another important element
is space and the idea of negative space. Scale is how large and small elements relate to
each other and size is the specific number or measurement of an element. Designers use
scale to create visual hierarchy, showing how some ideas are more important than others.
All of these elements are considered in good graphic design.

Lines in Graphic Design

In this lesson, discover the role of line in graphic design. You'll understand why line is a
fundamental element of art and design, learn different types and styles of lines, and how
line is used by artists and graphic designers.

Line is Fundamental
As an element of visual art and graphic design, line is perhaps the most fundamental. While
you probably already know what a line is, graphic design will define it a little differently than
the lines you studied in math class. In art, line is the path a dot takes as it moves through
space and it can have any thickness as long as it is longer than it is wide. Not only can a line
be a specifically drawn part of your composition, but it can even be an implied line where
two areas of color or texture meet. This means that any shapes you use, even if they are not
outlined, are bound by lines.

Types of Lines
Lines do not have to be perfectly straight, but if you've ever watched a toddler scribbling, you
already knew that. Here are a few types of lines commonly used in art. They are defined by
the path they take.
 A) Vertical Line, B) Horizontal Line, C) Diagonal Line, D) Curved Line

 Vertical Lines: These are perfectly straight lines extending up and down.
 Horizontal Lines: These are also perfectly straight lines, but they extend side to side.
 Diagonal Lines: Again, these are straight lines, but their direction has both a vertical
and a horizontal direction.
 Curved Lines: These lines bend so that they are not perfectly straight.

Styles of Lines
In addition to the types of lines, artists and graphic designers use a variety of line styles.
Some lines are longer than others, some are thicker than others, while some even change
direction in order to zigzag or become wavy lines with curve changes. Check out these
interesting style variations.
 Examples of continuous, interrupted, and implied lines

 Continuous Lines: These are solid lines drawn from one point to another. They can
be straight or curvy as long as they do not stop and restart at any point.
 Interrupted Lines: These lines are the opposite of continuous lines. The line's path
still exists from one point or another, but there are gaps in the illustration along the
way. Two common types of interrupted lines are dotted lines and dashed lines.
 Implied Lines: We mentioned these in the introduction. They are lines that are not
drawn but exist at the point where one area of color or texture touches another area
of color or texture. Basically, they exist, but they are more like the lines from your
math class where they have length, but no width at all.

Using Lines
Graphic designers use lines in the way many other types of artists do, but they also have a
number of ways to employ lines that are specific to their line of work.

Traditional Artistic Use of Lines

There are three major ways that artists use lines in their compositions, often in drawing.
These all involve how they construct images from lines.

 Contour Line Drawing: In this method, lines are used to outline shapes and draw in
details, like a fold in fabric.
 Gestural Line Drawing: This method uses lines to represent motion. Ever see a series
of lines behind a running character in a comic book, comic strip, or cartoon?
 Hatching and Cross-hatching: This method uses lines for every part of the image. In
hatching, the artist draws a series of parallel lines, creating shading where the lines
are grouped closer together. In cross-hatching, the artist draws parallel lines in one
 direction and a set of lines perpendicular to the first. Again, where the lines are closer
together, they create shading.

Graphic Design Uses of Line

In addition to the ways many artists use lines, graphic designers also use lines to help
arrange both the images and text in a composition. Lines can help organize information on
the page, separating out clusters of words that belong together. We see this in newspapers
where columns organize data and sections are separated with lines. Lines can also create a
visual effect as decoration when used as borders and dividers. Sometimes, lines are used to
emphasize words through underlining. Finally, lines can be the main focus of the
composition, not just an accent or decoration.

You can see the use of different kinds of lines in these three examples.

The thickness, type, and style of a line can also create mood. Straight lines convey order and
structure. When they are thick, the straight lines also convey seriousness. Thin lines are
subtle and can be elegant. Curvy lines can convey excitement, energy, and fun. They can also
be relaxing if they have gentle curves.

Lesson Summary
Line is the most fundamental element in visual art, representing the direction and
movement of a dot or point through space. There are a variety of types and styles of lines.
Some lines are straight, while others are curvy. Continuous lines are drawn from one point
to another without any break in the line while interrupted lines have breaks resulting in
dashed or dotted lines. Implied lines are not actually drawn on the image but exist at the
point where one area of color or texture meets another area of color or texture. Graphic
designers may use line in traditional artistic ways of contour line drawing, gestural line
drawing, hatching, and cross-hatching. They can also use line as a way to organize
information and convey a mood. Sometimes, lines are the subject of a composition rather
than just an accent.
Using Color in Graphic Design
Do you have a favorite color? Color is a very powerful tool for conveying messages and
creating moods. In this lesson, explore ways to use color in graphic design.

What Is Graphic Design?

We live in a world full of images and messages. They're on the products we buy and on
familiar company logos all around us like McDonalds and Coca-Cola. These products are
made more effective, meaning we might buy more of them, because of graphic design.

Graphic design, sometimes also called visual communication, is the art and skill of
combining words and pictures to convey ideas and experiences. It's done by people called
graphic designers, trained professionals with backgrounds in art who know how to use
elements like color, shape, line, and text to create effective messages for a variety of print
and digital media. Graphic design is also important in branding, the creation of logos, and
other effective connections between consumers and trusted products so we'll continue
buying those products.

While graphic design uses many elements, one of the most powerful is color. In our age of
many distractions, color still captures our senses and our attention. Let's learn more about
how color is used in graphic design and what possible messages some colors convey.

Using Color in Graphic Design

Color conveys messages and can create a sense of emotion or mood. The mood can vary,
depending on different color combinations. But how do designers know what to use?

Over time, people have done many studies of color. This information is called color theory,
the understanding of how colors relate to one another and how we see them. As a result,
colors have lots of psychology associated with them. Graphic designers learn about color
theory, and they use it in their work.

Another helpful tool for designers is the color wheel, which shows the colors in relation to
each other. The color wheel usually includes 12 hues. A hue is a basic color without it being
darkened or lightened. The hues include the primary colors of red, blue, and yellow; the
secondary colors of orange, green, and purple (made by mixing the primary colors); and the
tertiary colors, made by mixing primary and secondary colors. When these colors are used in
combinations, different effects can be created.

Graphic designers also need to know how to use and balance color combinations. Often,
designs will only include two or three colors, because too many can create confusion and
muddy a message. Color also has different meanings in different cultures, so designers need
to be aware of where their work will be seen. The key is understanding the message to be
conveyed and choosing the colors that will best achieve it.

Colors and Meanings

While everyone reacts to color in different ways, colors tend to have general characteristics
that connect them to ideas and traits. Warm colors, like red, yellow, and orange, are seen to
be active, while cool colors, like green and blue, are viewed as calm and more passive.
Graphic designers know these characteristics and use them in their work. Let's explore a few
colors and potential messages.

Red is a powerful color that can signal passion and love. It's effective for accents and images
that convey vigor and power. Yellow stands for warmth and hope. It's cheerful when used
sparingly but can become overwhelming.

Orange, the combination of red and yellow, attracts attention but is not as overpowering as
red. It suggests vitality, creativity, and determination. Think of the orange Home Depot logo.
By buying what you need at Home Depot, you have the determination and energy to finish
your home improvement project. The color selection in this logo isn't an accident.

Green conveys growth, nature, and relaxation. It's an easy color on the eyes and can balance
and harmonize when used in designs. It can also stand for money and protection. It's a color
you'll often see in bank logos.

Blue is one of the most-used colors in graphic design. It can stand for integrity,
trustworthiness, and responsibility. Think of signage for companies like American Express
and The Weather Channel. In these cases, blue sends messages of trust and confidence.

As you can see, color can be a powerful tool in graphic design. When you look at a familiar
logo, what message do you think is being sent through the use of color?

Lesson Summary
Graphic design, sometimes called visual communication, is the art of mixing words and
pictures to convey ideas. It's done by people called graphic designers and used in advertising
in print and digital media and branding. Color is one of the most powerful elements of
graphic design. It can convey messages and emotions.

Graphic designers study color theory to understand how colors relate to one another and
how we see it. To choose color combinations, they might also use a color wheel that shows
12 hues (basic colors without being darkened or lightened) and the relationship between
primary colors, secondary colors, and tertiary colors. Specific colors are connected to
different characteristics. Red signals passion, yellow warmth,
and orange creativity. Green signals growth and relaxation, while blue stands for
trustworthiness and integrity.

Form in Graphic Design

In this lesson, we'll look at one of the main elements in graphic design, the form. Find out
what a form is, the different types of forms used, and how they can be used to convey
specific information about the subject of your composition.

Getting Started with Graphic Design

So, you've decided to try graphic design. Perhaps you've taken art classes in the past, or
maybe you just have a bit of a talent for art. Either way, graphic design requires you to use
the elements and principles of visual art to convey a message, whether it is a concrete idea
like ''Eat At Joe's,'' or creating a mood to associate with a product. While other lessons will
discuss different elements of design, we'll take a look at form, for today.

What is Form?
To understand form, we must first look at shape. Shape is an area of an artistic composition
with defined borders. Basically, you can tell what is considered inside and outside of a circle
or triangle when you see it. Form is the three-dimensional development of a two-
dimensional shape. For example, a 2D shape like a circle could be transformed into a 3D
form like a sphere. In most graphic design, the addition of a third dimension is an illusion
because we are still working on a two-dimensional art form. The illusion of form is created
when we add shading, or other visual aspects, to a shape to indicate depth.

Example: You can turn the shape of a square into the form of a cube by adding lines to
give the illusion of depth.

Geometric Forms
There are two basic types of forms we see in graphic design, geometric and
organic. Geometric forms have uniform properties and proportions that we just cannot get
in nature, making them look manmade. Think about all the shapes you learned in
kindergarten. These are geometric. When we use them in graphic design, we can create a
sense of order, or control, in a visual composition. They seem clean and even sterile, which
can be either a good or a bad thing, depending on what message you wish to convey. Would
you use a bunch of building blocks in a poster advertising a birdwatching group or a nature
hike? Probably not.

Here are a few of the ideas and/or feelings express, by some of the basic geometric shapes,
to help you decide when or if you want to use them in a particular design.

 Circle: Circles convey both gentleness and continuity. Lacking angles, they have no
point at which your attention is caught. They also have no clear beginning or end, so
your eyes continue to go around their edges.
 Rectangles: Rectangles, and even squares, represent solidity and stability. Basically,
they seem to convey a sense of seriousness and durability, as well as sensibility.
 Triangles: Triangles express motion, tension, and even aggression. This is because of
their association with arrows for motion, and pointed objects are often associated
with sword points. If they rest on their bases, they can convey stability, by looking like
a mountain, but if they are askew they represent instability, as one could imagine
them tipping over.
Organic Forms
Organic forms, however, have no set proportions or properties restricting them. They
appear exactly how a three-dimensional object would look in nature, with all its
irregularities. The forms can convey a sense of being natural and relaxed. However, you
might not want such expression when advertising a construction company, or computer
programming firm, where precision is important.

These squiggles and spirals are organic because they are free to turn and twist as
desired.

Why Should You Understand Forms?

In graphic design, knowing how to use forms effectively will determine how well you convey
your message, and if your overall design is pleasing to your client and audience. The
different uses of forms are closely tied to the meaning conveyed by their underlying shapes.
Are the edges curved or straight? Do you have sharp angles or wide angles? All of these can
make your audience feel something on a subconscious level.

When turning these into three-dimensional forms, you can also create a sense of texture,
which is how an object might feel if you could touch it. Say you were creating a design for a
dermatologist focusing on acne treatment. The forms you include in your design will
probably need to have a smooth texture. If they had a rough texture, with the appearance of
bumps all over the surface, you might associate the dermatologist's work with the exact
condition you're trying to get rid of, rather than the desired result of the treatment.
 Even though this is only on a computer screen or piece of paper, you can almost feel the
texture.

Lesson Summary
So there you have it. Forms, are the three-dimensional versions of shapes, which are two-
dimensional areas with a clear boundary between what is in the shape, and what is outside
the shape. We have geometric forms, which appear manmade because they have perfect or
regular dimensions and principles, like the shapes you learn in school.

We also have organic forms, which appear in nature, and are freer to just form as they wish
without all those rules and regulations. It's important to understand how graphic designers
use forms because they can convey messages, or moods, that could enhance or negate the
message you want to share. The inherent mood of a shape can also be augmented
by texture, the way shading, or color, hints at how an object might feel if we could touch it
in real life. Would you rather touch a smooth apple or a ball of broken glass? Which would
you use in an advertisement for a skincare product?

Texture in Graphic Design

In this lesson, we explore the use of texture in graphic design. Learn how texture can be a
powerful element in balancing a design and evoking emotional responses or provoking
thought. We'll also discuss different types of texture you can use.

Reach Out and Touch the Art

We don't often think about how most two-dimensional pieces of art or graphic design feel,
but have you ever just wanted to reach into an image and touch an object because it looks
like it should feel a certain way? That's because the artist or graphic designer skillfully used
texture, one of the basic elements of visual art. Texture is the way the surface of a
composition feels or is perceived to feel. This means you can create an illusion of texture in
the way you place your images or through the use of line and shading. We'll get into the
difference between real and illusionary texture in just a little bit.
 You can imagine how this wall would feel to the touch.

What Texture Can Do for You

Texture can be a powerful tool to draw a viewer's attention and engage them in many
subconscious ways. Certain types of texture can evoke subtle emotional responses, while
others excite the visual senses. Texture can be used to create balance and enhance a sense
of seriousness or gentleness. Knowing how to use texture properly can mean the difference
between a good graphic design and a great one.

Actual/Physical Texture
Texture comes in two primary forms, actual and implied. However, both go by a number of
different names, depending on who is talking about it. That's why we included several in the
heading. Actual texture, or physical texture, refers to the real tactile properties of a design.
This can include how the surface feels, such as rough or smooth, the way words might be
raised from the surface or pressed into it, and even the physical weight of the piece.

You can identify actual texture in the weight of the paper, the raised flower pattern, and
the letter M affixed on top of the paper.
Say you're designing wedding invitations for someone. You have many decisions to make
about the actual texture of your work. First, what thickness of paper will you use? Do you
think regular printer paper would convey the right feeling, or should you use a heavier paper
like a cardstock? Next, should the surface of the paper be rough or smooth, shiny or matte?
Should the letter be flat to the page, raised up, or pressed in? Should there be some kind of
embellishments, like glitter, which has both a texture and a sparkle? Should parts of your
design feel velvety? There are many ways to use actual texture in your design work.

Implied/Visual/Virtual/ Texture
The other form of textual has even more names. Implied texture, also called visual or
virtual texture, is the illusion of texture created by color, lines, shadows, and other elements
in your design composition. Think about a photograph of an old, gnarled tree. You can tell
the bark is very rough to the touch, but the photograph has a completely flat surface. The
way other elements of design are incorporated into the image helps convey the information
that the subject of the photo has a particular texture, even when the piece of art doesn't
have that quality at all.

However, not all implied, or visual, texture is the same, and the two major types - image
texture and pattern texture - can evoke different feelings.

Image Texture
Image texture is created with organic shapes and color. There is no uniform repetition of
the textural aspects and it can appear very natural, regardless of the degree of complexity. A
good way to imagine an image texture is to think about the previous example of tree bark or
imagine a furry dog. These textures evoke a more emotional reaction than an intellectual or
logical one.

The wood grain and the veins of a leaf are both image texture.

Pattern Texture
On the other hand, pattern texture stimulates the visual senses and reasoning through
geometric shapes and repeated, orderly elements. The uniformity of a pattern texture,
especially in a background, can create balance in a composition and a sense of control.
 You can identify both of these examples as patterned texture because of the geometric
shapes and repetition.

Lesson Summary
Texture, the way the surface of a composition feels or appears to feel, is an essential
element in graphic design. It can subtly evoke emotional responses or stimulate thought.
Texture can be incorporated in two different forms. The first is actual texture, which is the
real tactile sensation you get from touching or holding something. The second is implied
texture, which creates the illusion of texture using other elements of design, like line and
color. Implied texture has two general types, image texture and pattern texture. Image
texture has an organic or natural feel because it does not incorporate repeating elements
or geometric shapes and can evoke emotional responses. Pattern texture, however, is
more structured, using repeating elements and geometric instead of organic shapes and can
evoke thoughtful or logical responses.

Mass in Graphic Design

In this lesson, we'll discuss mass, also known as visual weight, in graphic design. Find out
what the term means, how it affects the balance of your composition, and ways to
manipulate mass in your designs.

Massive Amounts of Mass

Mass is likely a term you learned in science or math class related to the physical amount of
an object that can be weighed or measured. In graphic design, however, mass is a much
stranger concept that's somewhat related to the first definition. To give you hint, a more
common name for mass in design is visual weight.
 What objects in this composition do you look at more than others? Why?

Both terms mean the same thing: the amount of attention an object in a composition
commands from the viewer. If you're looking at a painting and can't tear your eyes away
from a part of the composition, that part can be said to have a lot of mass or visual weight.

Balancing Mass
Mass becomes extremely important when we are working with balancing our
design. Balance, one of the principles of graphic design, refers to how you place different
objects so that their visual weight balances along a central line or around a central point.
Balanced compositions feel complete, even if the viewer has no idea why. Without balance, a
composition can feel unfinished, arbitrarily assembled, amateurish, or even immature.
However, some skilled artists will intentionally create an imbalance to convey feelings of
emptiness and loss. Do not attempt an intentional imbalance until you are more skilled and
experienced in composition designs.
 Top: symmetrical balance, middle: asymmetrical balance, bottom: radial balance

Creating Mass
So now that you know what mass, or visual weight, is and why it is important, how do we
create it? Well, that can be pretty easy, but we must be conscious of how we apply it.

Size
Stemming from our experience with objects in the real world, larger objects will always seem
heavier than smaller objects. They also draw our attention much more than smaller objects
in a composition would.
Color
The relationship between color and mass can be a bit complicated. First, let's talk
about value, how light or dark a color appears. Darker values have more visual weight than
lighter values.

When we look at hue, the actual colors like red, green, blue, and such, we get an interesting
mix of masses. Warmer colors, like red, orange, and yellow, appear a little closer to the
viewer than cool colors like blue, green, and violet. The warmer colors thus tend to have
more visual weight as a whole. However, yellow is often perceived as the lightest color
regarding mass while the bold, strong red is perceived as the heaviest.

Which colored circle do you look at most?

Finally, we have the saturation of the color, which is the intensity of the color ranging from
eye-popping, bright tones to dull, grayish, and muted tones. As you might guess, intense
colors have more visual weight than muted colors.

Shape
Understanding the weight of shapes is vital when you begin designing your composition.
Let's contrast geometric shapes and organic shapes. Geometric shapes are defined by
having mathematically precise measurements, lines, curves, and angles. Basically, these are
the shapes we learned in grade school and other shapes made from combining these in
interesting ways. Organic shapes have no regularity or rules defining whether their lines are
straight, the arc of their curves, or even the direction of their curves. Think about the shape
of a rock in nature and you have a pretty good idea of an organic shape. We tend to focus
our attention more on the geometric shapes. Something about those proportions and sense
of control gives them much more weight.
Within this composition, you see organic shapes of birds and flowers. Do you look at the
birds more, or the geometric elements of the clock?

Texture
We always want to look to the most visually stimulating options in a composition. When it
comes to texture, the rougher it appears, the heavier it will be regarding compositional
mass. This is because that texture requires us to add a variety of shadows and highlights or
different colors in that space. A smooth texture usually offers little variation to attract the
eye.

Position
We'll finish our discussion of how to create mass in composition with the position of objects
in our design, though there are many other methods out there. We find that the same object
will present different visual weights in different places in the design.

First, an object gains weight as it moves away from the main focus of the composition. If that
is the center, then objects closer to the edge will weigh more. If the main focus is in the
lower right corner, the maximum weight an object can have will be found by placing it in the
upper left corner.

We also find that objects placed higher in a composition will have more weight than those
found below them. Likewise, foreground images in a composition will weigh more than
background images. As you can see, there are many factors to consider when working with
mass in graphic design.
Lesson Summary
While the objects in a two-dimensional composition have no significant mass in real life,
their ability to command our attention creates a visual weight we also call mass.
Understanding how to create and manipulate mass is vital to creating balance, the
placement of elements in a composition so that their visual weight is equal across a center
line or at a distance from a center point. We can create mass in a number of ways in graphic
design. Larger objects weigh more than smaller ones and rougher objects weigh more than
smoother ones. With color, warm hues generally weigh more than cool hues. However,
the value of the hue can change that tendency, making darker colors weigh more than
lighter colors. Additionally, the greater the intensity of the color, known as its saturation,
the more it will weigh. Geometric shapes, with their mathematical precision, will weigh
more than organic shapes, which are those that feature the kind of irregularities found in
nature. Finally, we have position. Objects further from the focal area of a composition tend
to weigh more than those close to it, and objects positioned higher will have more weight
than those lower down.

Space in Graphic Design

In this lesson, we'll look at how space is used in graphic design. Find out the different types
of space, the difference between spaces with objects and blank areas, and how space works
with passages of text.

It's All Space

Unlike the other elements of design that can be used in different parts of a composition,
space exists in every part of your creation. However, there are ways that you can use space,
manipulating it to produce different visual effects capable of enhancing what you are trying
to convey in your work. Let's take a look at the different kinds of space and how they affect a
composition.

Real Space and Illusory Space

Real space is the two-dimensional space on your paper or canvas. These are the real areas
where you add your different objects and elements. Illusory space, however, is the
perception of depth you create by the way you place different objects in your composition. It
goes by many different names, but it essentially means that you are making your design
appear to recede into a distance that isn't really there. You can do this by making objects
smaller and smaller as they recede along a line of perspective or by blurring objects the
further in the background they sit. You can even create the illusion of depth by adding
shadows or placing objects on top of one another, so it appears one is closer to the viewer
than the other.
 You can see the illusion of depth on the left while the flatness of the image on the right
highlights real space on the canvas.

Positive and Negative Space

In your real space, you also have positive and negative space, two basic but important parts
of your composition. They can work with or against each other to produce harmony or
dynamic tension.

Positive Space
Positive space is any part of a composition that serves as the main focus for attention.
Basically, it's anything you add that is not part of the background. When you have a page of
text, every letter is positive space, but so are areas of text in paragraphs or columns. If you
cover every part of a page with words, eliminating indentation, spacing, margins, or space
between letters, you have a horrible jumble of positive space. You need our next type of
space to balance the composition.

Negative Space
Negative space does not refer to anything bad, it just means the empty space around, and
between those positive elements, you added to your composition. Negative space can be
active or passive, depending on how it is applied. Passive negative space occurs when a
composition is balanced between positive and negative aspects, often in a symmetrical
design. This means the negative space is just holding a place between the objects and
keeping the composition from appearing too cluttered. In active negative space, however,
the emptiness created by large expanses of negative space or using negative space in
asymmetrical balance conveys a feeling or message of its own.
 The silhouette of the statue is positive space while the orange sky is the negative space.

Negative space actually performs vital functions in a composition and can be just as
important as the positive spaces.

 It can serve as a background.

 It can frame and contain the positive elements of your design.
 It can highlight connections between objects when they are placed close together
with more negative space around them.
 It can separate objects and disconnect them when they are placed far apart.
 It can reduce clutter and give a tidy, orderly look to a composition.
 It can allow your eye to rest when looking from one object to another in an image.
 It can also enhance the readability of text.

Using Space with Text

When your design project involves text, especially large passages of text, effectively using
space is essential. You want to place your words, the positive spaces of the text, on the page
in a way that draws in the reader. The negative space, however, rests between letters, words,
and lines to separate them in a way that the reader can view and make sense of them.
Often, this negative space is divided into two types. The first is micro-space, the tiny spaces
between different elements in a group like the letters in a word and the words in a
paragraph. The second is macro-space, which is the emptiness between major elements like
large shapes, the spacing between lines of text, and the spacing between columns of text.
 Between the letters, you see micro-space while the large spaces to the sides of the words
comprise macro-space.

Lesson Summary
As an element of design, space can be easily overlooked, but effective use of space is
essential to good composition. Often, you work with both real space, the two-dimensional
area where you create your design, and illusory space, the manipulation of various
elements in your design to create a sense of depth with objects appearing closer or further
from the viewer. In real space, you will use both positive space, which refers to all the focal
objects in a composition, and negative space which refers to the empty areas between and
around the focal objects. This means that all the space in your composition will either be
positive or negative. When applying space to designs involving text, proper use of positive
and negative space will enhance readability and draw in the audience. While the words are
positive space, you have two kinds of negative space in text passage. Micro-space refers to
the small spaces between letters and words. Macro-space, however, refers to the spaces
between the big or major elements in a design, like the space between lines and columns of
text.

Application of Design Elements in the Real World

Graphic design is a form of art, but one with a uniquely functional focus. In this lesson, we'll
talk about the balance between art and function and see how this impacts our use of design
elements.

Applying the Elements of Design

Imagine that you wanted to write a great novel that explored the experiences of your
generation, captured their struggles, and postulated on their place in society. Now imagine
that you were a newspaper columnist, and you only had 1,000 words in which to do it. Drop
the esoteric allusions, the metaphors, and the flowery language, and get down to business.
You still want the finished piece to be thought provoking, beautiful, and meaningful, but
you've got to be much more economical with space and time.

What columnists are to literature, graphic designers are to fine art. Graphic designers have
to be economical in their compositions, which begins with a realistic approach to
the elements of design. Elements found in any art form are the basic building blocks, or the
ingredients you use to start the recipe. Graphic designers utilize the same elements of art
that fine painters do; they just have to do it in a way that anyone can understand. It's like the
Sistine Chapel, but user friendly.

Audience-Focused Art
Before we get into the actual elements of art, we need to talk about why they matter. In
order to create something that is appealing, designers must understand how to make truly
great art. However, their job is to compress that into something that can be instantly
understood and appreciated. People aren't going to spend an hour to try and decipher the
meaning of an ad, and they certainly won't put more than a few minutes of effort into
understanding the layout of a website.

Graphic design is unique because it's a truly audience-focused art. It's art that has function,
utility, and a clear purpose. A graphic designer's job is to sell a product, make an appealing
website, or design business cards to help someone be more professional. So, the elements
of graphic design are not just a matter of aesthetics, but of functionality. As you begin
applying these elements in your own designs, ask yourself some questions.

1: Who is the target audience? What's their background? Where are they coming from? Are
you creating for children, adults, singles, couples, etc.? There's also a literal aspect to these
questions. Literally, from what perspective will the audience be viewing your work? Will they
be looking up at a billboard, down at a magazine, or straight at a screen? Will they see it from
up close or from far away? The perspective determines how you'll use the elements of art to
attract the eye and convey a message.

Designers will often create images that are defined by their placement.

2: Is it user friendly? Now, more than ever, people demand designs that can be instantly
understood and used. This is especially true in website design, where some of the most
artistically perfect websites have failed because they were too complex to navigate easily.
Remember, design is an art form intended for use. Make sure people can use it.

Elements of Design
There are six elements that make up the foundations of graphic design, and each will play an
important role in the success of your composition.
The first is line. Lines can be thick or thin, physical or implied, straight or curved. Lines direct
the eye and separate the overall image into sections, both of which are very useful when
organizing information that you want people to see. What do you want the audience to see
first, and what information needs to be separated from the rest? Lines have a huge impact
on design.

The second element is shape, which can refer to the physical shape of a business card or
magazine cover as well as the shapes within the design. Do you want more angles, or softer
curves? Which shapes help communicate the feeling you want to convey? This is an
important question in design because we often deal with text, and each typeface will
emphasize different shapes.

The third element is form, which in graphic design often refers to the overall shapes created
within the image and the way the entire space is filled. Specifically, designers often talk
about form as an element of typography. While shape describes the dimensions and
characteristics of each letter, form describes the impact of these letters put together in a
block of text.

This design makes effective use of shapes and negative space.

Speaking of space, that's our fourth element. Space is defined by the differentiation
between positive and negative—areas within objects/images and those without. Negative
space is not always prominent in fine art, but in design, it's crucial. Negative space helps
organize other elements and maintains usability. A website with negative space between
important links is easier to use than one with graphics everywhere.

Our fifth element is color, which includes the actual hue, its intensity, and its value
(brightness or darkness). Colors are important in graphic design and are used to catch the
reader's eye and organize information. As with all other elements, it's important to
remember that your design will exist in the real world, so consider if your colors will clash,
compliment, or blend into their surroundings.
 This is a colorful design, but does that help or hinder its usability?

Practical Application: Basic Graphic Design

Elements Infographic
This infographic will help you visualize the basic graphic design elements. After reviewing
these elements, we'll look at the infographic and analyze the representations for each
element.

Basic Graphic Design Principles

Although you might not be able to name the basic graphic design principles off the top of
your head right now, most of us are immersed in graphic design every day. Graphic design is
used to design all of the logos, advertisements, marking, and products that we use on a daily
basis. Although there is a wide range of designs that can be created, all graphic designers
use seven basic principles, as described in the lesson Basic Graphic Design Elements
Overview:

1. Line
2. Color
3. Shape
4. Texture
5. Space
6. Size
7. Scale

These elements can be represented using an infographic. Infographics help us visually

represent information, giving our brains a new way to integrate it into our memory.
Infographics can also be displayed in our workplace, reminding us of the important elements
of our work.
Analysis
The first element of graphic design is the line. Lines can be curved or straight and are often
used to separate ideas and space in a piece. The second element is color. Graphic designers
are familiar with the color wheel and complementary colors that go well together. Graphic
designers also use shapes. These may be geometric shapes as pictured here, or abstract
shapes to communicate an idea.

Texture is often an image of a background, such as brick or stone. These can be

incorporated as background in a design or as a focal subject. The use of space, both positive
and negative space, is also important in a design. The elements and where they are placed
communicates a message to the viewer. Negative space, or the white space in a design, can
be just as important as the objects themselves, as depicted in the infographic.

Lastly, size and scale are important aspects of design. Size is how big certain elements are,
whereas scale is how big objects are relative to each other. Scale can be used to emphasize
the importance of certain messages in a design.

Ch 3. Basics of Design Principles

Basic Design Principles Overview

Look around you. Do you see colorful advertisements and bright product logos? Both involve
graphic design. In this lesson, we explore basic principles related graphic design.

What Is Design?
Do you have a favorite breakfast cereal? If so, have you ever looked at the bright, colorful
design on its box? It's no accident that the box appeals to you. The words, colors, and
pictures, were created by a purposeful process called graphic design.

Graphic design is the art and skill of combining words and pictures to convey ideas and
experiences. It's a process important to fields like advertising, and it's all around us. If you've
visited a website to buy something or read a magazine, you've experienced the effects of
graphic design. Because graphic design uses visual elements to get ideas across, it's
sometimes also called visual communication.

Graphic design is done by people called graphic designers, professionals with art

backgrounds who have learned about important design ideas in order to effectively craft
messages for print and digital media. Graphic design is also important to branding and
developing company logos. The right message and image attracts consumers and ensures
we keep buying products and services.

Basic Design Principles

The way elements are positioned on a page or a digital ad isn't an accident. Effective graphic
design considers elements like line, shape, and color. It also involves several key principles,
or fundamental ideas that serve as a foundation to all design. Used in combination, these
elements and principles help convey ideas. In the end, graphic design communicates a
message or idea by using several important principles in combination.

Six important basic principles go into graphic design. Let's learn a bit more about each.
Alignment
Alignment is the proper positioning of parts or elements in relation to each other. It doesn't
mean they have to be in a straight line, just that they are placed in an ordered way. In
graphic design, effective alignment helps designers create pleasing, well-organized
compositions and avoid messy, scattered designs.

Proximity
Related to alignment is proximity, or how close things are to one another. Proximity
involves grouping elements like words, shapes, or images. Several elements near each other
reinforce an idea or relationship and create a focal point for a design that draws the eye.

Proximity is grouping elements like words to draw the eye to a focal point
Repetition
Designers also use repetition, or repeating elements like words, color, or a specific graphic
treatment, to reinforce an effect. Repetition creates a rhythm in a design that helps get the
point across. Have you ever seen an ad that repeats a word or phrase several times? It's
there to make you notice and remember.

Repetition can involve repeated colors and graphic treatments

Contrast
Effective designs also use contrast. Contrast is the process of using two elements that are
very different in opposition to each other. For example, designers may use dark colors
against white or light colors, or large shapes against small. Effective contrast highlights
important ideas and makes them stand out.

Contrast of elements like dark and light colors can make elements like a title stand out

Alignment Principles in Graphic Design

In this lesson, we explore one of the key principles in graphic design, alignment. Find out
why alignment matters in design projects, the different types of alignment you can use, and
unique ways to play with alignment for dramatic effects.
Not Just for Cars
You've probably heard the term alignment before, possibly regarding your car or maybe
even in word processing. Well, graphic design uses alignment as well. In fact, it is one of the
key principles of graphic design. You see, just like visual art, graphic design uses a variety of
elements, basic components or properties, and the way those elements relate to one
another are the principles of graphic design. Alignment is simply the way visual elements
are arranged so that they line up in some way. Think about it as an invisible line or a force
field preventing your elements, whether they are images or words, from going out of
bounds.

What Does Alignment Do?

As simple as it is, it serves a great purpose by helping designers organize different elements
in their composition, giving the design a definitive structure, and creating balance. Using
alignment well in a design can result in a clear, professional, and sharp finished product.
Basically, the individual elements won't be sloppy.

Basic Kinds of Alignment

There are two basic kinds of alignment; edge and center. Edge alignment determines the
placement of elements in relation to the edge of the page or canvas. This can mean the
elements are aligned to the left side or right side, but it can also mean they are aligned to
the top or bottom of the page, so long as it uses an edge to organize everything. When the
alignment is right or left, we call that horizontal alignment, though it is still an edge
alignment. When the alignment is top or bottom, that is vertical alignment. When writing
text, we usually use left alignment, meaning all the lines to the left of the page line up along
that side.

Here we see a right and a left edge alignment.

The other kind of alignment, center alignment aligns all the elements so that an invisible,
central line on the page will always be in the center of the elements. Again, writing is the
easiest way to explain this. Have you ever seen a page where every line was a different
width, but the center of every line ran along the exact center of the page? In graphic design,
the same principle is applied to words as well as other visual elements. Just like with edge
alignment, we can have horizontal and vertical alignment. However, when the center line
runs vertically from the top of the page to the bottom, we get horizontal alignment. Likewise,
when the center line runs horizontally from one side to the other, we get vertical alignment. I
know, it almost sounds crazy until you see how it works.

As you can see, a horizontal center line determines how an image aligns vertically on
the page.

Using Alignment
Rarely will a graphic design project create one large space with a single alignment scheme.
Usually, the design is more complex and usually requires the use of a grid to define the
different areas and their alignment. Using grids will give your work structure and
consistency, but when finished, the viewer should not be able to see the grid itself, just the
results of its use.

If your work has a strong, consistent alignment, it will look clean and crisp with a
professional finish. However, there are some ways to rebel against common alignment while
still looking professional. First, you can use mixed alignment where different elements are
aligned properly, just in a variety of different ways. This can add a fun, energetic feel to your
work. Finally, you can intentionally break alignment, misaligning one part of a design in
contrast with the rest of the aligned design, as a way to grab the viewer's attention.
 Breaking alignment can draw attention when used correctly.

Finally, visual alignment is technically not aligned. At least one element in the design may
have features that end up looking misaligned when placed in technically correct alignment.
This can make the work look awkward or sloppy. By deliberately shifting that element, even
if it is misaligned, it can create the illusion of proper alignment.

Lesson Summary
In graphic design, the principle of alignment refers to the way the different elements in a
design are lined up in relation to each other or to a particular part of the page. When they
are aligned with the side of the page, we call that edge alignment. If the side used is the left
or the right, we get horizontal alignment as well. If the side used is the top or bottom, we
get vertical alignment. If you were to draw a line down the center of a page from top to
bottom and matched the center of each line of text or other elements with the center line,
you would have center alignment. This goes for a horizontal center line determining how
many lines of text must be above and below the line. Finally, you can use a grid to organize
more complex alignment schemes like mixed alignment where different areas of your
composition are aligned differently. You can also break alignment, deliberately misaligning a
small portion of the design, to create interest and focus attention. You can also
employ visual alignment when an element's features make it look awkward when properly
aligned. In the end, the way you use alignment can create a professional-looking design and
help convey your message clearly.

Contrast as a Principle of Design

Contrast is important in all art, but it's one of the most important tools available to graphic
designers. In this lesson, we'll see why the principle of contrast matters in design and talk
about how to use it.
Principles of Graphic Design
Most artists begin a project with a specific goal in mind: make something that looks good.
This can often become an exercise of creating art for the sake of art, a pure expression of
the quest for aesthetic perfection. But how do you actually know if something looks good?
Humans have a pretty consistent baseline that determines the aesthetic value of something.
Add on the cultural biases that teach us how to interpret images, and we can easily
deconstruct art into elements and principles of design that explain why something looks
good.

This is important to any artist. However, it takes on a special meaning for graphic designers.
Generally, your job is not just to make a piece of art that looks good, but to make something
look so good that consumers want to purchase it. It's not just art for art's sake; it's art with a
clear agenda. So, the elements and principles of design are crucial to the success of a
graphic designer.

Contrast as a Principle
There are many elements and principles of design, but our focus today is going to be
on contrast, two elements of a design that are presented in opposite ways. Generally, the
items or elements in contrast are placed near each other so that the contrast is as obvious
as possible. This isn't something we often shy away from, because our eyes naturally like
contrast. Contrast is exciting and dramatic and naturally aesthetically pleasing. It creates
something we enjoy looking at, so contrast is frequently used in graphic design.

When used correctly, contrast can do a number of things. For one, it creates a focal point, or
a spot to which your eye is naturally drawn. Contrasts are not equals; generally one element
becomes more immediately visible than its contrasted opposite, giving it more visual weight
and attracting the eye. Because of its ability to create visual hierarchies, contrast can also be
used to produce a sense of balance and harmony, ensuring that items of various degrees of
visual weight are distributed in a pleasing way across the page or screen.

Contrast in Graphic Design

All artists use contrast to create focal points and visual balance. This is common in painting,
sculpture, and even architecture. However, there are some values of contrast unique to
graphic design. For one, graphic designers often need to be direct. While a painting may
present complex themes that take a while to absorb, graphic designers generally need to
send a clear message as quickly as possible. Contrast creates a strong focal point, so it can
be very useful in this sense.

At the same time, contrast can help organize information, both visual and textual. Do you
need your audience to read all the text in a design right away? No, you need to capture their
attention and present the most important concepts. Contrast can be used to organize
textual information in a way that makes the immediate message clear to the audience while
still providing space for the details.
Types
Now that we understand why contrast is important, let's look at some of the ways to create
contrast. One of the most basic is color. Various images, text, or other elements can be
presented in contrasting colors in order to draw your eye. The simplest version of this is the
contrast of white and black, an extreme that's pretty easy to use. If you need an example of
its benefit to marketing, just think of those iPod ads with the black-silhouetted people
holding a pure white device. Of course, contrast works with the entire range of colors, as
long as you understand how to balance them. Think of how well the McDonald's golden
arches stand out against a field of red. The contrast of colors pulls out the logo, but creates a
sense of overall balance.

Contrast can also be found in the balance of light and dark. Contrasts of this kind, where one
object is illuminated and another is obscured in shadow, are a great way to create a strong
focal point. Frequently, contrasts of light and dark are paired with contrasts of distance.
Something further away and something close can be depicted through the balance of light,
but also through focus. Especially when dealing in digital images, contrasting focused and
blurry images can create a sense of depth and attract the eye.

Another technique is to create a contrast of textures. If you've ever seen an ad for a pickup
truck, you've likely seen an image of it kicking up gravel or mud or water as it traverses the
terrain. Yes, this advertises the truck's capabilities, but also creates a contrast between the
smoothness of the truck and the texture of the splash. Look at one of those ads again and
think about how this pulls your eye.

Contrast can also be created in the opposition of large and small. In graphic design, we see
this frequently in the use of text. The most important word is often larger than the others,
relying on that contrast to signify its importance. Look at one of those old ''My Goodness, My
Guinness'' ads, and you'll see what we mean.

And speaking of text, we have to acknowledge the contrast that can be created through
fonts. Perhaps the most important contrast here is that between serif (typefaces with
ornamental projections) and sans-serif (typefaces without serifs). Try typing out a series of
messages in both of the typeface styles, and you'll notice how they can balance each other to
organize information or draw the eye. You'll never look at fonts the same way again.

Lesson Summary
In graphic design, contrast refers to the presentation of two elements of the design in
opposite ways. Contrast is very useful for creating a focal point, or a spot to which your eye
is naturally drawn, as well as giving objects greater visual weight and balancing the image.
Graphic designers often use contrasts of color, light, clarity, texture, size, and even typefaces
in order to create an image that communicates information as effectively as possible. If you
do a good job at using contrast, then contrast can help fulfill one of the prime mandates of
your job: make something look good.
Hierarchy as a Principle of Design
How can you ensure that audiences will notice the most important part of your design first?
You establish a visual hierarchy! In this lesson, we'll examine this concept and look at some
tricks for building hierarchies in design.

Visual Hierarchy in Design

How do you know who's the king? In general, it's going to be the person most decked out in
large jewels, purple robes, and all sorts of finery. The regal outfits of monarchs around the
world aren't accidentally conspicuous; they are designed to be noticed. This is a way of
saying: ''I'm more important! Look at me, peasants!''

Just as monarchs use visual cues to communicate a hierarchy of power, graphic designers
use visual cues to create a hierarchy of information. In design, hierarchy describes the
arrangement of elements by their visual prominence.

Think of it this way: what part of your design do you want the audience to see first? What do
you want them to see second, or third?

What is the first thing your eye notices in this image? What do you notice second?
Third?

The hierarchy of a composition describes the order in which the eye moves from one part of
the design to the others. You create a pathway through the composition by assigning
different visual weight to various components, and it all starts by establishing a focal point,
a position that naturally attracts the eye.

If you do it correctly, your composition will have a hierarchy that attracts people to the most
important information first.
Size and Hierarchy
So, how do you do create visual hierarchy? Let's start with size.

Take a step back from your screen and look at the text of this lesson. What parts stand out
to you? Likely, it's the section headers. Why? Because they are bigger! It's a simple fact that
larger items naturally attract the eye.

Size can be a great way to create a focal point, as well as to establish different levels of visual
hierarchy. It's also important to remember you won't always have room to make things
bigger, so you can de-emphasize less-crucial parts of the design by making them smaller,
reducing their visual weight.

Size can be a powerful tool in establishing visual hierarchy

Color and Hierarchy

Another element that plays a big role in establishing a visual hierarchy is color. We like color.
It's naturally pleasing to the eye and attracts our attention, so it can be very useful in
creating focal points.

In general, the most visible elements in a composition are those with distinctive coloration,
compared to the other parts. For example:

 Bright colors create a strong contrast against duller ones, making them stand out.
 Warm colors advance while cool colors retreat, creating a natural visual hierarchy.
 Bolder colors are more noticeable than pastel or faded ones, even if they are just
different values of the same hue.
Any of these tricks can be used to create a hierarchy of highly visible and less-visible
components in your design.

How is color used in this design to create focal points?

Spatial Organization
Finally, let's talk about the ways you can organize elements of your design in order to
establish visual hierarchies. Often, this can be done through proximity, or the distance
relationship between elements of the design.

Items that are close together attract the eye together. Our eyes like groups of things, and we
especially like things that are grouped into odd numbers. Three is generally seen as the most
aesthetically pleasing numerical grouping, so organizing information into these groups can
be a good way to increase the visual weight of that part of the design.

Proximity is also important because it helps us understand which elements are unrelated. By
maintaining distance between unrelated elements, we establish distinct groupings and
create pathways of negative space for the eye to follow from one piece of information to the
next.

This concept of pathways is important because people tend to read visual and textual
images in the same way. They tend to scan the image first, familiarizing themselves with the
overall layout and most important ideas, and then go back to examine the details. So, if you
know where people's eyes will travel, you can place focal points in areas that are already
natural points on the pathway.
Pathway Types
There are two dominant pathways people take when scanning an image. For designs that
are mostly visual, people often scan with a Z-pattern. Basically, the eye starts at the top left
of the page, scans across to the top right, cuts in a diagonal down to the bottom left, and
scans across to the bottom right.

If you place important information on these lines, it's more likely to be noticed. You've
increased its place on the visual hierarchy through its placement on a natural eye pathway.

Text-heavy designs follow a similar theory, but the pattern is a bit different. In textual
designs, people tend to start at the top left, and scan down the left side of the text.
Whenever they hit on a point of interest, they scan to the right along that line of text. We call
this an F-pattern.

You can take advantage of this by placing focal points along the left side of the text, like bold
words, bullet points, or text in different colors, grabbing people's attention and encouraging
them to read the rest of that line. You can influence the way they read the document, and
you didn't even have to pass a royal decree.

Lesson Summary
In design, hierarchy refers to the organization of information in a way that places greatest
visual emphasis on the most important visual or textual information. By emphasizing crucial
components, and de-emphasizing less critical ones, you can influence what the viewer is
most likely to notice first, second, third, and even fourth on the page.

The most important spot in the design is the focal point, the top of the visual hierarchy,
where the eye is drawn first. From there, the eye can be moved through natural pathways by
the use of size, color, and spatial arrangement of the design's components. Proximity, or
the distance relationship between elements of the design, helps us understand which
elements are related. The human eye likes groups in odd numbers, especially in threes.

The two types of natural pathways are:

1. Z-pattern - in visual images, the eye starts at the top left of the page and then
follows a Z-like direction.
2. F-pattern - in text-heavy images, people start at the top left, and scan down the left
side of the text. Whenever they hit on a point of interest, they scan to the right along
that line of text.

Balance as a Principle of Design

In this lesson, learn about one of the key principles of graphic design. Discover how balance
works subconsciously to create a mood in art, the types of balance available, and how
balance is created, as well as used.
Balance in Graphic Design
Ever look at a piece of art and think it's nice but something about it feels off, or incomplete?
You may be subconsciously responding to a lack of balance in the composition, a common
mistake of young or inexperienced artists. Balance, one of the key principles of design,
refers to the way visual elements are arranged so that their visual weight harmonizes with
the other elements in the design, and the composition gives an appearance of properly
distributed elements.

This brings up another definition we should address, visual weight. Rather than referring to
the actual weight of an object, or its mass, visual weight refers to how much attention an
object draws in a composition. A large circle will draw more attention than a smaller circle,
much as a bright blue square will draw more attention than a light gray square, of the same
size. Knowing how to place these elements so that the composition doesn't get too ''heavy''
on one side or the other is a mark of good graphic design.

Types of Balance
There are three main types of balance: symmetrical, asymmetrical, and radial. Let's look at
them one at a time.

Symmetrical balance is the simplest to create and involves placing objects of the same
weight, and kind of weight, on either side of a central line. They don't have to be identical
elements as you might find in a mirror image. What's important is that each object on one
side, corresponds to a similarly weighted object, on the other side. It's like this image
appearing here:

Even though they're different, the two apples create symmetrical balance.

Asymmetrical balance is also absolutely balanced on both sides of a central line. However,
asymmetrical balance achieves this through the total weight of the objects, rather than each
object corresponding with another object on the other side of the center. It's kind of like
having a large man sitting on one side of a see-saw, while ten small children sit on the other
side. The see-saw will balance, but it will take ten of the child-size objects to equal out one of
the man-size objects. Check out this image appearing here:
 While one side of the image has larger shapes as the bridge is closest to the viewer, the
other side of the image contains more of the bridge and more arches as it recedes to
create asymmetrical balance.

Finally, radial balance can be extremely fun to experiment with in design projects. Rather

than balancing objects across a central line in the composition, objects balance according to
a single point in the center of the design. While it can be tempting to balance the
composition by placing the different objects equidistant from the center, you can also
balance them in other ways. One method is to place a heaver object closer to the center,
while a lighter object is placed at a distance, so long as a line, drawn between them, would
pass directly through the center point. Back to our see-saw analogy, physics tells us that a
heavier object closer to the center of the see-saw can be balanced by a lighter object at a
distance. Subconsciously, we are aware how that leverage works, and visually we accept this
same technique in art.

Snowflakes are excellent examples of radial symmetry.

There is actually another, less commonly used form of balance employed in graphic design
that should be mentioned called crystallographic balance. Also called mosaic balance, this
kind uses a grid pattern to place elements of equal visual weight. While it's often a variation
of symmetrical balance, it stands out for the lack of any specific focal point. Instead, it
encourages the eye to keep moving over the entire field.

Creating Balance
Balance doesn't necessarily refer to the size of objects in our design. We can create it with
any number of visual properties, so long as we know how they attract attention. Remember
the more attention an object draws, the heavier it is.

 Color: Brighter colors are heavier than muted, or neutral colors.

 Value: This is the lightness or darkness of an object. Darker objects always weight
more visually.
 Shape: Angular and blunt shapes like squares hold more weight than curving shapes
like circles.
 Line: The thicker the line, the more weight it will have.
 Size: This one is the easiest as the larger the object, the heavier it will be.
 Position: However, the farther away from the center line, or center point, in the
composition, the heavier an object will be. Remember the example of something
small at the end of the see-saw balancing something large positioned close to the
center?
 Texture: Finally, the more complex the texture of an object, the more weight it will
carry. Think of smooth ping-pong ball sitting next to a pitted golf ball. Which one do
you find yourself looking at more, or for longer periods of time?

Using Balance
In graphic design, balance can create a number of effects, depending on the type you choose
and how you achieve it. You can create stability with symmetrical balance, instill a dynamic
feel with asymmetrical balance, and use radial balance for a sense of motion or to provoke
thought. In some cases, however, you may deliberately reject balance to specifically cause
your audience to feel a sense of unease. If you want to convey a sense of absence, loss, or
that something is wrong, deliberate lack of balance can work in your favor.

Lesson Summary
One of the key principles of design, balance, refers to the arrangement of visual elements so
that their visual weight is in harmony with one another. Rather than actual mass, visual
weight just means an object's power to attract the viewer's eye.

The three main types of balance that we looked at are:

1. symmetrical balance, which is created when objects of equal weight are placed on
either side of a center line;
2. asymmetrical balance, which is created with grouping lighter-weight objects on one
side of a center line to offset a heavy object on the other side; and
3. radial symmetry, where objects balance in relation to a central point in the
composition, rather than a central line.
Another type of balance used by graphic designers is crystallographic balance, where a
grid is used to place equally weighted objects with no particular focal point in the
composition. Now you should be aware of all the main types of balance, so hopefully you
won't be tipping the scales too much any time soon!

Proximity as a Principle of Design

You can master the elements of design, but it won't help if you don't know how to organize
them. In this lesson, we'll examine the principle of proximity and see how it can help create a
better design.

Proximity in Design
Imagine walking into a room full of people and being asked to determine who knew each
other. What would you look for? One of the simplest things you could consider is the
physical relationship between people. If two people are standing right next to each other,
there's a better chance that they know each other than two people who are on opposite
ends of the room.

With that knowledge, you are now prepared for a career either as a spy or graphic designer.
Let's assume you chose graphic designer. It's a better work/life balance. Graphic designers
are responsible for composing designs that typically need to work across multiple platforms.
They are responsible for organizing images, text, and other elements, like lines and colors, all
within the same overall space.

So, how do you keep it all organized? You consider the principle of proximity, which
describes the relationships between elements within a design based on the distance
between them. If you do your job well, it shouldn't take a super spy to be able to look at your
design and know which elements belong together.

Basic Ideas
Let's be honest, the principle of proximity it not rocket science (or world-class espionage).
The basic premise and the rules governing this principle are pretty straightforward. Ready?
Here they are:

1. Things that are related should be close together.

2. Things that are unrelated should be further apart.

That's it. Those are the basic precepts of proximity as a principle in graphic design. Yes, there
are other rules of aesthetics and harmony we can examine, but these are the basic ideas
that dictate the use of proximity. Proximity, therefore, is primarily a technique
of organization. By grouping elements and information that belong together, and
separating them from those that are unassociated, you provide a logical system of
organization that lets the audience understand and locate the elements of the design that
matter to them.
 The proximity between text and images, and the distance between some pieces of
information and others, help create a sense of organization in this design

For many beginning graphic designers, it can be easy to overthink this. Some designers like
to get artsy with the relationship between elements, which is fine if you remember this
axiom of graphic design: consumers don't like being forced to think. Graphic design is all
about packaging information in an easily accessible way.

To prove this, let's try a thought experiment. Think of a product you enjoy, and imagine
going to a website to buy it. This website has a beautiful logo, its use of color theory is
exceptional, and there's a good sense of harmony and balance. However, all the images of
the products are grouped together on the right side of the screen, and the prices for those
products are scattered across the rest of the page. There's no association between product
and cost, or between products of a similar type. While much of this website is beautiful, it
lacks any system of organization because the designer was not conscientious of the rules of
proximity. How likely are you to use that website ever again?

Tips for Using Proximity

Our thought experiment provided an extreme example of how poor proximity awareness
can ruin a design, but even simple errors can confuse the organization of a design. So, here
are a few tips to help ensure that things that belong together are close together.
 Especially in small spaces like business cards, negative space can be very useful in
creating a sense of organization

First, don't be afraid of empty or negative space. We all made those science-fair posters as
kids where we distributed images evenly across the poster board in order to eliminate
negative space. This is good for convincing the teacher that you did all the work, but not
good for organization. In fact, in graphic design negative space is often seen as a very good
thing. It clearly indicates a space between various elements, and helps the eye more easily
notice groupings of words, images, or other elements. Negative space is a graphic designer's
way of shouting at the audience: these ideas do not need to be connected.

Second, remember that the human brain tends to naturally understand relationships in
terms of ones, twos, and threes. Three is sort of the magic number in design, and it's
generally recommended to try and group information or images into three spaces or fewer.
If you have more than three groups of elements in close proximity, it could be a sign that
you're not leaving enough negative space in the design to allow distance to be noticeable.

In this design, how are shape, line, and color each used to help define spatial
 organization?

Finally, be sure to consider all elements of design. It's easy to plan out the spatial
arrangement of major shapes, but don't forget about the distance between other elements,
including those that tend to fall into the background. As a reminder, the basic elements of
art are line, shape, form, value, space, color, and texture. Any of these can throw off the
spatial relationships in a design. A rogue line or a color that's used inconsistently can
accidentally make things look closer than you'd envisioned, grouping them unintentionally.
The principle of proximity is pretty simple, but if you forget to actually apply it to all elements
of the design, it's surprising how complicated it can be.

Lesson Summary
In graphic design, proximity is a principle of design that refers to the spatial relationship
between the elements of the design. The rules of proximity are pretty simple: things that are
related should be nearer to each other, and things that are unrelated should be placed
further from each other. Proximity is a principle concerned primarily with organization, and
ensuring that visual and textual information is easily accessible. Designers must learn to not
fear negative space, consider how the mind tends to organize visual information, and
remember to account for all elements of design in order to ensure that everything is spaced
and organized in the best way. Since we chose to pursue careers in design and not
espionage, there's no need to make our information a puzzle that only a master spy could
decode.

Repetition as a Principle of Design

One crucial, but not always considered, principle of graphic design is repetition. In this
lesson, we'll look at this principle and see why it's so important to graphic designers.

Repetition in Design
So, you want to master the craft of graphic design?
So, you want to master the craft of graphic design?
Luckily, there are some basic techniques you can learn to use.
Luckily, there are some basic techniques you can learn to use.

Okay, what's going on? Why are there doubles of everything? What you're witnessing is the
process of repetition, the recurrence of an element of design.
 Repetition can be found in all forms of art

In a text lesson, repetition of that sort is pretty annoying, but repetition is actually a big part
of artistic design, and in particular of graphic design. Through systematically and deliberately
repeating various elements, designers can add a level of aesthetic depth and unity to their
work. It's a concept so important, it bears repeating.

Repetition and Aesthetics

There are three main reasons why graphic designers use repetition in their work: aesthetics,
consistency, and usability.

Let's start with the basic concept of aesthetics, the appreciation of beauty. The human eye
is naturally attracted to images that provide something to look at; our brains like having to
work a little. In this sense, repetition can be a valuable tool and can be used in different
ways.

Sometimes, designers uses repetition to make a logo or image a little more exciting, adding
some visual texture or weight to it. A great example of this is the Public Broadcasting Service
(PBS) logo. The simple repetition of the silhouette isn't anything too complex, but it makes
the logo a lot more interesting than a single face.
 The PBS logo is an example of very simple, but very effective, repetition

At the same time, repetition can be used to add a little visual richness to the background
without necessarily distracting from the foreground. Repetition, and particularly the use of
patterns, can create an aesthetically pleasing backdrop when used correctly.

However, you must be careful. If the repetition is too complex, it will distract from the other
elements and objects of the design. If it's too monotonous or ubiquitous, it can become
boring. As with many elements of design, sets of threes is always a good place to start.

Repetition and Consistency

The second goal of repetition, and one that really matters to graphic designers,
is consistency. Repetition is fundamental in creating a design that feels consistent and
unified.

For example, when you read this lesson, how many fonts do you see? We use a repetition of
this typeface because it makes the page feel more unified and consistent. Most designers
recommend using a maximum of three typefaces in a single design, otherwise you start to
lose any sense of cohesion.

This same idea carries throughout a design. When you use lines, do you use the same weight
or thickness every time? Do you use the same set of colors? Patterns? Repetition maintains
consistency, often in ways that you wouldn't notice unless that consistency was thrown off.

How does the repetition of shapes, colors, and other elements impact the sense of
consistency in this design?

Consistency is especially important in graphic design because designers are often working to
translate a design across multiple media, platforms, or print objects at once. By using a
consistent font, color scheme, line weights, and layout across web pages, business cards,
pamphlets, and letterheads, you create not just a single composition that feels unified, but
an entire collection. Repetition is key to that.
Usability
The third, and closely related, goal of repetition is to increase usability, or making the
important information more accessible through the repetition of various elements. This can
look different across various platforms, but the end goal is always the same.

Imagine, for example, a magazine page with lots of information on it. By making each section
header the same font and size, using the same sorts of lines to indicate section breaks, and
using the same kinds of bullet points, you make the information as easy to understand as
possible.

As another example, take a moment to look over Study.com's website. For every lesson you
click on, you'll see the lesson title at the top in the same font and size. You'll see a scroll bar
on the right, on the same spot on the page, with related lessons written in the same shade of
color.

You'll see the same logo for the company on every page, the same color schemes, and even
the same line widths. The repetition of even these simple elements makes the website easier
to navigate and creates a feel of consistency across the entire site.

You don't want to feel like you're going to a different company every time you click on a new
lesson. You want to feel like you're reading or watching a Study.com lesson, and repetition
makes it possible. Repetition makes it possible. That one was worth repeating.

Lesson Summary
In graphic design, the element of repetition refers to the recurrence of any element of
design. Repetition can be created by repeating the colors, shapes, sizes, placement, or any
other part of a design.

There are three main reasons to use repetition in design:

1. to add aesthetics - repetition adds visual excitement to both main objects and

background, provided it is done so correctly.
2. to create a sense of consistency, which is very important to graphic designers
needing to translate a design across multiple media, platforms, or print objects at
once.
3. to aid in usability - making both visual and textual information easier to locate and
digest.

Application of Design Principles in the Real

World
Graphic design carries some unique challenges. In this lesson, we are going to see how the
principles of art and design can help designers create the most effective compositions.
Applying the Principles of Design
Making good art is tricky enough, but it's even harder when your art is supposed to convince
people to buy a product. Graphic designers are often responsible for creating functional art
that can be used directly (like a website) or indirectly (like an advertisement). Either way,
your job is about more than just making pretty art, but this doesn't mean your art can't still
be pretty.

An effective design should be aesthetically appealing. Like any artist, you start with the
elements of art, which are the basic building blocks like color, line, and shape; however, it's
the way you use these elements that makes your composition both appealing and user-
friendly. We call the rules for organizing elements the principles of design. It's how you
make a design that does its job but is still fun to look at.

Design in the Real World

Graphic design is a little different from other forms of art because your composition won't
be hanging in a gallery - it will be in a magazine or on a billboard or website. Because of this,
there are some extra issues that graphic designers have to consider when applying the
principles of design. First, there's the setting. If your design is going to be on a poster, a grey
color scheme may not be the best way to catch people's attention. If your design is going to
be on a billboard, people will be looking at it from a distance. If it's a website, consider how it
will look on a laptop versus a phone screen.

The second key to real-world design is to remember that people are in a hurry. Your design
needs to be accessible enough so that people can understand it quickly but exciting enough
to keep their attention. So, consider the audience. Who is your target demographic, and
what do they like to see in a design? How do they communicate, and what catches their
attention? Who you're trying to reach will change the way you utilize the principles of design.

Even simple designs can be visually effective.

Principles of Design
So how do we actually go about creating a design that is appealing but functional? In graphic
design, the focus of the principles of design is generally to create focal points, or areas that
attract your eye first and order the image into a visual hierarchy. What do you want the
viewer to see first, second, and third? By organizing the elements of the composition in a
pleasing way, you create a natural flow that makes visual information accessible.

In that spirit, one of the key principles of art is rhythm, which is a sense of consistency in the
way your eye moves across an image. If this was a song, we'd be talking about the beat, but
in a visual design we're looking at a deliberate repetition of shapes, colors, or lines to create
a natural pace that defines the energy and visual tempo. Rhythm is often developed
through pattern, a clear repetition of elements of the composition. For example, look at the
Study.com website and consider how the repetition of colors helps create a sense of rhythm.

As you start to establish a visual rhythm, you want to make sure the design still maintains a
sense of balance, or equilibrium. While your design can be symmetrical or asymmetrical, it
should still feel balanced, without too much visual weight on one side.

How are the elements of this design organized to create a sense of balance here?

Harmony
Balance can be achieved through harmony, the principle that similarities and uniformity
help create a more completed aesthetic. Harmony is increased through subtle repetitions, or
accenting similar shapes, lines, and colors.

Harmony is visually pleasing but can also be boring if there's not enough contrast. Contrast
comes from accenting differences in shapes, colors, and lines. Sometimes this can be a
subtle contrast, as in a gradation from small to large or light to dark, or it can be an obvious
juxtaposition of elements.

Finally, we come back to movement. Movement describes the ability of the design to draw
the eye along a visual pathway. In graphic design, this largely comes from ensuring that all
visual and textual information is organized in a logical and accessible way. How do lines,
shapes, and colors provide a sense of organization, delineate space, and create focal points?
Since the people using your design probably won't be interested in spending lots of time
figuring it out, movement is crucial to the success of a great advertisement, website, poster,
or other products graphic designers often work with. This helps make your design not only
attractive but also useful, and that's what matters.

This design organizes lines and colors to create a strong sense of movement.

Practical Application: Basic Design Principles

Infographic
This infographic will help you recall the basic design principles. You can use this for
your own work, or print and hang it to communicate these principles in your
workplace.

What Are the Basic Design Principles?

Picture walking through the grocery store. Aisles of packaging are all vying for your attention,
trying to make it into your shopping basket. These packages and other forms of advertising
we see are no accident. They are all created through graphic design. Graphic design is the
process of using words and images to convey ideas. Graphic design is all around us and is
practiced by professionals called graphic designers. As you read in the lesson, Basic Design
Principles Overview there are six main principles of any graphic design:

1. Alignment
2. Proximity
3. Repetition
4. Contrast
5. Balance
6. Space

Let's visualize these principles using a tool called an infographic, shown below. Infographics
use images to convey information, and they can help you remember the information too.
Interpretation
The first principle of graphic design is alignment. This is how elements of the design are
arranged in relationship to each other. They may be asymmetrical or symmetrical. But, the
overall effect should help convey the message.

The second principle is proximity. This is how close together different elements are. The
positioning of elements can help draw attention to certain parts of the graphic, or convey
information.

Repetition refers to repeating words or elements, often ones that are important for the
message. It's no coincidence that many advertisements repeat phrases that they want you to
remember!

Contrast is the process of using two images, colors, or words that are in opposition. For
example, this could include dark and light colors, like on the infographic above, or opposing
words or ideas.

Balance is about aligning the visual weight of objects in the design. For example, small
objects take up less visual space than large objects. Designers use the appropriate ratios of
these elements in their designs to achieve balance.

The element of space is important for design as well. Designers take into consideration not
just the space that elements take up, but also negative space that is empty in the design. A
design may not contain many elements but still conveys a powerful message due to the use
of space.

Ch 4. Basics of Imagemaking
Imagemaking in Graphic Design: Definition &
Importance

Are you attracted to colorful pictures? Fields like advertising use images to sell products and
services. But who designs those images? In this lesson, learn about image-making and its
importance to graphic design.

What is Graphic Design?

Have you ever been compelled to buy something because you saw it an advertisement? If so,
what attracted you? Advertisers catch our attention in many ways. Look around and you'll
notice images in digital and print media like websites, billboards, posters, and magazines. All
have something in common: they were created by a process called graphic design.

Graphic design is the art of combining words and pictures to convey ideas. It's done by art
professionals called graphic designers who work in fields like advertising and marketing.
They create visual works to sell products, raise awareness about issues, and to promote
brands.
 Graphic design uses words and images to convey ideas. Advertisements are examples of
graphic design

Image-making, whether by use of photographs, illustrations, or simple stylish symbols and

logos, is very important to graphic design.

Imagemaking in Graphic Design

In graphic design, images are often the best way to get ideas across. Think about how ads
would look if they used only words. Many might not be so interesting, right? But the images
used in graphic design are more than simple pictures. Designers must know how to create
images that effectively convey specific ideas or make a connection with consumers. All
images in graphic design have a purpose.

For example, in advertising, designers use images to show how a product looks. The perfect
image can make something seem very appealing. Think about an ad for strawberries from
California. Which would be more effective? One that uses only words, or one that includes a
bright, colorful picture of a few ripe strawberries?

Types of Images in Graphic Design

Graphic designers use different art techniques to create images. But whether they work with
photography, digital art programs, or old-fashioned mediums like pen, ink, or paints, they're
still focused on conveying ideas.

In graphic design, there are different types of images, and two of the most important are
denotative and connotative images. Denotative images are pictures that simply show a
representational object or thing. They are straightforward, with no deeper meaning other
than what you see. Examples of denotative images include those strawberries, or a billboard
for a new Chevrolet that features the shiny car. Denotative images can be rendered as very
life-like, or simply as an outline. But when people see them, they take them at face value. A
denotative image stands for nothing other than what it is.

Denotative images are straightforward representations of things

But sometimes graphic designers want to covey more complex ideas or evoke emotion or
nostalgia; this is where another type of image is used. A connotative image has layers of
meaning beyond face value. Connotative images are more complex than denotative images.
They're still images, but they give the viewer more information and provide broader context.
They're used to create an atmosphere, tell a story, or make a connection to deeper meaning.
 Connotative images are more complex. This image evokes a sense of home and well-
being, connecting it to a cooling system

There's a catch with connotative images. In order for them to work, they need to be
understood by the people viewing them. Some images have very different meanings in
cultures around the world, and a designer needs to be aware of this to use them effectively.
Sometimes, a designer might even use both connotative and denotative images. It all
depends on what they think will best get our attention.
 The car drawing is denotative. But the glamorous woman in a stately setting is
connotative, suggesting the atmosphere cultivated if a person buys this car

So that's why image-making is so important to graphic design. The next time you're on your
favorite website or reading a magazine, take a moment to look at the ads. Can you find
examples where a designer decided to use a denotative or a connotative image?

Lesson Summary
Graphic design is a process that combines words and images to convey ideas. It's done by
professionals called graphic designers and used in fields like advertising. Image-making is
very important to graphic design. It's an effective way to catch people's attention and make
connections with viewers.

Whatever method a designer uses to make images, they use different kinds of
images. Denotative images are representative images of objects or things. They don't have
deeper meaning and they're straightforward. Connotative images are more complex. They
might contain objects but they also convey multiple layers of meaning. They might tell
stories or evoke emotions in the viewer.
Denotative Imagemaking: Definition &
Applications
How do advertisers get our attention? Sometimes, they use appealing images to display their
products. In this lesson, learn what denotative image making is and learn how it is used in
design.

What Is Denotative Image Making?

Has an advertisement in a magazine or online ever caught your eye? What kind of images
did it use?

Advertisers have many ways of getting our attention. Sometimes, they show you exactly
what they're selling. If a store or business sells apples, they'll include images of an apple in
their ads. This is an example of a denotative image.

A denotative image is a rendering of something much as it looks in real life. Even if it's not
drawn in a completely realistic way, people will easily understand what it is. Denotative
images are straightforward images of a familiar object or thing. They're one of the simplest
kinds of image making used in graphic design, and they don't have any deeper or hidden
meanings.
 A denotative image is a straightforward rendering of something. In this image, the
subject is clearly catsup.

And to cover another basic definition, graphic design is the process of combining words and
pictures to convey ideas. It's important to fields like advertising, and it's all around us. If
you've visited a website to buy something or looked at your favorite magazine, you've
experienced the effects of graphic design.

So, denotative images can be used in graphic design to connect a company and a product.
The image can be very detailed or just a simple outline. It can be in bright colors or rendered
in cool, muted tones. But if it's recognizable and has no other meaning than what it is, it's a
denotative image.

It's the opposite of a connotative image, which adds layers of meaning to the image.
Connotative images make people think more about what they mean. They're less
straightforward, with sometimes multiple meanings that go beyond the literal image.
 A connotative image has layers of meaning. It is less straightforward.

Uses of Denotative Image Making

So, why does such an idea matter? Why would a designer use a denotative image?

Denotative images provide an obvious connection between a company or business and a

product. They show a possible customer what the product looks like and link that product to
the company's name and brand.
 Denotative images make straightforward connections between brand and product.

Look around you, at ads on websites and on billboards along the highway. Denotative
images are everywhere. For example, many food companies use denotative images to show
their products. A condiment bottle is pictured in a bright color. An advertisement for a
jewelry store includes, against a white background, a single photograph of a diamond ring.
Such images make a straightforward point about a product or object—that it's fresh, that it's
beautiful and desirable. By using a representational image of the product they're selling or
promoting, they catch your eye in the most direct way possible.

So, the next time you're in a store or looking at something on the web, stop and look at the
ads. Can you identify which ones use denotative images?

Lesson Summary
Denotative images are images used in graphic design, and they are straightforward
renderings of objects or things. They might be done as an outline or a detailed drawing, be
rendered in bold colors or black and white. But when you see them, you will immediately
recognize what they are supposed to be. They don't have a deeper meaning. Denotative
images are the opposite of connotative images, which have deeper meanings that make
people think about something other than a simple object or image. Both types of images are
used in graphic design for things like advertisements. A designer might want to use a
denotative image if they are making a direct point about a product, and want to clearly show
the product so that people will recognize it.

 Print Lesson
Next Lesson 
Connotative Imagemaking: Definition &
Applications
How do advertisers catch your eye? They use different kinds of images, and some might tell
stories. In this lesson, learn what connotative image-making is and explore how it is used.

What Is Connotative Image Making?

When was the last time an advertisement or billboard caught your eye? Did it have an image
on it? We are surrounded by pictures and images in digital and print media that ask us to
support causes, buy products, or become more aware of issues. Many of the sources trying
to connect with us use connotative images.

A connotative image is one that has layers of meaning, beyond its face value. For example,
an advertiser for a life insurance company might use an image of a child playing with a toy to
convey ideas of family life, safety, and security, or perhaps childhood and nostalgia. The
image is indeed of a child and toy, but it's also about deeper ideas, that relate back to the
security of owning a good life insurance policy.

Connotative images convey ideas. This billboard is not just about a bridge. Instead, it
tells how moving from city to suburbs will improve your life

Connotative images are used in a process called graphic design, where words and pictures
are combined to convey ideas. Graphic design is done by art professionals called graphic
designers, who are trained to use images in many different ways. These designers work in
fields like advertising, where companies try to attract customers to buy products or services.
Graphic design is all around us. If you think about it, many ads you see use pictures, perhaps
many small ones or a large central figure. They're powerful tools in graphic design and can
convey many things.

Connotative images are the opposite of denotative images, straightforward pictures that
stand for no other meaning than what you see. A denotative image would be a picture of a
juicy steak on an ad for a steakhouse. The message is simple: the steak here is good.
Connotative images are more complex. They give the viewer more information and provide
a broader context. They're used in works where advertisers want to create an atmosphere,
tell a story that relates back to a product, or evoke an emotion that sparks a connection.

Uses of Connotative Image Making

Designers use connotative images to convey ideas and make connections between us and
potential products and services.

Look at advertisements for industries like beauty and skin care, healthcare and many kinds
of insurance. Often companies in these fields will use connotative images to connect
abstract ideas like success, enjoyment, and security, to their products.

For example, in an ad about a brand of soap, the image won't simply be a bar of soap.
Instead, it will portray people in an inviting atmosphere of well-being and pleasure, which
connects to the idea of using the soap to produce such a result.
 Connotative images tell stories and connect us to emotions or evoke feelings

But connotative images have to work within a cultural understanding. Different images and
objects mean different things in some cultures. The designer needs to know about, and be
aware of, these cultural differences. If necessary, they have to make sure that the image they
are using conveys an idea that people within a culture understand. Otherwise, it's just
confusing.

Connotative images are all around us. The next time you leaf through a magazine or drive by
a billboard on the highway, look carefully. Does it use a connotative image to tell a story, or
evoke an emotion?

Lesson Summary
Connotative images are pictures that have layers of meaning beyond their face value. They
might tell stories or provide a broader context. Whatever the image, the connections behind
it relate to more than simply the image being portrayed. They're used in a process
called graphic design to create digital and print documents like advertisements.

Connotative images are the opposite of denotative images, which are more
straightforward, and simply represent an object at face value. Connotative images are often
used in fields like healthcare and insurance, where companies want to connect with
potential customers by using stories and conveying relatable emotions. But the connotations
must be understood within a cultural context.

The Imagemaking Process: Approach &

Techniques
In this lesson, we'll look at three key approaching to imagemaking in graphic design:
process-driven, iteration, and generation. We'll also look at a few techniques to get you
out of a creative rut and breathe new life into your work.

Creativity and Originality

In graphic design, nearly every designer will have to create original images. Not everything
you need will be available online nor will photography always be the best avenue for your
design projects. However, if you are just starting to get into graphic design, you may not be
as familiar with the various techniques for image making. Here's where we can have some
fun with creativity and originality.

Even when not working for a client, making images and playing with techniques on your own
time can be rewarding in the long term. As you begin to master a wide variety of techniques
and get comfortable with experimentation, you will develop your own, unique style. The
versatility of techniques at your command also draws new clients looking for a graphic
designer who is able to produce a wide selection of images to choose from. Let's check out
some approaches to imagemaking.
Process
In process-driven image making, our focus is on the creative process itself. We're less
concerned about creating a perfect image and more concerned with trying out new
techniques and modifying ones we already know. We might have a general idea of what the
final image will look like, but most times the technique will determine exactly what we get.

When working with new ways of creating, it's best to begin with a simple start. That could
mean using the technique on basic shapes or only using a one-step process. Get
comfortable with it at first, then begin to experiment with more complicated variations. In
this way, you can end up making a number of different images to compare. You'll know
which way works best for you when you step back and look at all that you produced. You will
also end up mastering new techniques along the way.

Iteration
In many ways, the repeated variations in process lend itself to our next step. Iteration in
image making means that we produce a large number of images with some slight variations
as we go. We have the same basic image at the core, but we rework it, making new versions,
and try a variety of to see what looks better for your project.

Each image uses the same lamp but continually makes changes in the design.

Usually, we will confine ourselves to variations on a single technique as well. Just be sure to
step back and really analyze your images, comparing them to one another. Often, we find
iteration really forces us to learn and master a technique through repetition.
Generation
Generation as an approach to imagemaking focuses on volume. Just keep making images
using a variety of techniques and perspectives. In this approach, we do not hold to any right
way to represent our subject. Many times, we're surprised to find a technique we might
normally dismiss produces an exciting result. No matter which image you select at the end,
the entire generative process will give you more familiarity with techniques and hone your
skills, especially when you use experimental techniques.

A single strawberry can inspire a plethora of images with various techniques and styles.

A Few Techniques
So, before we wrap this up, let's look at a few techniques you can use just to get started.
Plug-In or Unplug
If you are more familiar with creating images by hand, it's time to plug-in and just play with
making digital images. Leaving your comfort zone will force you out of common patterns and
styles that might have you in a rut.

If you are a digital image maker, shut off the computer and get your hands into the process.
Sometimes, there is a satisfaction to having traces of pigment you can scrub off your hands
with mysterious streaks of paint in your hair at the end of the day.

Embracing the unfamiliar wakes up parts of your brain and can inspire entirely new
compositions.

Play with Distance

Explore the limits of your subject, determining how close you can get and still identify the
object. Remember those extreme close up segments on Sesame Street where you tried to
guess what you were looking at, only to find out it was pores on a face, a tire tread, or an
orange peel? You can also zoom out and see how far away you can get and still have a
recognizable subject that maintains its position as the focus of your composition.

Can you still recognize a tree in each image?

Use New Mediums

If you're used to painting, try pencil drawing. If you are used to digital images, create a paper
collage. Basically, use a material you've rarely or never used before. Get the feel of the new
medium and see how it changes the way you produce your image.

Lesson Summary
At the end of the day, regardless what approach or techniques you use when imagemaking,
have fun and tap into your sense of creativity and adventure.
There are three approaches to making images in graphic design. Process-driven image
making focuses more on the process of creating instead of the finished product. Next, we
have iteration, which involves making an image over and over, trying slight variations,
keeping aspects you like, and reworking those you do not. Finally, we
have generation which simply encourages you to make as many versions of the image as
you can, trying a wide variety of techniques and perspectives.

In order to do any of these, it's best to start simple and work your way to more complex
processes. Try using a computer or creating by hand, whichever is less familiar to you. Play
with a variety of perspectives and distance as well as use a number of mediums you are not
used to employing in your creative endeavors. In the end, you will master a variety of
techniques, develop your unique style, and offer more to clients seeking variety and
originality.

Printing With Objects as an Imagemaking

Technique
In this lesson, we'll discuss the use of objects in image making. We'll discuss how to make
prints by stamping, stenciling, scanning, and rubbing. The wider the range of techniques at
your disposal, the more versatile a graphic designer you will be.

Imagemaking
In graphic design, you will frequently need to call upon your artistic skill and creative spirit to
make your own images. Whether you include them in a professional composition for a client
or as a showpiece, you need to develop a number of techniques to create images. The more
you experiment with and master new techniques, the greater your range of design skills will
be and the more your work will be sought after by clients.

While there is a wide world of techniques, we'll focus here on using objects as an
imagemaking technique. We'll cover stamping, positive stenciling, scanning, and rubbing
with a pencil, chalk, or charcoal.

Stamping and Stenciling

Many of us have used a stamping technique at some point in our childhood. You take a
porous material, dip it in paint or ink, then press it to your paper. You can use the raw shape
of the object, such as stamping half an apple to create an apple image, or cut out sections
and make a homemade stamp. If your paint is thick enough, you don't even need to use a
porous object. You just coat the surface and press it into the paper.
 An example of stamping.

Positive stenciling an object, however, deals more with the area outside the object that the
object itself. It's kind of like a photo negative. Let's say we use the same half of an apple that
we would have used as a stamp. In stenciling, you still press it onto the paper. However,
rather than the apple transferring paint in its shape, you can trace the outline of the apple or
even spray paint the paper to leave a negative space in the shape of the apple.

Positive stenciling creates a negative image.

Scanning Images
Experimentation is all part of the fun with image making. If you have a scanner, just set your
objects on the glass and scan. You can even do this with an old photocopier and adjust the
settings to make lighter, darker, and more unique images.

Another way to use objects when scanning is to create a collage. Assemble your various
pieces together in a particular pattern, then scan the entire composition to create your print.
As most of your objects will be three-dimensional, you will have a variety of textures in the
finished product. Some surfaces will squish against the glass while others will have peaks
and valleys highlighted by the light.
Rubbings
Rubbing is a very old technique of printmaking with a wide variety of applications.
Sometimes, people will use this on old headstones because it helps define words that may
be too worn away to see under normal conditions.

Rubbing of an ancient Chinese headstone

You can use a variety of tools to do a rubbing, including pencils, charcoal, pastels, colored
pencils, and even crayons. To explain, we'll use the example of a small block of artist's
charcoal. In rubbing, you place your paper on top of the object you want to use and start
running the charcoal back and forth over the surface but do so lightly at first. Where the
object is raised, you will get a darker coloring.

If there are faintly carved letters, like on a headstone, the darkest parts will outline the
carving with a negative space for the letters. If you have a small object under the paper, like
a coin, the outline of the coin will be darkest and some of its features will be clearly
noticeable.

You can also use this technique to create a textured pattern for an unrelated object. If you
cut a piece of cardboard into the shape of a star and do a rubbing, you will clearly see a star
shape. You will also have a pattern inside the star from the raised surfaces of the corrugated
cardboard's inner layer.

Lesson Summary
These are a number of ways you can use objects in your printing and image making
endeavors. Stamping, using the surface of the image coated in paint or ink to press an
image onto the paper, is just one method. You can also do positive stenciling, which uses
the object to prevent paint from touching the paper and creates a negative image. Then, you
can use scanning technology to just create an image from the object set on the glass. If you
use many objects in a collage, you can get an interesting variety of textures, light, and
shadow. Finally, we have rubbing, which places the paper on top of an object or texture
surface and uses a small piece of charcoal rubbed on the paper to create an image from the
high and low surfaces.

Duct Tape Prints as an Imagemaking Technique

In this lesson, we'll discuss the use of tape in image-making techniques. We'll
describe, step by step, how to make a print using a duct tape template. We'll also
discuss other ways to use duct tape and other tapes in graphic design.

We All Love Duct Tape

How is duct tape like the force from Star Wars? It has a light side, a dark side, and it holds the
universe together.

That joke has probably been circulating since the first Star Wars film opened in theaters, but
in many ways, it highlights our love of duct tape. The strong, versatile substance was
originally designed and marketed to help seal the ducts of heating and cooling systems, but
it quickly expanding beyond its original use.

Duct tape has a wide following for its versatility in repairs and in artwork.

Even before manufacturers started releasing duct tape with an infinite variety of colors and
patterns, people began experimenting with the simple, silvery adhesive. While we cannot
even begin to recount the number of ways people have used duct tape, including making
prom attires out of it, we can discuss some fascinating ways to use duct tape in graphic
design.
Printing with Duct Tape
To use duct tape as a print template, you first need a smooth surface, like plastic, so you can
easily remove the tape. Cut and press a piece of tape to this surface. Next, you can use a pen
knife to cut out the shapes you want to print.

Peel these back from your plastic surface and affix them to a piece of paper in whatever
arrangement you desire. With a small sponge or cloth, apply an oil-based stamp ink to the
surface with the duct tape. The ink will soak into the paper but remain on the surface of the
tape.

Finally, set another piece of paper on top of the piece with the duct tape and ink. Hold it
securely so it does not slide, and begin to press and rub it firmly. You will need enough
pressure to force the ink onto your paper. Peel back your paper and look at your new print.

You can also change the ink color and print again, adding another color and a new
dimension to your project. You can even take the page with the print and use a different
duct tape template to add additional shapes. Basically, you are only limited by your
imagination.

Duct Tape Texture

You can also use duct tape to give your work a textured appearance. One method is to make
a rubbing, a technique of moving a pencil, crayon, chalk, or charcoal over a paper's surface
to form an image from the raised and depressed areas of an object underneath.

Grave rubbing involves going over a depressed area, instead of a raised area like duct
tape would supply.

Repeat the previous steps of cutting out shapes from your duct tape. With that, you can
either leave it on your cutting surface to rub or arrange several shapes on the surface or a
separate piece of paper. As your medium encounters the raised surfaces and edges of your
tape shapes, it will make a darker, thicker, or more noticeable mark.
Other Tape Creations
Duct tape isn't the only adhesive used in graphic design projects. Max Zorn, a renowned
tape artist from Amsterdam, uses transparent packaging tape. By layering the strips, he
creates areas of shading in a monochrome (single color) design of brown ranging from pale
amber to black coffee. He even did a stunning recreation of Vermeer's Girl with a Pearl
Earring.

Max Zorn uses packaging tape like this in his creations.

Lesson Summary
Duct tape, the strong tape used to seal heating ducts, captured the attention of many artists
and graphic designers as a tool in design. One method is to cut shapes from the duct tape,
apply oil-based ink, and stamp a design onto a piece of paper.

Those same cut shapes can also be used in a rubbing. In rubbing, you lay a piece of paper
over a surface and lightly rub a medium, like a pencil, crayon, chalk, or charcoal, over the
surface. Where duct tape has ridges or edges, you will get darker, wider, and more
noticeable lines.

Finally, you can use any kind of tape in creative ways. Max Zorn is a world-famous artist
using packaging tape to create translucent images full of light and shadow created only by
layering the tape.
Improvised Light Table as an Imagemaking
Technique
In this lesson, we'll introduce a fascinating piece of equipment used by artists and graphic
designers: the light table. Find out what it can do for your compositions, as well as how to
improvise or build your own.

Tracing Pictures
We all have experience tracing pictures at some point in our lives. Unless we used very thin
paper, however, we probably struggled to see the various lines of our original. This is why
artists, architects, and graphic designers use light tables. By back-lighting the images, they
make sure that even the smallest lines are visible.

What Is a Light Table?

A light table is a tool used by graphic designers to shine diffused light through an image
and a piece of paper laid on top. This means the light has to be bright enough to shine
through two layers of paper. When used in this way, a light table aids tracing images,
sketching a variation of the original image, or even painting an image without the pesky
black lines of the original.

Artists, graphic designers, photographers, and architects all use light tables.

Light tables can also help you create patterns for embroidery and cross-stitching when you
lay a piece of fabric over the image instead of the second piece of paper. Other professionals
use it for viewing photo slides.

There are also similar products. A light panel is a more portable version of a light table that
can be set on a counter or desk. With the introduction of LED lights, we also have light pads
that are even thinner and more portable than the light panel. Finally, we have a light box,
which is exactly as it sounds: a box with lights. You've probably seen a light box mounted on
the wall in your doctor's office to help when viewing X-rays.
 Medical personnel even use light boxes in their work.

Improvising a Light Table

If you don't have a light table but want to use this technique right away, you can always
improvise. On a bright day, you can tape your original image to a window and let the natural
power of the sun do the work. However, standing against a window for extended periods of
time might be hard on your feet. Also, working on a vertical surface might tire your arms or
cause liquid pigments to run. Think about these issues when starting your project.

Even with a little shade, the sun is bright enough to shine through both pieces of printer
 paper.

Build Your Own Light Table

If you can't stand long enough to use a window or your materials are not cooperative on a
vertical surface, you can actually build your own light table. You just need a few tools,
materials, some familiarity with DIY projects, and a sense of adventure.

The most important part of this project is acrylic sheeting. Several sources recommend using
#2447 sheeting with a 1/4-inch protective backing. You'll want this to be a translucent white
instead of clear. This should give you the sturdiness you need. Cut this to the size you want
for the table's surface.

Next, cut 1X2 boards so that they create a rectangle, with the outer perimeter matching the
acrylic sheeting. Basically, if your acrylic sheet is 36 inches by 36 inches, you will want your
rectangle to be the exact same size. Remember to cut two sides shorter by two inches to
account for the width of the other boards.

Next, screw four metal braces in the corners to hold the boards snugly together. Flip it over
so your braces are on the bottom. Next, pre-drill holes in your acrylic sheeting where you will
want to attach it to the frame. Screw the sheeting onto the frame. To prevent the screws
from damaging the plaster, use a rubber washer so the screw can create a tight hold without
damaging your light table.

At this point, you can build legs for the table if you wish. With legs, you are free to set any
kind of spotlight under the table, pointing up at the surface. If you need something that can
sit on a table or desk, it gets a little more complicated.

For a desktop version, you can put eye-screws in the frame, about 1/4-inch from the bottom,
spacing them about 1-3 inches apart based on your preference. You only need to do this for
two sides, the top and bottom or the left and right. Tightly string some picture wire between
the eye-screws.

Next, take bright LED lights, like you'd find on a Christmas tree, and wrap them around the
picture wire. You can use more picture wire, twist ties, or zip ties to affix the lights to the eye-
screws at the ends. The tighter you wrap the lights, the more illumination you will have on
each wire. Once you are done, just plug them in and enjoy your table. However, be sure to
only use LED lights, as incandescent bulbs can heat up and cause problems.

Lesson Summary
A light table is a tool used by artists and designers to shine diffused light evenly through an
image and a piece of paper set on top. This allows them to trace images, paint without black
edge lines in the finished product, create embroidery patterns, or study photo slides. Similar
products include a light panel that sits on top of a table or desk and offers greater
portability, light pads that are even more portable than panels, and light boxes like you see
on the wall of a doctor's office.

If you don't own a light table, you can always improvise by taping your original to a window
on a well-lit day. However, with a few tools and ambition, you can also build your own.
Ch 5. Typography in Graphic Design
What is Typography? - Definition, Terms &
Examples
Although you probably don't think much about it, typography is a very important element of
design. Through this lesson, you will learn how to define typography and explore some of
the technical aspects of the style.

Defining Typography
Every day we are surrounded by advertisements encouraging us to buy the latest product,
see the latest movies, or upgrade to the latest phones. Whether in print, on television, or
online, these all have one thing in common: carefully arranged text. Product names, for
example, are almost shoved in our face via big colorful text, while the legally binding
agreements are given in 'the fine print.'

In the context of visual communication, this arrangement of text is known

as typography and it's an important part of many different styles of art and communication.
Broadly speaking, typography is the way that text is arranged and presented. In the old
Batman comic books, for example, sound effects like 'bap!' were arranged in a word or
thought bubble to indicate the strength and effect of the fight. Similarly, if you look at the
device you're using right now, there's a very good chance that the brand name is boldly
displayed in your line of sight.

The History of Typography

Given that typography is the arrangement of text, you can imagine that it has a long history
that is closely associated with the printed word. The earliest examples of typography date
back to ancient Greece and Rome, usually in the form of imperial seals and dies used for
making money. A royal seal on a document, for example, would be created using a metal
stamp dipped in wax and served as a type of signature.

Around 1041, typography had begun to evolve into what we recognize it as today with the
invention of movable type by Chinese commoner Bi Sheng. Using clay tiles, Sheng created a
system where each Chinese character was represented on a single tile, thus allowing for
words and phrases to be printed on paper using ink.
 Movable type allowed for text to be reproduced efficiently.

Over time, the ceramic tiles were replaced with woodblocks, but the process of printing was
still slow and time-consuming because it had to be done by hand. This all changed around
1440, when Johannes Gutenberg created the first mechanical printing press. Unlike
previous handmade prints, Gutenberg's press used metal plates and a mechanized system
to reproduce texts quickly and more efficiently than had ever been done before. In fact,
Gutenberg's process was so effective and efficient that many elements are still used today in
the printing process.

Texts could be reproduced prior to the printing press, but the time and labor that it took to
make it happen more or less precluded the mass production of written texts. With the aid of
the printing press, new ideas and concepts could be shared within communities and, when
carried by travelers, could make their way around the world. So, the Gutenberg press was
something of a flashpoint that ignited a global revolution in the sharing of ideas.

Technical Terms
Unless you're a visual artist or graphic designer, you probably don't spend much time
thinking about all the work that goes into designing text. Indeed, typography isn't simply
organizing and applying letters; it's a means of communication that requires training, skill,
and more than a little creativity.

Imagine that you saw a poster advertising some new cell phone and all of the text was
squished up together near the top - such a sloppy job probably wouldn't inspire you to run
out and buy the phone. If, on the other hand, the lines of text were clearly spaced and
allowed you to quickly absorb all of the poster's information, it would have a greater effect.
This vertical spacing of text is known as leading, and it can be particularly important in lines
of text that have descenders, which are letters like 'g' or 'y' that have hang below the
baseline.

Leading can be particularly important when dealing with descenders.

Similarly, the spacing between the letters can also make a considerable difference in how
well a message is received. Kerning, which is the amount of space placed between individual
letters, is actually more significant than you might think. Think about graffiti art and the ways
that the letters and words often blend together to create a complex design. On the other
end of the spectrum are things like logos, which often put big spaces between letters so that
they can be quickly and easily identified.

The significance of kerning can be seen in graffiti.

These aspects of typography are all ways of organizing typefaces, which is the technical
term for fonts like Times New Roman, Helvetica, or Comic Sans. There are countless
typefaces and more being designed every day - but why? Like many other elements of
design, different projects call for different typefaces, and these change over time. For
instance, if your cell phone contract was written in big swirling cursive like those used in
previous centuries, would you still be able to skim through it quickly to get to the end?

Though they may be underappreciated by the public, typographers play a very important
role in the art, media, and design industries. In fact, without them we might all still be using
quill pens to copy books, or reading lengthy documents in scrawling cursive handwriting.

Lesson Summary
Typography is the way that letters and words are arranged in print and design. The practice
is likely as old as writing itself, but it began to evolve quickly with the invention of movable
type in 1041. Movable type allowed text to be recreated using a template, but it wasn't
until Johannes Gutenberg invented the printing press that typography became a part of our
everyday lives.

While they may not get much attention from the public, typographers usually spend years
developing their skills and mastering the technical aspects of their craft. Leading, for
example, can have a dramatic impact on the way that text is read, particularly when they
include descenders. Likewise, kerning and even the typeface itself can determine how well
your message is remembered.
Letters: Anatomy & Importance in Graphic
Design
In this lesson, find out all the different parts of letters and the names we use. We'll discuss
both anatomy of letters in general and special decorative additions, as well as explain why
this is important for graphic design.

What Is Letter Anatomy?

Did you know letters had arms and legs? What about ears? No, we're not making this up!

Letters have their own anatomy, and there are a wide range of terms to describe every little
part of a letter. There are even terms for parts that appear in one typeface and not another.
Just in case that term is new to you, a typeface is an entire family of related fonts that share
a number of similarities in their styles.

In graphic design, knowing the anatomy of letters and the decorative flourishes added to the
base anatomy can help you communicate with clients and teammates about a project. It can
also help you design a coherent set of letters to achieve your ideal composition.

Measuring Letters
To understand some of the descriptions, let's look at the way letters are measured. First, we
have a baseline that can be found at the bottom of capital letters and the bottom of the
main part of lowercase letters. Next, we have a median that rests on top of the main part of
lowercase letters. This is usually about halfway up the capital letters. The x-height is the
distance between the baseline and the median. This describes how tall a letter like ''a,'' ''e,''
or ''x'' will be.

For letters that reach above the median, like ''h'' and ''f,'' we call them ascenders. Likewise,
letters like ''y'' and ''p'' that dip below the baseline are called descenders. Finally, we have
the cap height, which is the top limit for capital letters.

The different kind of lines involved in typesetting

Letter Anatomy
Many parts of letters carry the same name as parts of our body. Maybe this is because we
tend to anthropomorphize things, but maybe the body helped inspire the letter shapes. It's
difficult to know because of how long ago letters began to form.
  Stem: This is the main, vertical line of a letter. If there are no vertical lines, it will be
the first diagonal line.
 Stroke: This is a diagonal line in a letter. Many times, however, people use the term
to refer to any line in a letter.
 Arm: This is a straight or curved line attached to the stem on one end and extending
upward at a diagonal on the other.
 Leg: This is a straight or curved line attached to the stem on one end and extending
downward at a diagonal on the other.
 Spine: This is the structural curve in the letter ''S'' beginning at the outermost part of
the top curve and continuing to the outermost part of the bottom curve.
 Shoulder: This is the curving line that extends downward from the stem in lowercase
letters like ''h,'' ''n,'' and ''r.''
 Ear: Sometimes the letter ''g'' will have a small line extending horizontally from its top
circle, and we call that an ear.
 Bowl: This is a line that creates a curved enclosure. We see this with capital letters
like ''R,'' ''D,'' and ''B.'' We also see it in lowercase letters like ''a,'' ''b,'' and ''p.''
 Counter: Also called a counter space, this is the empty space completely enclosed by
the letter. We find this inside of ''o,'' ''B,'' and ''p.'' It doesn't matter what shape the
enclosure is; it will still be a counter.
 Eye: The eye is a very special kind of counter that we only find in the lowercase ''e.''
It's named for its similar appearance to a human eye.
 Bar: No, this is not a tavern. A bar is the horizontal line in letters like ''A,'' ''H,'' and ''f.''

1) ascender 2) serif 3) shoulder 4) leg 5) eye 6) counter 7) ear 8) stem 9) bar

Decorative Anatomy
These anatomy terms do not appear in every typeface and are purely decorative elements.

 Tail: When a descender has a decorative or curvy design to the part that hands down,
we call it a tail.
 Spur: This is a small projection jutting out from the main stroke.
 Serif: This is a short, horizontal line at each end of the stem and stroke, sometimes
called a foot.
 Terminal: When a letter does not use a serif, the ends of the main lines are called
terminals. Sometimes, the lines just stop with a sharp, square end. Other times, they
can be rounded, teardrop shapes, or even circles.
 Swash: In a capital letter, if we do not use a serif or a terminal at the end of lines, we
might add an elaborate, curvy line called a swash.
 1) terminal 2) spine 3) stroke 4) swash 5) arm

Lesson Summary
Regardless of the typeface you use, it's important to know some anatomy terms for letters.
This can help you communicate with clients about the text in a design and help you decide
on placement, style, etc. We measure letters using particular lines. The first is the baseline,
which sits at the bottom of your capital letters. Next is the median, which is at the top of
most lowercase letters. The x-height is the distance between the baseline and the
median. Cap height is the top of the capital letters.

The stem is the main vertical line in a letter or the first diagonal line if no lines are
vertical. Stroke refers to diagonal lines. When a part of the letter completely encloses an
open space, that space is called a counter. Horizontal lines in a letter are called bars. When
a stroke or stem ends in a short, horizontal line, we call that a serif. If no serif is used, we call
the end of the stroke and stem a terminal.

Spacing & Type Size in Typography

In this lesson, we'll explore the importance of space and size in typography. Find out how a
font size is really measured, and learn the different kinds of spacing used, such as character
spacing, line spacing, and word spacing.

The Importance of Space and Size

Typesetting is a subset of typography, and in graphic design, it deals with the arrangement,
and style of characters, in a larger body of writing where space plays a vital role. Have you
ever wondered what the font size number means, other than larger numbers result in bigger
letters? Have you ever found yourself distracted while reading a newspaper article before
the words are spaced strangely on some lines, causing large gaps in the middle of the
paragraph? Well, you have come to the right place, because we're going to answer those
questions and more.
Font Size
First, let's address the pesky question of font sizes and where they come from. You've likely
noticed that two different fonts will have very different size letters, even when you select the
same font size. That's because the size of a font is not actually the measurement of the size
of the letters.

This all goes back in history to a time before the computer. Back then, people used printing
presses to create uniform copies of documents like books and newspapers. Someone would
arrange little blocks with raised, backward letters in a tray, to spell out the whole page of
text. Think about that next time you complain about having to write a long paper!

Typesetters used to align blocks like these for a printing press.

Well, these blocks had to be the exact same height in order to fit together on a straight line.
What we call font size is actually the measurement of the blocks that used to form the
spaces around our letters of type. The numbers themselves are called points, and 72 points
will equal a block one-inch high. Of course, there were blocks larger than one inch, but that
just meant the point number was higher than 72. Say, you have a 90-point font. The block
size around the letter will be 90/72 inches or 1.25-inches.

Letter Spacing
Each letter in a font comes with its own, preset personal space. However, the shape of the
letters sometimes creates awkward gaps when we combine them with other letters. We see
that when ''r'' and ''n'' turn out looking like a ''m,'' if we don't intentionally increase their
spacing. Other letters, like a capital ''A'' and a ''w'' taper inward, so if we leave their spacing
alone, they look a little too far apart. The spacing between letters, and the way we
sometimes have to adjust it is called kerning.

Leading
Back in the days of the printing press, typesetters would need to create spaces between
lines so readers could easily follow the text. Today, we have preprogrammed, and
adjustable, line spacing. Back then, they would use a long, rectangular block of lead to create
the space. This is why we still call the distance between the baseline, found at the bottom of
capital letters, of each line of text leading. However, we pronounce it like the metal and say
''ledding.''

You can see the baseline in this diagram of typesetting lines.

Tracking
Tracking refers to the spacing between groups of characters, which we usually encounter as
words. In most cases, we don't have to adjust this too often because the preprogrammed
spacing separates the words nicely. However, we sometimes need to adjust the tracking. We
never want to end a paragraph with a single word, on the last line, called an orphan and we
don't want the last line of a paragraph to carry over to a new page all alone, called
a window. Tracking helps ensure words are spaced just enough to add a few more words to
an orphan or a few lines to a window.

However, when we use tracking in a fully justified alignment, where each line begins and
ends at the same place, we can get some visual problems. If the extra space between words
lines up to create a line of whitespace down the page, we call that a river. If we have an
awkward and large gap, it's a puddle. If the gap is really big and spans multiple lines, we
have a lake. We can fix that by manually adjusting the tracking, or even adjusting the
kerning a bit to fill in the spaces.
 We want to avoid rivers, puddles, and lakes.

Why Should You Know This?

It's not enough to incorporate a word or two in every design. Sometimes, a client will hire
you to create an informative design with large passages of text. By understanding the basics
of typesetting, especially regarding letter size and spacing, you can includes those text
passages in a way that serves your overall message. You don't want sloppy text to ruin the
rest of the effect you so carefully constructed.

Lesson Summary
Typesetting, a subset of typography, manages the arrangement and style of characters in a
large body of text. The size of the characters, known as font size today, does not actually
measure the distance from the top to the bottom of letters. It comes from manual printing
on a press where each character was set on a block of equal height, measured in points, with
72 points to an inch.

The space between letters and the act of adjusting that space is called kerning. Between
lines, however, space is called leading, because manual typesetters used to use blocks of
lead to separate lines. A leading size is measured from the baseline, the bottom of the
capital letters, on one line, to the baseline of the next.

Finally, we have tracking, which is the space between groups of characters, usually

encountered as words. Adjusting that space helps avoid an orphan, a single word at the end
of a paragraph. It also helps us avoid windows, where the last line of a paragraph is pushed
to the next page.

Typesetting Text: Definition & Application

In this lesson, we'll take a look at typesetting and how it differs from typography. Find out
about selecting fonts and typefaces, spacing between words and lines, and common spacing
problems you may face.

The Art of Text

Have you ever tried to read a newspaper or magazine article and had difficulty following the
lines? Maybe you noticed how changes in the size or shape of the words added emphasis to
titles or particular passages. When done well, you find an easy-to-follow piece of text that is
visually pleasing and highly functional. When done poorly, you may have problems reading
the words, following the lines, or getting distracted. This is the art of typesetting, an offshoot
of graphic design and typography.

Typesetting vs. Typography

First, let's differentiate between these two, similar terms. Often, in graphic design and
printing, we find people confuse the two. Typesetting is the careful arranging of letters,
numbers, and symbols to prepare a written document for printing. The key features to
consider are legibility, how well we can differentiate the letters from one another,
and readability, how easily we can read the words and follow along from line to
line. Typography, on the other hand, is how we apply artistic elements and principles to
create a visually pleasing composition with text as part of the design.

Typeface and Fonts

One of the main aspects of typesetting is selecting the typeface for the document. People
frequently confuse typeface and font. They are closely related, so the confusion is easy to
understand. A font is a set of letters, numbers, and symbols that shares certain design
characteristics. A typeface is an entire collection of related fonts, or a ''font family.'' The
symbols in these families have many similar characteristics, but they also differentiate
themselves by changes in certain other elements.

Here, we can see the Helvetica typeface and the fonts in the family.

A good analogy would be language families. Take the Romance languages, for example.
French, Spanish, Italian, Portuguese, and Romanian all come from a common root of Latin.
Because of that, they share a number of commonalities with similar words and sentence
structure. However, you can definitely tell these are different languages.

Spacing
The careful use of space is vital to effective typesetting. We have to ensure we use the right
amount of distance between letters and lines of text in order for readers to identify what
they are looking at. They also need to be able to follow a line and find the next line easily
when they are done. Finally, we can't use too much space between letters, or the reader will
have difficulty following the words or determining where one word ends and the next
begins.

Kerning
Kerning is an industry term for adjusting the space between letters. Each letter in a font
usually has a set amount of space around it. However, when we put some of these letters
together, those spaces end up creating a much wider gap than we need. Other times, the
gap is so small that two letters like ''r'' and ''n'' start looking like the letter ''m.'' In these cases,
we have to adjust the spacing just enough to make the text legible.

Leading
Pronounced ''ledding,'' leading is a term for the space between the baseline of one line of
text and the baseline of the line above and below it. The term comes from the old art of
typesetting for which people used spacers made of lead to create distance between each
line. You want to make sure your lines are close enough together to be visually pleasing and
appear associated with one another. However, you don't want the lines so tight that the
reader has trouble following along.

The different kind of lines involved in typesetting

Word Spacing
The spacing between words in a block of text, which is called body text, can often be a
challenge. On one hand, we have to decide how to align the paragraphs. We can do a left
alignment, which makes the beginning of each line begins at the same point on the left. This,
however, leaves the right side looking a bit ragged because the lines don't have the exact
same length as different words have more or fewer letters than others. Another option is a
fully justified alignment, which inserts spaces between the words so the lines begin and end
at the same place.

We encounter some problems with fully justified text, however, because the extra space can
leave distracting gaps. When small gaps are close together from line to line, it creates a
problem called a river, a white space that flows down part of the paragraph. When there is a
noticeable gap in the paragraph, it is called a puddle. However, if there is a big puddle
spanning several lines, we appropriately call that a lake. One solution to having rivers,
puddles, and lakes in a fully justified passage is to use kerning to widen the letter spacing in
some words just enough to fill the line without being unreadable.
 We want to avoid rivers, puddles, and lakes in justified text.

Lesson Summary
Now you are familiar with typography, or creating a visually pleasing composition with text
as part of the design, and typesetting, or the careful arranging of letters, numbers, and
symbols to prepare a written document for printing. You can prepare your documents using
a single font, a set of characters with similar features, or you can create visual difference
using a typeface, a set of related fonts that differ slightly. The key is for the text to
remain legible. To achieve this, we use different kinds of spacing.

Kerning is the space between letters. We can make lines more readable by adjusting
the leading, the space between the baseline of one line and the baseline of the next. We'll
also want to determine an alignment for the paragraph. We must be careful when using fully
justified alignment, in which lines begin and end at the same point, so we don't leave
distracting gaps. A river forms when extra spacing for full justification lines up from one line
to the next, creating a line of white space down the page. A puddle is a large and distracting
gap. A lake, however, is an exceptionally large puddle.

Denotation & Connotation in Type

In this lesson, we'll look at how the meaning of text in a graphic design is a combination of
the word's meaning and the visual presentation of that work in the composition. We'll focus
on the semiotic concepts of denotation and connotation.
Semiotics in Graphic Design?
Have you ever thought about what your written words say? No, we don't mean just the
words and their definitions. We mean the way the words' physical appearance influences the
message you are trying to convey. There's actually a whole field of study dedicated to asking
that question. It's call semiotics, and it studies the way symbols, and signs convey meaning,
even when we don't know their definition. Yes, this also means these scholars study words in
context and how cultural knowledge and experience influences our perception of meaning.

Don't worry, we're not going to go into an advanced semiotics lecture here, but we will use a
few of their concepts and explain how they relate to graphic design. Mainly, we'll compare
denotation and connotation.

Denotation in Type
Let's start with the easier of the two. Denotation refers to the functional aspect of
typography. Typography is the element of design involving the use of text. The first step is
determining what your message will actually say, the definition of the words. Often, this will
come from the client, though they will sometimes let you choose the specific words to use.

Next, we deal with the pragmatic aspects of typography, the technical issues. We have to
determine what size, spacing, and typeface will be readable to our audience. Typeface is the
system of style choices that repeat throughout a set of letters, numbers, and symbols in a
particular style, what you might think of as a font. You certainly wouldn't use the same size
print on a billboard as you would on a magazine cover. They'd never read it. Basically, this
step determines the practical issues of using typography in graphic design.

Denotation might involve deciding whether Old English would be easily read in the
context of your design project.

Connotation in Type
Next, we have connotation which deals with the feelings and expressive aspects of your
design. When we are talking about the words and the message itself, we think about the
cultural context of words and phrases that go beyond their basic vocabulary. A great
example would be the word ''trump''. Its definition is ''a playing card that beats another
card,'' or ''the act of playing a card that beats another card.'' In the vernacular, it also can
mean one-upping someone or outdoing their efforts.

However, with the U.S. president having Trump for his last name, we must carefully consider
how we use this term in a design. Some of our audience will have positive associations with
the word while others will have negative associations. Using it in the dictionary, or
denotative sense is not likely to convey that message alone.

We can tell by the creative elements in this design that the message is about a specific
type of equality.

The physical aspects of our typeface will likewise convey meaning that can work with or
against our message. This helps us select between two equally functional typefaces or
design decisions because we want to choose the one that maximizes the clarity of our
message. In many ways, this means we have to know our audience, their cultural association
with certain words, images, and styles.

Example
Let's take a look at the simple phrase ''Happy Birthday.'' Pretend you are making a birthday
card for someone. You want to make a few style choices based on the limitations of the
format which is the card itself. You will want to align it and select sizes based on how it fits
into the background image.
 Which style of saying HAPPY BIRTHDAY looks most appropriate to you? Which looks
the least appropriate?

Now, we have to concern ourselves with the connotation conveyed by our selections. Here,
we have four different examples. At the top, we have Times New Roman, a very formal
typeface. Set in a basic black, the message looks stuffy and too formal for a birthday card.

The second choice uses the energetic lines of Freestyle Script set in green. This looks more
appropriate for a birthday card.

The third uses Cooper Black, a thick typeface with rounded edges. This too conveys a fun
birthday message. Selecting blue, however, might not work if the recipient is a woman or
girl.

Finally, we have the last option, a Chiller typeface in a dark red. What kind of birthday
greeting does this make you think about? Is this on a card from a friend or a card containing
a chilling death threat from a stalker?

In all these examples, we have the same denotative meaning, a common phrase wishing
someone a nice day on the anniversary of their birth. However, each one of these feels very
different. It's like changing the tone of your voice when you say something.

Lesson Summary
See, we didn't make that too complex or intimidating. Semiotics is the study of how symbols
and signs convey meaning. It can be very helpful in graphic design, especially when we
include typography, the element of design involving text. We focus first on
the denotation of our message, the dictionary meaning of the words and the practical or
technical decisions in size, alignment, and positioning. Next, we deal with
the connotation of the typography, which involves the way the shape of the words change
how we feel about the message and its meaning. We have to keep this aspect in mind when
we select a typeface, the system of style elements in a set of letters, numbers, and symbols.
We also refer to this as font in word processing. When we carefully balance the denotation
and the connotation of our typography, we get messages that fully convey our meaning,
rather than word against it.

Letterforms in Typography & in Graphic Design

In this lesson, we'll explore letterforms. We'll provide a few terms to understand the
anatomy of the forms and follow up with a few categories of typeface. Additionally, we'll
provide some history of the styles.

So Many Font Options

If you regularly use the writing program on your computer, be it a PC or a Mac, you've
probably played around with fonts and noticed the multitude of options available. Some of
these options are very similar while others vary wildly. While you might remember the
names of a few popular fonts, could you tell them apart if you saw them on a page? Do you
know what characteristics make them unique? Do you know the history of where certain
fonts come from? The unique features of each typeface and its history can help you select a
style that most strongly supports your overall composition.

Basics First!
Before we dive into the history and the various style categories, we need to establish a few
basic vocabulary terms that will appear regularly in our descriptions. First, let's get familiar
with the lines used in typesetting.

The different kinds of lines involved in typesetting.

 Baseline: This is the line that sits at the bottom of capital letters or at the base of the
main body of lowercase letters.
 Median: This is the line at the top of the main body of lowercase letters.
 X-height: This is the distance between the baseline and the median.
 Cap height: This line is at the top of capital letters.
 Ascender: Some lowercase letters extend above the median and are called
'ascenders.' The ascender line is the top of their ascent.
 Descender: Like an ascender, some lowercase letters reach below the baseline and
are called 'descenders.' The descender line refers to how far down a descender
reaches.

Now, let's get familiar with some of the parts of letters. We'll only define the few used in this
lesson rather than the entire anatomy of letters. We actually have other lessons that go into
detail with those.

 Stem: This is the primary, vertical line in a letter. If there are no vertical lines, this will
be the first diagonal line.
 Stroke: This is a diagonal line extending from the stem. Often, this term also gets
used for the stem and can refer to any vertical or diagonal line.
 Serif: This is a small, horizontal stroke at the bottom of a letter's stem and stroke.
 Terminal: When a letter does not have a serif at the end of the stem and stroke, it is
said to have a terminal. Sometimes, the line just ends. Other times, it is rounded off
or has a circular end.
Styles of Typefaces
Now that we have the terminology used throughout our description of typeface styles or
categories, we can get into the myriad of fonts to choose from and get a little history of
them.

Old Style
This typeface style takes shapes from a much older style of letters found in the ruins of
Roman buildings. Because these letters were carved into stone, typesetters could form their
letters by carving the shape into a mold and casting the letter and block in metal. Their
shape was a combination of style preference and technological limitations.

Features

 Serif: straight or cupped

 X-height: tall in relation to the cap height
 Terminals: when not using a serif, ball terminals are shaped like teardrops
 Ascenders: slightly taller than the cap height
 Variation of Lines: low level of contrast between thicker and thinner lines
 Well-known Examples: Garamond and Goudy

In these typefaces, you can see the features described above.

Transitional
These letterforms come from the late eighteenth century. As printing technology advanced,
typesetters could use more slender lines and details. This style is called 'transition' as it
represented a short-lived period between Old Style and Modern.
Features

 Serif: straight, sometimes with a small bracket

 X-height: tall in relation to the cap height
 Ascenders: taller than the cap height
 Variation of Lines: medium contrast between thicker and thinner lines
 Well-known Example: Times New Roman

Modern
This style came into use during the late eighteenth century and early nineteenth century.
Again, advances in technology allowed for more delicate lines.

Features

 Serif: straight, sometimes with a small bracket

 X-height: medium to tall in relation to the cap height
 Variation of Lines: high contrast between thicker and thinner lines
 Well-known Example: Bodoni

Notice the delicate lines in most of the Bodoni fonts.

San Serif
This style was also created from Roman letters found on buildings, but this was a more
informal style and did not contain a serif at the bottom.

 Serif: none
 X-height: tall in relation to the cap height
 Terminals: wide variety of terminal styles including square, rounded, and angled
  Variation of Lines: Little to no contrast in line thicknesses
 Well-known Example: Helvetica

Variations in the Helvetica typeface.

Blackletter (aka Gothic)

Our final example is one of the most ornate styles. Going by both Blackletter and Gothic,
these typefaces are based on the ornately drawn letters of medieval texts.

 Serif: rare
 X-height: tall in relation to the cap height
 Terminals: when not using a serif, ball terminals are shaped like teardrops
 Variation of Lines: extreme contrast between thick and thin lines with a sharp, angled
stroke
 Well-known Example: Old English
 Old English Typeface

Lesson Summary
There are several other categories of typeface, but these are the most common. There are a
few key terms to understanding the difference between typefaces. X-height refers to the
distance between the baseline and the median line, or the main body size of lowercase
letters. Cap height is the top of the capital letters. Ascenders are the parts of lowercase
letters extending above the median line. A serif is a small, horizontal line at the bottom of a
letter's vertical and horizontal lines. When there is no serif, the end of those lines is called
a terminal. Old Style comes from formal Roman letter carvings and was originally cast in
metal for use on early printing presses. Modern typeface appeared toward the end of the
eighteenth century with much more delicate lines, thanks to improvements in press
technology. San serif is characterized by a lack of serifs. Finally, Blackletter looks like old,
ornately drawn letters in medieval texts.

Typographic Composition: Importance &

Application
In this lesson, we'll discuss typography as an element in graphic design. Learn what
typography is, why it is a carefully applied skill, and why it matters so much. We even supply
tips to improve your use of typography in design.

Text's Subtle Language

From magazine covers to billboards, you've seen graphic designers incorporate text in their
designs your whole life. In fact, this is one area where graphic designers significantly differ
from other visual artists, most of whom do not use text as heavily in their work. However,
just adding words to a composition is rarely enough to create the desired effect. The visual
presentation of the letters, their placement, and their characteristics often have a language
of their own. This is why mastering the design element of typography is vital to your
endeavors as a graphic designer.

What is Typography?
Typography is the skillful application of letters, numbers, and other writing symbols to a
graphic design composition. This involves a keen understanding of how different shapes of
letters will add to or take away from your message. It also involves understanding how the
text elements in a composition will interact with other elements and objects.

For example, you might find large, brightly-colored letters with rounded letters appropriate
for a ''HAPPY BIRTHDAY'' banner. Should you use the same bubble letters for a health and
safety warning? It might seem a bit inappropriate to warn people of a fatal disease outbreak
with happy, childish letters.

Typeface
What we may often call a font in a word processing program is also called a typeface in
graphic design. Typefaces are the characteristics and styles of letters. Often, these key
features are repeated throughout the entire set of uppercase letters, lowercase letters,
numbers, and punctuation.

Old English typeface

Each typeface comes with a particular visual sense, almost like an accent, giving additional
feeling or meaning to words. Some styles are more famous than others, such as Times New
Roman, Helvetica, and Comic Sans. These were designed at one point in time by a graphic
designer. As a designer, you are also free to develop your own style to best fit the intended
purpose of your composition.

Importance of Typography
As one of the most direct communication means in a composition, text is a vital component
of graphic design and one of the most commonly used elements. A picture might be worth a
thousand words, but when we want our viewers to interpret the images in a specific way,
whether to inform them or to associate a product or company with the image, we need
typography.

Tips for Good Application

First, we want to make sure our viewer sees and reads the text in our design. We can ensure
this through the size of our type and color contrasts. However, we need to ensure that the
letters also become part of the overall design. Sometimes we need to reduce the degree of
contrast to keep the composition balanced.

The spacing between lines of text must be carefully considered. For small amounts of large
text, you can probably put them tightly together, but large amounts of text need wider
spacing to help the reader follow along easily. However, too much space will cause the text
to feel disconnected.

The spacing between letters is also a vital consideration. The technical term for this spacing
is kerning. You want to separate your letters enough to be visible but not so far apart that
your viewer struggles to read them. Remember, most people do not actually read letter by
letter. Most words are sight recognized and read as a unit. However, you can play with the
spacing within a word to create cool effects, like a letter in a contrasting color can be moved
to slightly overlap the next one.

Finally, when using text, we need to carefully rely on the design principle of hierarchy. This
principle uses the visual weight, the amount of attention an object in a composition
commands from the viewer, to establish an order of importance. With typography,
establishing a clear hierarchy will move the eye through the design, so the viewer reads
information in a specific order.
 Your eye is first drawn to the European flags in the windmill followed by the word
TOGETHER. The message tells us that these countries are together.

Lesson Summary
Typography, one of the elements of design, involves the skillful application of text to a
composition. The repeated characteristics of the letters and other symbols used are
called typeface, and different typefaces will convey different feelings that can help or hinder
the message. As the most direct method of communicating in graphic design, the value of
typography cannot be understated. However, we must ensure to use it skillfully. To do this,
we must make sure the viewer can read the words, using appropriate letter sizes, color
contrasts, line spacing, and kerning which is the space between letters. We also need to use
the principle of hierarchy, establishing the order of importance to visual elements in a
design. Using the visual weight, or amount of attention an object attracts, we can guide the
viewer's eye through the composition to engage with text in a particular order of
importance.

Ch 6. Shape in Graphic Design

Geometric Shapes in Design: Definition & Use
In this lesson, we'll look at the geometric shapes from our early childhoods in a new light.
Find out graphic designers define shape, what is meant by geometric shapes, and how they
are used to convey specific information in a design composition.

Back to Kindergarten We Go
From the earliest age, we are taught to recognize shapes. Think back to the toys you played
with as a kid. Did you play with blocks of different shapes, or have a game where you had to
match shapes of different colors? You certainly found a variety of shapes decorating the
classrooms when you were in school. When you got a little older, you might have studied
geometry and learned the different properties of those simple shapes from your toy box.

In graphic design we use geometric shapes as well, but we'd better start by explaining how
we define shape.

Shapes in Graphic Design

In graphic design, as in all art, shapes are two-dimensional areas in a composition with a
clear boundary at the edges. We stress the two-dimensional property of shapes because
adding a third dimension to them would create forms, which is a completely different
element of design. Now, the boundaries that define shapes can be lines, but they can also be
a place where the properties of the shape change.

Let's use color for an example. If you have a red circle with a blue background, you can see
the boundary of the circle occurs where the color changes from red to blue. That change
could be in texture, value, color, or even an area of negative space left blank in the shape we
want.

Kinds of Shape
So, there are three main kinds of shapes we use in graphic design: geometric, organic, and
abstract. Even though we're focusing on geometric shapes for this lesson, let's take a quick
look at the other two for comparison. Organic shapes are similar to shapes we find in
nature. They have no set rules for their boundaries and you'll rarely ever find a straight line.
These are also the easiest to create because you don't need any extra tools, like a ruler or
compass, to draw them.

Abstract shapes take things we normally find in nature or the real world and abstract key
elements from them to make a recognizable representation of the original. You often see
abstract shapes on signs, like the stick figure of a person walking to represent a crosswalk.
No part of that person's figure looks like how a real human body would be shaped, unless
someone has a perfectly circular head and rectangular limbs, yet we still know what it is.
 A) Geometric shape, B) Organic shape, C) Abstract shape

Geometric Shapes
Now, for the third kind of shape and the focus of our lesson today: geometric shapes,
which are defined by their boundaries. They often have perfectly straight lines or
mathematically consistent curves, and they either have identical angles at every corner or
corresponding sets of angles. Basically, they have very formal rules and look man-made.
Usually, you need some tools to draw them, using a ruler for straight lines, a compass for
curves, and a protractor to make sure your angles are perfect.

Not all geometric shapes are the basic shapes we learned in school. In graphic design, we
also construct geometric shapes with more complex lines and curves. If you look carefully at
them, you can sometimes see that they are made of simple geometric shapes put together.
 This circle forms from negative space in the composition, but we see many other shapes
decorating the edge.

Using Geometric Shapes

Geometric shapes give a sense of order and cleanliness to a composition. They visually
stimulate logic and thought more than emotion. This is why designers often use geometric
shapes when organizing text into distinct areas or even into blocks for paragraphs, making
these shapes important in the design element of typography.

However, each shape can express a different message. Let's wrap up by looking at how three
basic, geometric shapes can convey a different tone in a composition.

 Circle: The circle has no beginning or end and no corners to pull the eye's attention.
This is why it often conveys a sense of the eternal. The curves are also seen as
feminine and the shape is fairly gentle.
 Rectangle: This also includes squares, which are just equilateral rectangles. The
rectangle, with its solid base, contributes a sense of stability to a composition as well
as seriousness, dependability, and permanence.
 Triangle: There are two interesting ways triangles can convey very different
meanings. Set on its base, a triangle offers a sense of stability and permanence,
possibly in reference to the shape of a mountain. Tilted from that base, a triangle can
hint at imbalance, instability, and risk. However, both the tilted triangle and the one
set on its base can convey movement and energy.
 Think about this piece and how the circles and squares complement each other while
expressing contrasting messages of gentleness and stolid order.

Lesson Summary
Graphic design takes the basic shapes we learned as young children and arranges them to
convey powerful meaning. By shapes, we mean an area with clearly defined
boundaries. Geometric shapes are further defined by set rules for those boundaries. They
possess straight lines, mathematically regular curves, and an overall feeling of being man-
made. The other two types of shapes used in graphic design are organic shapes, like those
found in nature, and abstract shapes, where real-world objects are reduced to their most
basic components.

Geometric shapes stimulate our visual senses in a logical and thought-provoking way rather
than an emotional way. They are often used to give a sense of order and cleanliness to a
piece of work. Certain geometric shapes also tend to express particular messages, such as
the feminine, gentle, or eternal sense of the circle. Rectangles express stability,
dependability, and order. Finally, triangles can convey stability when resting on their bases
like a mountain, or they can express risk, instability, motion, or excitement when tilted.

Organic Shapes in Design: Definition & Use

In this lesson, we'll discuss one of the key elements of graphic design: shape. Specifically,
we'll address organic shapes, how they differ from other shapes, and how they are used to
create specific designs and convey emotions in graphic design projects.

Shape in Design
These days, the term organic is usually used in reference to produce grown without
pesticides, but many things can be organic. In graphic design, organic shapes are such when
they express a kind of freedom to their edges or rebel against the patterns and rules that
define geometric shapes.

Before we dive into organic shapes, let's look at what we mean by shape in graphic
design. Shape, one of the basic visual elements in design, is defined by boundaries created
by lines, where a color or texture meets an area of a different color or texture, or where a
negative space is created when a shape is left empty.

There are three types of shapes used in graphic design: geometric, abstract, and organic.
While we'll focus on organic shapes in this lesson, you should definitely understand the
other two as well, if for no other reason than to differentiate among them.

Geometric Shapes
Geometric shapes include basic shapes like circles, squares, and triangles. They are
composed of consistent and regular curves or perfectly straight lines and are well defined.
Typically, geometric shapes are composed using tools like compasses, protractors, and
rulers. But, they aren't just limited to the basic shapes we learned in grade school; they can
be any shape that looks man-made with distinctly organized curves and lines.

Abstract Shapes
Abstract shapes refer to those created by abstracting the basic elements of a shape found
in the real world to create a simplified representation. Take a stick figure for example. None
of its components resemble a real part of a human body. However, any time we see a stick
figure, we definitely recognize it as representing a person.

Organic Shapes
Organic shapes are not defined by the exact dimensions or regular patterns found in their
angles, curves, or lines. In fact, they're just like shapes we find in nature with all the freedom
and randomness we might see in a rock formation, a tree branch, or a leaf that's been
chewed by an insect. Most of the time these shapes can be drawn without using any
equipment besides your hand and your pen or pencil.

Uses in Design
While organic shapes are irregular and uneven, they're more emotionally pleasing to look at
than strictly regulated geometric shapes. While these features don't make them better than
geometric shapes, organic shapes best serve our design purposes when we want to convey
an emotional message or a sense of calmness and naturalness.

Imagine being asked to create a flyer for a nature hike. Would you use a lot of squares and
triangles in your design, or would it feel more appropriate to draw some leaves and
wandering lines? You probably picked the second option.

Organic shapes can have a significant impact on a background design. They can set the
emotional tone of the composition, yet convey this tone almost subconsciously. When the
main focal elements are geometric shapes or text requiring a blocky arrangement, organic
shapes can produce a calm or neutral piece of work and soften any harsh effects.
Lesson Summary
Let's review. A shape is a basic element of graphic design and refers to an area defined by a
clear boundary or border. These boundaries can be lines, changes in color or texture, or
transitions from positive to negative space.

There are three main types of shapes used in graphic design. Geometric shapes look man-
made and have clearly defined angles, curves, or straight lines. Abstract shapes are created
by abstracting the key aspects of a shape found in the real world to create a simplified
representation. Organic shapes, however, are free from the formal rules associated with
geometric shapes and appear much more like something we would find in the natural world.
Organic shapes produce a sense of calmness or naturalness. They're often used in graphic
design when we want to convey those feelings in a composition.

Abstract Shapes in Design: Definition & Use

In this lesson, we'll learn about one of the three types of shapes used in graphic design:
abstract shapes. We'll differentiate between the three main types and discuss how to create
an abstract shape, as well as what they are used for.

They're Everywhere
While you may be more familiar with the terms geometric shapes and organic shapes in
relation to graphic design, you probably see abstract shapes around you every day. Have
you ever gone to the restroom at school or in a restaurant? How did you know which
restroom to use? Was there a little figure of a person wearing pants on one door and a
figure wearing a skirt on the other? Well, both of those images are abstract shapes. Abstract
shapes are used in everything from signage to logos, and they all provide us with a distinct
meaning.

These common restroom symbols are both examples of abstract shapes.

Shapes in Graphic Design
Before we delve deeper into abstract shapes, we should first stop to look at what we mean
by shape in graphic design. Shapes are the basic substance of any composition you create.
They are areas with well-defined boundaries. Those boundaries might be lines or they might
be a place where the color, texture, or other property of the shape changes to something
else. You can even create shapes at the boundaries between positive and negative space,
which is the light and dark space found in an image.

Positive and negative space image

There are three basic types of shapes in graphic design: geometric, organic and abstract
shapes. Now let's look at abstract shapes and their uses.
 A) Geometric shape, B) Organic shape, C) Abstract Shape

Abstract Shapes
Abstract shapes are created by abstracting the most basic and recognizable aspects of a
real-life shape and creating a simplified representation of it. Back to the bathroom example,
those two figures of people are stylized silhouettes of a person wearing pants and a person
wearing a skirt. This plays on our cultural knowledge of gender-specific clothing. We know
what those articles of clothing look like and have an idea of who wears them. While most of
the time you will see women walking around in pants and jeans, you know they are more
likely to wear a skirt than a man. In other cultures, they could be interpreted differently, such
as in Scotland, where men used to wear kilts. Now let's examine how abstract shapes are
used and created.

Uses
Abstract shapes are heavily used in graphic design because they hold meaning, just like the
stylized people on bathroom signs. They signify something to us, whether it is where to park
or what bathroom to use, but abstract shapes can go beyond this. For example, abstract
shapes are heavily used in logos. Logos create a simple visual representation to help people
identify a company and remember the reference easily. Let's look at a well-known logo.
 The NBC Peacock

You might ask why NBC chose a peacock with rainbow feathers for their logo. Well, back in
the 1950s, when color television was a new and exciting thing, NBC wanted to highlight the
array of color programming they offered. The image doesn't actually look like a real peacock
though. The colors and shapes don't actually match the feathers of the real bird, but you
know exactly what it is when you look at it. You recognize the fanning out of feathers that
peacocks display, and the negative space creates the body. The company chose a rainbow of
color because their programming displayed the full spectrum of color. While it is important
to understand the meaning and uses of abstract shapes, it is equally important to
understand how to create them.

Creating Abstract Shapes

To make an abstract shape, you really have to look at the subject you want to represent and
determine the elements you can abstract from the image and which elements clearly convey
your message. Street signs rely on this quite often because motorists need to keep their
eyes on the road but also need to get important information at a glance.

Say you wanted to create a sign to warn motorists to watch out for bicycle riders at a
particular intersection. What are the key elements you'd want to use? If you use two circles
for the wheel and position the figure of the person in the posture they would have when
riding, your viewer can easily recognize what the image represents. On the other hand, if
your area is on a major roadway for unicycles, it might get a bit more confusing.

Your finished product would look a bit like this.

Lesson Summary
In graphic design, we use a variety of shapes in many different ways. Shapes are simply
areas with boundaries created by lines, changes in properties like color and texture, or by a
change from positive to negative space. The three major types of shapes we use in graphic
design are geometric, organic, and abstract shapes where a real-world figure is reduced to
basic shapes that still represent that image. Creating abstract shapes can be tricky, but the
key is to identify the most basic elements that still make that figure recognizable while also
including elements that clearly express the information you want to convey.

Symmetrical Balance in Art: Definition &

Examples
In this lesson we will discuss symmetrical balance and how it is represented in art,
architecture, and other imagery. Visual aids are included to help illustrate the this commonly
used device.

What Is Symmetrical Balance?

Symmetrical balance refers to balance that is achieved by arranging elements on either
side of the center of a composition in an equally weighted manner. Symmetrical balance can
be thought of as 50/50 balance or like a mirror image. In other words, the image would look
the same on either side of the center.

What Does Symmetrical Balance Look Like in Art?

A symmetrically balanced image is visually equal on either side of the center. Look at this
painting (see video). You can easily imagine that if a line was drawn down the middle of it,
the left side would be virtually identical to the right. It is a very structured, orderly way of
designing a work of art. Because of the orderly nature of symmetrical balance, it is also
referred to as formal balance.

What Makes Symmetrical Balance Desirable?

Because of its very structured and equally balanced nature, symmetrical balance is perfect
for when the desired effect is a sense of order, clarity, and consistency. It is easy for our eyes
to follow shapes and patterns when they are repeated; it is a restful type of visual rhythm
that puts the viewer at ease. For example, government buildings and institutions that need
to inspire trust often use symmetrical balance. Capitol buildings, courthouses, museums,
banks, churches, etc., are often great examples. It is important for such major public
structures to convey a sense of orderliness.

Symmetrical balance is also desirable when there is a need to communicate a message in a

visually clear manner. Think about symbols used in public signs. It is important that road
signs and signage in buildings, for example, are free of unnecessary details and convey
information that is easily and immediately understood. Symmetrical balance is often used
for corporate logos as well. We can all easily remember and identify famous corporations by
their simple, well-balanced logos.
Lesson Summary
Symmetrical balance is balance that is achieved by arranging elements on either side of
the center of a composition in an equally weighted manner. Its structured and equally
balanced nature is ideal for effecting a sense of order, clarity, and consistency. Government
buildings, museums, banks, and churches are great examples. Symmetrical balance is also
desirable when there is a need to communicate a message in a visually clear manner, free of
unnecessary details, such as in road signs and corporate logos.

Learning Outcomes
As you come to the end of the lesson, you should find that you can:

 Define symmetrical balance

 Explain what symmetrical balance looks like in art
 Discuss why and when symmetrical balance is desirable

Asymmetrical Balance in Art: Definition, Design

& Examples
In this lesson, we will explore what asymmetrical balance is and how it is represented in art.
Visual aids are included to illustrate this type of design. A short quiz will follow.

Asymmetrical Balance
Have you ever seen a room design that included objects of differing sizes, shapes, and
colors, yet it all'worked together? This is an example of asymmetrical balance which is
achieved by the careful juxtaposition of different elements. For example, a large area of dull
color can be balanced out by a much smaller area of bright color. And a small, very complex
shape can be balanced by a large, simple shape.

Here we see asymmetrical balance where elements on either side of a composition do not
reflect one another and symmetrical balance, which can be thought of as a mirror image, a
composition in which objects on either side match one another.
Examples of Asymmetry in Art

Let's take a look at a painting by Johannes Vermeer called Woman Holding a Balance which

was painted between 1662 and 1665. Here, the use of asymmetrical balance is evident as
the artist has punctuated large areas of shadow with much smaller areas of bright light. The
focal point, the woman holding the balance, is right of center and is counter-balanced by the
large, relatively plain and empty areas to the left.

Another example of asymmetrical balance can be seen in this 1889 painting by Paul Gauguin
called Christ on the Mount of Olives. Our attention is drawn to the figure of Christ by the use
of bright red in His hair and beard. That small area of intense color is counter-balanced by
the rest of the composition, which is predominantly dark. Tiny hints of red in the background
and Christ's garment tie the composition together. The vertical tree trunk in the center of the
composition is asymmetrically balanced by the horizontal row of hills and trees in the
background. Also, notice the use of space in this work. The figure of Christ dominates the
lower left foreground and takes up a large area of space, while the tiny figures of His
followers recede into the empty background, and are perceived as being farther away.
 Cheval Majeur, by Raymond Dechamp-Villon

In this 1914 sculpture by Raymond Duchamp-Villon called Cheval Majeur, asymmetrical

balance is achieved by placing large, rounded shapes next to sharp diagonal lines and
narrow, triangular shapes. The rounded shapes are organic in nature, meaning they reflect
shapes found in nature. The triangular shapes are geometric, meaning that they reflect
man-made constructs. The sharp diagonal triangle on the left side of the image is balanced
by the large circular shapes that extend horizontally in the opposite direction. The large,
solid mass of the entire sculpture is balanced against the empty, or negative space seen in
the lower right side of the image.

Why Choose Asymmetrical Balance?

Because asymmetrical balance is achieved by integrating a variety of design elements, it is
considered to be livelier and more dynamic than symmetrical balance, which repeats
elements and gives a calmer, quieter sensibility. Asymmetrical balance is more complex, as
well. Decorating a room may be easier using matching furniture and accessories, but won't
be as interesting as it would with a variety of different, artfully arranged items. The same
idea applies to artworks; paintings and sculptures that incorporate differing sizes, shapes,
colors, lines, uses of space, etc., are generally more interesting and complex. For this reason,
many artists choose to use asymmetrical balance in their works.

Lesson Summary
Asymmetrical balance is achieved by the careful juxtaposition of different elements; small,
bright shapes can balance out large dull shapes. Asymmetrical balance is considered to be
more dynamic because it integrates a variety of shapes, sizes, colors, textures, and
lines. Symmetrical balance, on the other hand, is a mirror image arrangement in which
elements on either side of a composition match one another.
Points to Remember

An example of asymmetrical balance

 Asymmetrical balance is the opposite of symmetrical balance

 Asymmetrical balance is accomplished by the careful placement of different and
opposing elements
 Asymmetrical balance is considered more dynamic and complex since it can include
many different elements, shapes, colors, and designs

Learning Outcomes
Once you are done, you should be able to:

 Differentiate between symmetrical balance and asymmetrical balance

 Describe how artists are able to accomplish asymmetrical balance in art
 Identify asymmetrical balance in an art piece

Marks, Icons & Symbols in Graphic Design:

Application & Examples
In this lesson, learn about three important elements in graphic design: marks, icons and
symbols. Examine what they are, how they are different from each other, and explore some
examples as well as some recommendations for using them in your designs.

Mark, Icon, Symbol - What's the Difference?

As a designer, one of the main goals is to make the viewer remember your product. Whether
a logo, a package, or an ad, if it doesn't impress your audience, it will soon be forgotten and
your brand might not be very successful.
In graphic design, there are several shape elements that you can use. They help to transmit a
clear message and a memorable image. Marks, icons and symbols are some of them, each
with different characteristics and uses.

Marks
Marks are basically graphic shapes, simple forms like a square or circle. There are many
different kinds of marks, including geometric forms (triangles, circles, oval, and so on),
abstract forms (those without any specific shape), organic forms (curved and loose), and
more.

Geometric shapes are examples of marks

Marks don't have specific meanings by themselves. When we draw a circle, it usually just
represents a circle. But by combining two or more marks, we can give them a new
significance.

Just a few of the ways designers use marks include as visual elements to provide context, or
as backgrounds or as ornaments in composition. Also, some logos are created by combining
simple forms, a popular practice because they can be easily remembered and related to a
brand.

When using marks, it is important to keep in mind the audience and intended message and
not to overuse them, or you might distract the viewer from important information.

Icons
Icons are visual representations of specific objects. Think of them as simplified drawings of
actual things that can be easily recognized, like the outline of a house, a paintbrush, or a
phone.

While a mark doesn't have meaning on its own, an icon does. We are likely to immediately
identify what that icon represents.
 Icons can be quickly identified; in this case, a smartphone

Icons can be created as simple outlines, silhouettes, or caricature-like drawings. The

important thing is that they include the necessary details to recall the object they represent.
If they don't, your message might become confusing.

Icons can be used as elements for designing logos. Even one single icon can represent a
brand, like Instagram's camera logo. Icons can also be used as part of a composition.
However, since they have a meaning on their own, it is important that whatever you choose
corresponds to your message.

Symbols
Symbols are representations of concepts or ideas. For example, a circle and arrow are
associated with maleness, while a circle and cross represent femaleness. A four-leaf clover is
often understood as a symbol of good luck. A dove usually represents peace. An airplane is a
common symbol for an airport, or a martini glass for a bar. There are thousands and
thousands of symbols.

Symbols also have a meaning on their own. But unlike icons, symbols have a specific
meaning within each culture that can change from place to place or evolve over time.

We need to previously know what a symbol represents so it can actually mean something to
us. Take the Wi-Fi symbol, which is formed by a circle and three arches. Most of us know
what it means, but for someone who has never used the internet, it wouldn't have the same
meaning or might have no meaning at all.
 A common symbol for Wi-Fi access

Another clear, but controversial, example is the swastika. In Buddhism and Hinduism, it is
regarded as a symbol of eternity. However, after World War II, during which it was used by
Hitler, for most western cultures it became a symbol of atrocities, hate and anti-Semitism.

As a designer, you have the responsibility of knowing the symbolism associated with any
image you might use. Not only will this knowledge help you deliver a clearer message, it will
also prevent you from transmitting misleading ideas or even offending someone.

Designing with Marks, Icons and Symbols

Now let's look at some examples of marks, icons and symbols being used in graphic design.

Logos

MasterCard credit card

The MasterCard logo is a good example of the use of marks. It is a combination of two circles
that partially overlap, one red and one yellow. It is very simple, but effective in quickly
identifying the brand, and it can be easily remembered by viewers.
 The yellow seashell is quickly associated with Shell, so there is no need of any text

Many people will quickly identify the oil company Shell with their logo of a yellow seashell,
although there is no text on it: the logo consists of a single yellow icon with a red outline.
Although the company has modified it overtime, they have continued to use the seashell as
the main feature, thus making it a memorable symbol of their brand.

Flyers

Marks are used as decoration but the focal elements remain clear

This flyer is a publicity image for a party and the DJ who will play at it. Several diamond-
shaped marks were included as background decoration. However, they blend in with other
elements and don't distract from the main information. The text and the image of the DJ are
clearly highlighted.
Slogans
The ''I love New York'' is perhaps one of the most successful campaigns. It was developed in
the 1970s and the design for the slogan features three black letters and a red heart as a
symbol of love. It was simple and memorable and has been replicated in many cities all over
the world.

I Love NY merchandise is very popular

Lesson Summary
Marks are simple graphic shapes, like squares or circles, including geometric forms, abstract
forms, and organic forms. They don't have a specific meaning. Icons are visual
representations of common objects that can be easily recognized, like an outline of a phone
or a house. Icons have the meaning of the object they represent. Symbols are
representations of concepts or ideas and have a specific meaning for each culture. They
need to be learned in order to be understood.

Some good tips for designers include: don't overuse marks, include the necessary details for
icons to be identified, and know the cultural significance of any symbol you use. Marks, icons
and symbols can be combined and used in countless forms, and imagination is the only limit
to what you can create with them.

Practical Application: Identifying Marks, Icons &

Symbols in Graphic Design
Creating an effective logo or sign for a business is more complex than it might first appear.
Review the roles played by marks, icons, and symbols, and then apply your knowledge to
thinking about how you would create signs or logos for different types of businesses.
Marks, Icons & Symbols
Creating an effective logo or sign means that customers will better remember your product
or understand your message. Taking care in their design is essential for branding and
communicating!

In the lesson Marks, Icons & Symbols in Graphic Design: Application & Examples you learned
about how different images represent different components in a graphic design.

Marks are simple graphic shapes such as a circle or a line, without any meaning on their
own. Combined they mean something, as in the universal symbol for ''No'' or something that
is prohibited.

Two marks combined

Icons represent specific objects. We know what they are, such as a cellphone.

Cellphone icon
Symbols represent ideas. Sometimes they are culturally specific and sometimes they are
universal. When we combine the ''No'' mark combination with the symbol of a cell phone, we
now are communicating the message '' No cellphones allowed''.

No cellphones allowed symbol

Design Scenarios
Here are three different design scenarios. Analyze the use of marks, icons, and/or symbols
for each scenario.

Scenario 1. Tots District Schools prohibits the use of personal electronic devices, including
MP3 players, tablets, e-readers, and cellphones on campus. They want a sign posted
throughout their schools making it clear to all students that this applies to all electronic
devices, not just phones.

 What marks, icons, or symbols fit in an easy to understand sign?

Scenario 2. Mark's Mountaineering Shop advertises online and in specialty magazines

promoting their new branded line of clothing. They want a logo for their advertising and on
their clothing that sets them apart from other outdoor companies like Patagonia and The
North Face.

 What combination of marks can create a logo that meets their goal?

Scenario 3. NothingButGames.com is a website that sells all types of games from board
games to card games and video games. On their website they want to include some easy to
understand graphics that they can put beside each item to indicate what type of game it is.

 How can they use marks, symbols, and icons to accomplish their goal?

Start by Asking the Right Questions

When tackling these design scenarios, there are several questions to be asked:
 1. What is the communication goal of the job? What is the core message?
2. Who is the target audience for the design? Who is seeing the design (not who is
ordering it)?
3. Are actual words an issue? Is it all images or are words permitted?
4. What is the use? Is there one use or multiple uses?

Answering these questions upfront provides specific design guidance, and can also help in
judging whether the final design meets the goals.

Positive & Negative Space in Art: Definition &

Examples

Positive and Negative Space

Positive and negative space are two terms that go together to describe an important
feature of art. Positive space is, broadly speaking, any space in a work of art that makes up
the work's content. The foreground of a piece is positive space. But what is negative space?
Space that appears blank or that is in the background of a piece is considered negative
space. This positive space art definition is not quite sufficient, however: positive space and
negative space are both essential to the experience of viewing art, and one cannot exist
without the other. They are part of a mutual relationship within the art.

Positive and Negative Space Art Examples

What is positive space in art? There are many positive and negative space art examples that
have been used throughout the history of art. These elements are used in many kinds of art,
including drawing, photography, painting, and sculpture. Discerning how positive and
negative space is used a given artwork is an important part of artistic analysis. Here are
some examples of positive and negative space in art and how viewers can interpret these
phenomena.
Positive and Negative Space Drawing

The positive space in this drawing can be interpreted as a rabbit or as a duck

Positive and negative space drawing examples are perhaps best illustrated using optical
illusions. An optical illusion tricks the brain into making assumptions about positive and
negative space. A good example of positive space drawing is the famous rabbit and duck
illusion. The image's positive space is a drawing of an animal, but is the animal a rabbit,
facing right, or a duck, facing left? By interpreting the positive space differently, viewers also
reinterpret the role and composition of the negative space around the image.
Positive and Negative Space Photography

The use of negative space can make subjects in a photograph stand out more
clearly

Positive and negative space can also be used in photography. When it comes to positive
space, photography usually includes a subject in the foreground that viewers are expected
to focus on. The negative or apparently blank space around the subject serves to emphasize
the positive space used in the foreground. Negative space photography is often used for
portraiture, advertising, and other kinds of photography that wants to create a focus on a
particular element in the image.
Positive and Negative Space Painting

This work by Rembrandt uses chiaroscuro to create negative space

In painting, positive and negative space can have a profound effect on how people
understand what they are seeing. One thing to keep in mind is that in painting in particular,
negative space is often black or another color rather than white. Negative space painting is
especially clear in paintings that utilize chiaroscuro, the interplay of light and shadows. This
can increase the contrast in a work and help viewers focus on what is important in a piece.
Negative space in painting can also lend a strong emotional quality to the work by putting
increased emphasis on the subjects of the painting.
Positive and Negative Space Sculpture

The negative space in a sculpture can be just as important as the positive

space

When it comes to positive and negative space in sculpture, the concept has to be interpreted
slightly differently. In sculpture, negative space is usually empty space. What elements of the
statue are missing? What gaps exist? These gaps can drastically change how viewers
interpret sculptures. Many sculptors have judiciously used positive and negative space for a
wide variety of artistic reasons. In this sculpture, for example, the artist has used negative
space to indicate the eyes in the figures.

Tessellations
 A tessellation pattern relies on equal use of positive and negative space

Tessellation is also called tiling. It is a way of using positive and negative space to create a
pattern. In a tessellation, a single image is repeated in such a way that it fits together to
create a broad pattern. In tessellations, positive and negative space are equally important
and are in fact impossible to separate; a given image is both a positive space in itself and a
negative space in relation to the images around it. Negative space design is important to give
emphasis to the right parts of a pattern.

Positive and Negative Space in Composition

Positive and negative space are important for artists to consider when creating their pieces.
Composition, in the context of art, is the way that a canvas, sculpture, or art piece comes
together. How are positive and negative space used? What is the subject of the artwork?
What is shown and what is not shown? There are a few ways that positive and negative
space can be used to unusual effect in artistic composition.

Figure and Ground

The figure and ground relationship in this piece is ambiguous

Figure and ground are two terms that are closely related to positive and negative space. The
figure of a work of art is the subject of the piece, while the ground is the object against which
it is framed. The figure-ground relationship is the perceptual distinction that viewers make
between the subject and object of a work of art. This can result in some strange optical
illusions when people have varied assumptions about the figure and ground (or the positive
and negative space) in a work of art if the figure-ground relationship is ambiguous. A great
example is the famous illusion of the vase and two faces. Depending on which part of the
image is perceived as the figure and which is perceived as the ground, viewers might see a
vase or they might see two faces looking at one another.
Perception and Visual Tricks

This image of some black lines is usually interpreted as a sea serpent

Gestalt psychology is a psychological theory that attempts to understand how visual

perception works. The relationship between positive and negative space in art can lead to
interesting visual tricks in the brain. For instance, in this image, many people will likely see a
sea serpent. However, the image itself is just a few black lines in white space. The
relationship between positive and negative space allows people to fill in the gaps and create
a coherent image based on a fragmented knowledge of its parts. Optical illusions are the
result of these kinds of perceptual tricks in which the image that people perceive is different
from the object as it actually exists. Human brains are excellent at making these kinds of
connections, which is part of what makes optical illusions so effective and so entertaining.

Lesson Summary
Understanding positive and negative space is important in art.

Positive space The central focus or content of a piece

Negative space The background that serves to support the main focus of a piece

Figure The perceived subject of a work

Ground The perceived object of a work

Gestalt Principles that explain the mind's ability to make sense of what it sees
psychology based on fragmented knowledge

Use of positive and negative space is an important part of drawing, painting, photography,
sculpture, and other art forms.
Ch 7. Color in Graphic Design
What is Color Theory? - Definition, Basics &
Examples
There's a reason why some colors and color combinations are more pleasing to us than
others. In this video, we'll focus on the basics of color theory while exploring a real-life
example.

Color Theory
Heather's store manager has asked her to arrange some clothing items into pleasing color
combinations. As she goes about her task, Heather thinks back to her early school days and
remembers how much she enjoyed choosing crayons from the 64-count box. Once again,
colors are a part of her work. Heather has an eye for color, but doesn't know exactly why
certain colors look good together, so she decides to explore color theory.

Color theory is a set of principles used to create harmonious color combinations pleasing to
the eye and senses. It provides us with a common ground for understanding how colors can
be used, arranged, coordinated, blended, and related to one another. Color theory is about
why some colors work together aesthetically, while others do not. Thus, it's about color
mixing and the visual effects of color.

An understanding of color theory helps Heather go beyond the approach of 'it looks right'.
Let's see how Heather utilizes color theory when organizing appealing displays.

Color Theory: Structure

Color theory is built upon three basic components: the color wheel, color harmonies, and
color context. Heather pays particular attention to these groups of principles to help her
acquire a better understanding of color applications.

Color Wheel
The traditional color wheel is based on the 12 colors found in the visible spectrum. It's a
basic tool for combining or mixing colors and an easy way of understanding how colors
relate to one another.
 Rainbow and traditional color wheel

A color wheel has three different types of colors; primary, secondary, and tertiary. Primary
colors (red, yellow, and blue) cannot be created by other colors. Primary colors can be used
to make the secondary colors (green, orange, and purple). Combinations of secondary
colors can be used to make the tertiary colors (yellow-orange, red-orange, red-purple, blue-
purple, blue-green, and yellow-green).

'How about the pink shirt?' Heather thinks, since pink isn't on the traditional color wheel.
Heather finds pink on her color wheel, which not only includes the colors (hues) but also
their properties, such as tints, shades, and tones. Pink is a tint, a combination of red-purple
mixed with white. According to color theory, 'pink' is 'red-purple', as it takes only the
relationships of pure colors into account, and not the relationships between lightness and
darkness or brightness and dullness.

Color wheel showing properties of colors

Color Harmonies
The color wheel helps Heather understand colors themselves, like the pink shirt. Could the
color wheel guide Heather toward combinations of colors, too?

In color theory, color harmony is the basic technique used to create combinations of
colors. Color harmony is the process of matching colors and creating color schemes. A color
schemes, or a set of colors selected, is an important function of the color wheel. When
determining which colors match (or clash) with each other, the color wheel can provide users
with a set of basic rules and several predefined color schemes.

Color schemes consist of two, three, or four colors based on their positions on the color
wheel. For example, a complementary color scheme consists of two colors located directly
opposite from each other on the color wheel. When complementary colors mesh with one
another, they are known as analogous colors. A triad color scheme is composed of three
colors equally positioned on the wheel, while a tetrad color scheme is formed by two pairs
of colors opposite each other on the color wheel, or four colors.

Heather notices that there is a fixed geometric relationship between harmonious color
combinations on the color wheel: complementary colors form a straight line; triad colors
form a triangular shape such as an equilateral or isosceles triangle; and tetrad colors come
from a square or rectangle. These color schemes remain harmonious regardless of the
rotation of the line or shape on the wheel.

Color harmonies

Color in Context
Color theory deals with the interaction of colors with other colors, forms, and shapes in an
environment. Colors change in identity and character depending on the context in which
they are placed, such as Heather's clothing combinations. By definition, color context is the
way in which colors are used in an environment. Context involves not only comparing colors
and their effects, but also considering spatial, social, and cultural factors along with
influences on an audience's emotions and perceptions. Heather pays special attention to the
spatial factors because the interior of the clothing store includes a large red wall. She takes
the effect of the wall into consideration when organizing her clothing combinations,
including the size of the color area, its surface pattern, and its location in space.

Placement and light sources also play a role in color context. For example, a light fixture on
top of the red wall inside the clothing store may lead to changes in visual effects. How color
behaves in relation to other colors involves not only the relationship of values (darkness and
lightness), saturation (brightness and dullness), and temperature (warmth or coolness) of
the respective colors, but also the effects of light.

Lesson Summary
In art and design, color theory is a set of principles used for working with colors that
involves mixing colors, considering the visual effects of color, and creating pleasing color
combinations. Color theory provides a logical structure that can help an artist or a designer
arrange, coordinate, and relate colors to each other. Key components of color theory include
the use of the color wheel, color harmonies, and color context. The color wheel is a tool for
combining and mixing primary, secondary, and tertiary colors. Color harmonies help in the
process of creating color schemes. Predefined color schemes include complementary,
tetrad, and triad combinations. Color context takes into consideration the spatial, social,
and cultural factors that can impact hues. How colors behave in relation to other colors
depends not only on light, but also on color saturation, temperature, and values.

Color Theory & Emotions

In some veins of psychology, color theory and emotion are interconnected. Artists and
scientists alike argue that one's mood or emotional state can be influenced by color. In this
lesson, we will examine color theory and how colors can affect one's emotions.

Background
Color theory dates back to Sir Isaac Newton, who is credited with developing the first color
wheel and the traditional study of color theory. Since the beginning of color theory, many
scientists and interdisciplinary professionals such as psychologists, artists, and scholars have
argued that color affects mood and emotion. Many definitions exist for color theory, and in
this lesson we will take a look at the basics in order to understand how it may affect moods
and emotional states of individuals. We will also look at how specific colors may affect
moods and emotional states.
What Is Color Theory?
Color theory began during the eighteenth century with Sir Isaac Newton's study of the
primary colors-- red, yellow, and blue. Color theory deals with how color is perceived when
mixed together, as well as how colors work together to create balance. For example, red and
green are considered complementary colors because they balance each other out and
produce an appealing contrast.

Color theory is important in design and art because certain colors or color combinations
have positive or negative influences on one's mood or emotional state. For example, a
kitchen painted red may invoke feelings of anger, or even increase one's appetite. Let's take
a deeper look into how color affects moods and emotions.

How Does Color Affect Emotion?

In 1810, Johann Wolfgang von Goethe published Theory of Colors and elaborated on the
psychology of colors. Many scholars adamantly refuted his work. Although no hard evidence
exists to confirm that color affects emotion or mood, many experts in a variety of disciplines
argue that colors do influence individuals' moods, emotions, and even behaviors. Each color
is said to produce a different effect; let's look at how moods and emotions are influenced by
the main colors.

Red
Red inspires intense emotion and mood. The color is known to increase energy levels,
appetite, and creativity. Likewise, red can increase one's blood pressure, leading to feelings
of anxiety or aggression. Professionals advise against painting bedrooms red because it
increases energy levels and has the potential to disturb a restful night's sleep.

Blue
Blue can trigger a calm emotional state because it is perceived as a stable, serene color.
Interestingly, the color blue has been shown to slow the metabolism, which can result in a
depressed state of mind. Rooms painted blue are often associated with coldness and
emptiness, and can have a negative impact on an individual's emotional state.

Green
Green is a natural color and the result of mixing yellow with blue. Green has the ability to
stabilize one's emotions and is often perceived as a 'safe' color. The color has been
associated with increased productivity as well; many interior designers recommend painting
office rooms green.

Yellow
Yellow yields appealing and unappealing results depending on its brightness. Bright yellow
hues are associated with happy emotional states. Likewise, bright shades of yellow have the
ability to increase productivity and generate feelings of positivity. On the other hand, dull
yellow shades can be displeasing to the eye and cause a disagreeable attitude.

How much yellow is used in a space impacts mood as well. For example, it has been noted
that babies tend to cry more in a room painted all yellow. Why? Yellow activates the part of
the brain that triggers anxiety. Splashes or accents of yellow tend to have a more positive
impact on emotion and produce feelings of calmness.

Orange
Bright orange correlates to creativity, joy, and energy; while lighter shades of orange have
calming properties. Orange has the ability to increase respiration, oxygen levels in the brain,
and appetite. Given these abilities, it could be said the orange lends to a more positive
emotional state than other colors.

Lesson Summary
Since the development of the color wheel, color theory has developed into a body of
information that investigates how color is perceived and how colors work together. Color
can have a remarkable effect on a person's mood and emotional state. Red and orange have
stimulating properties, while blue and green tend to be more calming. Yellow sits in the
middle of these colors, having the ability to energize and calm a person's emotional state.

How to Read & Use a Color Wheel

A color wheel is one of the most basic tools that an artist has. In this lesson, we are going to
explore this device and see how one is made and used.

A Color Wheel
Imagine designing a city. You've got a busy intersection where a series of roads come
together. One very common way for city planners to keep these roads organized is to
organize them into a roundabout. In this circular system, the relationship between the roads
is easier to see. In fact, circles make a pretty good organizational system in general. Artists
commonly organize colors into a circular pattern called a color wheel, which can help them
understand the relationship between these colors. It's just like a colorful roundabout- you
enter at one point, and exit at another, depending on where exactly you want your
composition to go.
 Color wheel

Making a Color Wheel

To understand the color wheel, let's see how they are made. There are several variations of
the color wheel, so, for now we're just going to focus on the traditional color wheel,
composed of twelve distinct color values.

Primary Colors
To make the color wheel, we start with the three primary colors of red, yellow, and blue.
Primary colors are those which cannot be made by combining other colors together. To start
making the wheel, we create spaces for red, yellow, and blue that are evenly spaced apart,
forming an equilateral triangle.
 Primary colors

Secondary Colors
The next set of colors on the color wheel are those that are made by combining equal
amounts of primary colors, called secondary colors. Red and blue make violet, blue and
yellow make green, and yellow and red create orange. So, now we place spots for these
three colors on the wheel. Each one goes directly between the two primary colors used to
create it.

Tertiary Colors
We're got six colors on our 12-color wheel, so we need six more. These last six are
all tertiary colors, created by adding more primary color to a secondary color. For example,
green is a secondary color. If we add more blue to it, we get bluish-green. If we add more
yellow to it, we get yellowish-green. Those are tertiary colors. On the color wheel, tertiary
colors fall in between the primary and secondary colors used to create them. With that, we
have 12 related color values on our color wheel.

Using a Color Wheel

So, this is a neat configuration of colors, but what's the point? Color wheels organize colors
so that artists can easily identify values that match, contrast, and harmonize. Half the wheel,
ranging from yellowish-green to red, are the warm colors. Warm colors are bold and
noticeable. They tend to be more visually prominent. In a painting, warm colors can create
the illusion of being closer to the viewer than other colors.

However, warm colors can also be overwhelming and, so to balance them, artists may wish
to use cool colors. Cool colors are calmer, subtle, and may seem to be receding from the
viewer. On the color wheel, they are on the opposite half from the warm colors, ranging
from reddish-violet to green. Already, the color wheel is helping us understand how colors
relate and how to use them.
However, colors on the color wheel relate in other ways as well. If you pick a color, say green,
and draw a line straight across the wheel, you will arrive at that color's complement (in this
case, red). Complementary colors create a strong contrast but balance each other. For a
more complex color scheme, select three colors equidistant from each other, rather than
two. Green, orange, and violet are examples. Triadic colors work well together to form the
basis of a strong color scheme. But pay attention to the balance of cool versus warm colors.
There's a lot that can be done using the color wheel, and artists have found many
combinations that create contrasting or harmonizing color schemes. Again, color wheels can
be made for more complex needs, adding hues and shades of each value and combining the
colors of the wheel in different ways, so be sure to research all the options. Once you're in
the circle, you want to make sure you get off at the right stop.

There are many ways that colors can be combined across the color wheel into
aesthetically-pleasing combinations

Lesson Summary
A color wheel is a device used by artists to organize colors based on the relationship
between color values. The basis of the color wheel are the three primary colors, spaced
evenly apart. Directly between each primary color is the secondary color created by
combining them. In the space between primary and secondary colors, we place a tertiary
color made by combining the colors on either side. Thus, the traditional color wheel has
twelve colors on it. With this pattern, half the wheel is composed of warm colors, with the
opposite half being cool colors. When colors are organized this way, artists can see the
relationships between contrasting and harmonious colors around the wheel. Artists often
have a distinct aesthetic in mind when they start working. Knowing how to use a color wheel
can help you get there.
Practical Application: Color Wheel Infographic
The color wheel is one of the graphic designer's most foundational tools. Color theory,
applied using a color wheel, can be used to ensure that color palates used in graphics are
visually appealing.

The Color Wheel

The color wheel is used to explain and illustrate color theory - the way colors can be used to
create imagery that is appealing, emotional, or influential. Designers and graphic artists use
the color wheel to determine which color scheme is most appropriate for the situation.

Constructing the Color Wheel

Primary colors are the colors on the color wheel that exist entirely on their own. Primary
colors cannot be ''made'' by combinations of other colors. They are, therefore, the
foundation for all color theory.

Secondary colors are colors that result from mixing two of the primary colors.

Tertiary colors are the result of increasing the amount of a primary color within a
secondary color.

The color wheel can be divided into two halves with one half being classified as warm colors
and the opposite half being cool colors.

Applying Color Theory

Once a color wheel has been constructed, it can be used to create color schemes that are
visually appealing. To make the basic color theory concepts at the fingertips of artists, the
information in the lesson How to Read and Use a Color Wheel can be placed into a graphic
like this one.

Additive Color: Theory & Definition

Color additive theory is important in the art, design, and digital industries because it teaches
us about color perception and formation. In this lesson, we'll learn the definition and scope
of color additive theory.

What Is the Color Additive Theory?

Color additive theory is a fundamental component of color theory and must be understood
by students and professionals in the art, digital, and design fields. In short, the color additive
theory examines how the most common colors—red, blue, and green—are mixed together
and perceived by the human eye. In this lesson, we're going to go over an in-depth definition
of color additive theory to gain a solid understanding of its importance in those fields.
Color additive theory is defined as how colors are made by mixing the primary colors red,
green, and blue and how those mixed colors are perceived. Wait a second, aren't the
primary colors red, blue, and yellow? Yes, they are, but in color additive theory, the primary
colors are red, blue, and green because those colors are found in the color photoreceptors
of the human eye. The color additive theory, which is often credited to James Clerk Maxwell,
is based off the Young-Helmholtz theory of trichromatic vision. Around 1850, Maxwell
proved the Young-Helmholtz theory, and the color additive theory was born.

White light is the combination of red, blue, and green wavelengths known as bands. When
equal parts of red, blue, and green bands are added to one another, white light is created.
That is the basis of additive color.

When all three additive colors are removed, black is perceived. On the other hand, when
different primary additive colors are combined, brighter colors are created. Let's take a look
at what happens when these primary colors are combined.

Adding Primary Colors

The combination of any two additive primary colors together results in a new, brighter
secondary color. The secondary colors are cyan, yellow, and magenta. The acronym ''CMY''
refers to these secondary colors in the art and digital fields.

Here is how it works:

 Cyan is produced when blue and green are combined

 Yellow is produced when red and green are combined, and finally
 Magenta is produced when blue and red are combined

Since color operates on a continuum, new shades of these colors can be created when
unequal amounts of each primary color are combined. Ultimately, the visible light spectrum
can be created solely through the use of blue, red, and green.

Some More Important Terminology

The color additive theory becomes complicated due to degrees of color that can be created
from the primary colors. Artists and designers use terminology to describe color.

Let's go over the main terms that you may encounter when discussing color:

 Hue, which is the actual color, or dominant wavelength of light

 Brightness, which refers to the amount of light reflected from the colors
 Saturation, which refers to the brilliance of the color (it's essentially how much
white, black, or gray is present in the color)

Lesson Summary
Okay, let's take a moment to review the important information. The color additive
theory describes how colors are made by mixing the primary colors red, green, and blue
and how those mixed colors are perceived. It's important in all fields that deal with the visual
perception and mixing of colors.
We specifically learned that the primary additive colors are red, green, and blue because the
human eye has photoreceptors that take in those colors. Using these three colors, all other
colors, including white and black, can be seen and made. Various combinations of these
colors result in secondary additive colors: cyan, magenta, and yellow.

We also looked at some of the main terms one typically encounters when discussing color:

 Hue, which is the actual color, or dominant wavelength of light

 Brightness, which refers to the amount of light reflected from the colors, and finally
 Saturation, which refers to the brilliance of the color (it's essentially how much
white, black, or gray is present in the color)

Now that you have learned about color additive theory and its other important terminology,
what do you think happens when you add equal amounts of the secondary additive colors
together?

Subtractive Color: Theory, Definition & System

Understanding how we perceive color is an important part of being an artist. In this lesson,
we'll explore the theory of subtractive color and see how this impacts the colors we see.

Subtractive Color
If you've spent any time in the world of art and design, you may have noticed that color is
important. It's kinda what we do. We know how to mix colors, combine them, and use them;
but to really understand color, we also need to know how we perceive them. Our eyes
actually perceive color in different ways, based on how that color is produced.

Today, we're going to check out subtractive colors, those created by (ironically) adding

paints or pigments together. So, why do we call this subtractive? To understand that, we're
going to have to look beyond the aesthetics of color and look into how we see.

The colors we see in paintings are subtractive colors

Physics of Color Theory
To understand subtractive color, we need to venture into a realm feared by many artists:
physics. Natural white light contains waves of different frequencies or wavelengths. Certain
things, like moisture or prisms, can separate out these frequencies from natural light into
the individual colors of red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo and violet.

We often refer to these collectively by the mnemonic ROYGBIV. You may recognize that as
the colors of a rainbow. Well, that's what a rainbow is: natural white light split into waves of
different frequencies.

Light is composed of waves of different frequencies

Now, your couch doesn't separate light into individual waves the way a prism or rainbow
does. Why then does it have color? In physical objects, there are chemicals called pigments,
which absorb certain frequencies of light while reflecting others.

The colors that are reflected are those that reach your eyes. So, if something looks blue, it's
because that object contains pigments that absorb the red, orange, yellow, indigo, and violet
frequencies from white light and reflect the blue ones.

Subtractive Color Theory

So, we've got waves of light that reflect off of various pigments to create what we perceive as
color. Now, remember that a pigment prevents certain colors from reaching the eye. So,
when we combine different pigments together, we are subtracting waves from the spectrum,
and reducing what colors can reach the eye. That's why we call this subtractive color theory.
As pigments are combined, more waves are subtracted. In this color theory, we start with
white as the base color. White objects have no pigments that subtract light waves. As we add
paints or dyes with specific pigments, we reduce the kinds of light waves that are reflected
and the color gets darker. Eventually, we will block enough light waves that not enough are
reflected to register as a color, and as a result the object appears black.

The most common example that artists use to explore subtractive colors requires three base
colors of cyan, magenta, and yellow. If you have some watercolors handy, you can follow
along with this experiment.
Start with a white sheet of paper. This paper has no pigments subtracting light waves of any
colors. Now, add three different dots of paint: one cyan, one magenta, and one yellow. Each
paint contains different pigments that absorb and reflect different waves of light. So, we
added pigments to the paper and subtracted light waves. Now, make each dot larger so that
they begin to overlap with each other. When two colors overlap, they create a different color
because each one is subtracting different waves of light. Cyan and yellow interact to create
the color green; cyan and magenta create blue, and magenta and yellow create red. Now,
continue expanding each circle of paint so that all three meet in the middle like a giant Venn
diagram. When all three colors interact, they manage to absorb or subtract light of all
wavelengths, creating black. That's subtractive color theory.

Subtractive color theory

Lesson Summary
Color is an important part of art, so it's important to understand how we perceive color and
how it is naturally created. Color exists because pigments within objects reflect or absorb
light waves of different frequencies. When multiple pigments are combined, they subtract a
greater number of light waves and create a new color. We call this subtractive color theory.

Subtractive color theory starts with white, the color with no waves being subtracted, and
ends in black, with all waves being subtracted. Subtractive colors are what we see in
paintings and other art forms that create color using pigmented paints, dyes, and similar
products. So, art means adding pigments, but subtracting light.

Color Space: Definition & Conversion

Look around. There's color everywhere. But how does it get to your computer screen or the
pages of a comic book? By using a color space. In this lesson, you'll learn about color space,
what it is and how to convert from one to another.
What is Color Space?
You're probably reading this lesson on a computer screen. Do you see colors in images and
diagrams? Ever notice the colors in games like Angry Birds? How about a bright fashion
magazine? Those colors are determined on your screen and in print through the use of a
color space.

Color space means the use of a specific color model or system that turns colors into
numbers. Yes, it's math. Each color model is a method of creating many colors from a small
group of primary colors. Each model has a range of colors it can produce. That range is the
color space. But here's an important fact: color spaces in different systems aren't exactly the
same.

Think of media formats that use color - printing in books and magazines; digital media like
websites and video games. When an artist or designer creates with a color in mind, they
want it to be accurately reproduced in whatever format a person is reading, seeing or
viewing. That's why color space is important. Now let's look two common examples.

Different Types of Color Spaces

When choosing which color space to use, here's a basic question: are you working in digital
or print format? Digital devices use a color space called RGB for Red/Green/Blue. It's based
on colored light. The three colors of light combine in different ways to produce color. It's
an additive process and a look at the diagram explains why.

Diagram, RGB Color Model. Full brightness of all colors is represented by white in
middle

If none of the lights are bright, the eye perceives black. If all lights are at their brightest, as in
the middle of the diagram, the eye sees white. All other colors are made through specific
percentages of the three basic colors. RGB includes a larger part of the visible spectrum that
other color models and it most resembles how we see color.

Now think a picture printed on paper. Ink is needed because the color is produced through a
physical process. This color space is called CMYK, for Cyan/Magenta/Yellow/Black.
Sometimes you'll see CMYK called process color because it's used in the four-color printing
process.

Diagram, CMYK Color Model. Full saturation of all inks plus black is represented by
black in middle.

The easiest way to understand this is to start with the white paper on which an image will be
printed. The four inks are printed in layers on the white background until the darkest tones
are complete. The ink masks, or conceals, the brightness of the white background. Because
you take away brightness as the color is applied, CMYK is a subtractive color system. Black
ink is included because when the cyan, magenta and yellow are combined, they don't create
true black.
 Four-part color separation for a printed image. Finished image at top.

Other Color Spaces

RGB and CMYK are the most common systems but there are others. They include HSB (Hue,
Saturation and Brightness), a model where three numbers represent each color. The first
number, for hue, has a scale of 0 to 360 and includes all colors. The second number is for
saturation. It runs from 0 to 100, with 0 equaling no color and 100 being full color.
Brightness also runs from 0 to 100, with the higher number representing darker color. By
using specific combinations of numbers, you get different colors.

Then there are commercial color spaces. Pantone, a company and a color management
system, is an example. The Pantone system was created in 1963 for graphic designers to
ensure color accuracy every time a color was used in different images and across platforms.
Today, the Pantone Color Matching System expands on CMYK for four-color process printing
and can designate specific pigments. Designers creating a document list Pantone numbers
and know the finished document will include the colors they specified.

Example of Pantone color system. Designers and printers buy these arrays with
numbers attached to colors. The system assures color accuracy.

Converting from One Color Space to Another

Have you ever downloaded a photograph from a digital camera and viewed it on your
screen? Now, print a copy of that photograph and examine it. The colors aren't the same, are
they? That's because you're using two different color spaces. Converting between color
models is tricky because systems like CMYK and RGB don't share the same color space.
Digital files have to be converted to CMYK to print them using inks and print files must be
converted to RGB to appear correctly on a computer screen.

Not all colors reproduce well in different color spaces, but a skilled designer can preserve
the most important elements. Most people use software like a Color Management Module
(CMM) to do this. They have to translate each color across color spaces to get it as close as
possible. Here, another color space often comes in. LAB color means luminance or lightness
(L) with A representing colors from green to red and B representing blue to yellow. LAB is a
complicated three-dimensional color space that is device independent. As it provides
accurate color information while switching between systems, it is often an intermediate
color space used during conversion from RGB to CMYK or vice versa.

Lesson Summary
Color space is the term for a system that uses a specific color model to translate color into
numbers. The color space RGB (or Red/Green/Blue) is based on light. It's used in digital
processes and is additive. CMYK (or Cyan/Magenta/Yellow/Black) is used in the four-color
printing process. It uses ink to reduce brightness of the white background, so
it's subtractive. Other color spaces include HSB (Hue, Saturation and Brightness) and
commercial systems like Pantone.

Converting from one color model to another is tricky. Systems like RGB and CMYK don't
share the same color space. The process requires the use of special software to translate
color. It also sometimes requires using an intermediate color space like LAB, which can help
retain as much color accuracy as possible when switching between color spaces.

Who knew color could be so technical and fascinating? You've been introduced to color
spaces and converting between them in this lesson. If it intrigues you, there's a lot more to
explore!

Combining Shape & Color to Create Rhythm in

Graphic Design
In this lesson, we'll find out what graphic designers mean when they talk about the rhythm
of their composition. Learn about repetition and how it creates rhythm, how to use shape
and color in rhythm, and the five primary types of rhythm used.

Rhythm in Sight Instead of Sound

Graphic design produces visual compositions, but have you ever thought of how sound
might look? Somewhere, in the back of our minds, we can almost hear a visual composition,
when it uses the principle of repetition, to create a visual rhythm. For this lesson, we use
multiple references to drumming. Even if you are not a musician, you can still tap out some
rhythms on any surface available, or count out 1-2-3-4, 1-2-3-4, 1-2-3-4, and so on. The music
reference does not get more complicated than that, we promise.

Principle of Repetition
So, rhythm emerges from the graphic design principle of repetition, the use and reuse of
identical or similar elements in a visual composition. Repetition helps to tie a piece of work
together, subtly telling the eye that no matter how chaotic a piece of work looks, it is all part
of the same integrated whole.

In many ways, this term is used interchangeably with rhythm, but there are key differences.

Rhythm
You create a sense of rhythm by the intervals between the elements you repeat. Back to the
music analogy, if you have 4/4 timing, where you can count out 1-2-3-4 1-2-3-4 1-2-3-4 1-2-3-
4, you can tap the drum on the count of one for all four times. You can also tap the drum for
every number. The timing does not change, but the rhythm does. The same goes for your
visual designs where you can space your repeating elements, as far apart, or as close
together, as you want.

This visual rhythm creates the beating of a heart.

Two of the visual elements we use in creating a rhythm are shape and color. Repeating
shapes grab the viewer's attention because the eye recognizes their similarity. Repeating
color can be a bit more subtle but sets the tone of the composition, with a rhythmic
undercurrent. We'll actually look at few examples how this works when discussing types of
rhythms.

What Rhythm Does

Repetition in graphic design resonates with the audience as we, meaning humans, often
seek out the familiar. When graphic design is for advertising, we want to repeat elements
that can be associated with the brand, whether that's repeating their logo, their product, or
themes associated positively with the product. Rhythm gives this repetition an order and a
unique feel. When the repetition happens in quick succession, we may feel a fast-paced
rhythm or a sense of urgency. Wider intervals or repetitions using wide spaces, with smaller
intervals, bring a more relaxed feel but with a strength of message.
Types of Rhythm
There are five common types of rhythm used in graphic design.

A) Random, B) Regular, C) Alternating

Random Rhythm
Random rhythm still adheres to the principle of repetition, but it does not create standard
intervals between the elements chosen to repeat. If you look at a creek bed, you'll see many
different stones. Some will be large, others small, and they could be a variety of colors. There
is no set order, to how they are arranged, but there is repetition in some of the colors, sizes,
or textures.

Regular Rhythm
Regular rhythm may be one of the easiest to recognize; it repeats elements with a standard
and unchanging interval. Think about the timing of a piece of music. No matter the drum
rhythm, you can still count out 1-2-3-4 1-2-3-4 in the timing, providing it uses simple 4/4
timing. If you were to beat the drum on each of these counts, you would have a regular
rhythm that does not change. The same goes for a graphic design composition where an
element is repeated with the exact same, unchanging distance.
Alternating Rhythm
Alternating rhythm is a variation on a regular rhythm where you have two elements,
sometimes more, that take turns in the repetition. Again, with the drum analogy, imagine
you have a hand-drum in front of you. You still strike it at regular intervals but you hit it with
your right hand, then with your left hand, then with your right hand again, and continue so
forth. In graphic design, you can do the same with the rhythm of your repetition, like in a
railroad crossing arm, with alternating stripes of black and white.

Flowing Rhythm
A flowing rhythm produces a fascinating visual effect as the repeating elements bend,
curve, and create wavy patterns. In some ways, you can mentally hear those curves as the
melody of a piece of music. You still have the rhythm of the intervals, but the lines and other
elements rise and fall with visual melody, or drift.

Top picture shows a flowing rythm, bottom a progressive one

Progressive Rhythm
In progressive rhythm, the repeating elements change as through space in the
composition. The change is subtle enough that we can still identify the rhythm, but as long
as it is can be recognized, the change can be as dramatic as the artist wants it to be. You can
see it when elements in a photograph are lined up in a way that similar, or identical, images
recede into the distance, physically appearing smaller and smaller as the rhythm progresses.
Lesson Summary
Rhythm develops when we create set intervals between elements using the principle
of repetition, the use and reuse of similar elements in a composition. Just about any
element can be used to create a rhythm but shape and color stand out the most.

Most graphic designers use one of five types of rhythm in their compositions:

Random rhythm repeats elements but there is no set interval.

Regular rhythm uses the same interval throughout the composition.

Alternating rhythm is a form of regular rhythm but two different elements take turns
repeating.

Flowing rhythm displays the repeating elements, but the eye follows them across a curving
line or a line with a series of curves.

Progressing rhythm changes the element in stages, as it moves along the composition, so it

remains recognizably part of the rhythm in relation to the element before and after, but the
final element may be very different from the first.

Ch 8. Graphic Design Composition

Principles of Composition in Graphic Design
In this lesson, we'll explore the principles of composition in graphic design. We'll discuss
each one, their definitions, their functions in overall composition, and provide visual
examples.

Principles of Design
The building blocks of graphic design include:

 Line
 Shape
 Color
 Form
 Space
 Texture, and
 Typography

Good design requires that you apply some basic principles to how you use the elements in
your composition.

Some principles of design are:

 Alignment
 Balance
 Contrast
 Function
 Hierarchy
  Proximity
 Repetition
 Simplicity, and
 White space

How those elements, whether consciously used or not, will imbue your composition with a
particular quality. Let's look at each one.

Function & Alignment

Function is defined as the primary message or objective communicated in a piece of work
and the reason for communicating this message. Most graphic designers are hired to create
an artistic composition by a client that wants to promote a product, a brand, or a public
message. Fully understanding the intended function of a project will help guide the design
process.

Alignment refers to how different visual elements are arranged in such a way that they line
up in the composition. These can be diagonal, horizontal, or vertical lines, including text
along the top, bottom, left, or right edge of a page as well as across a center line.

Balance & Hierarchy

Balance refers to the placement of the elements in such a way that their visual weight is
equal across the composition. Visual weight is the amount of attention an object will
command from the viewer, such as darker objects attracting more attention than lighter
objects.

There are three kinds of balance commonly used in design:

1. In symmetrical balance, objects of equal or similar visual weight are placed with
equal distance from an invisible center line

2. Asymmetrical balance exists across the center line; however, smaller or lighter

objects appear on one side to balance a much heavier object on the other side

3. In radial balance, objects are placed in relation to a central point instead of a line

Hierarchy in graphic design uses the visual weight of objects in a composition to establish
an order of importance. It guides the viewer's eye through the information in the specific
order the designer intends.

Contrast, Proximity, & White Space

We create contrast when two or more elements in a design are different. The degree of
difference will determine the noticeability of the contrast. One of the most common
examples of contrast involves color. Certain colors almost blend into each other when
placed in close proximity. Others distinguish themselves from each other and can therefore
be even noticeable in a composition. These contrasting colors are located directly across
from each other on a color wheel.
Proximity simply refers to how close together or far apart two objects are placed in a
composition. The reason proximity matters, and it matters quite a bit, is that distance helps
determine the relationship between the objects.

White space refers to the empty space in a composition. If a piece feels cluttered, adding a
bit of white space can help relax the feel of it. Then again, if you have too much white space
you may lose the viewer. This is particularly true in a website whose white space requires a
lot of scrolling to get to the next item of interest.

Repetition & Simplicity

The principle of repetition involves reusing the same or similar elements throughout a
composition as a way to accent certain features or tie the different areas of a work into a
unified whole. The regularity and spacing between repeating elements is what gives each
work a unique rhythm.

In graphic design, the principle of simplicity is the disciplined practice of minimizing or

editing excessive information from a design and keeping it focused on its primary message.
This allows a piece to create a clear and lasting impression. Simplicity is often described as
one of the most difficult principles to master; however, when executed well, it produces the
most striking pieces of graphic design work.

Lesson Summary
The principles of design imbue a composition with a particular quality. Here are some of
them:

 Function is the objective of the graphic design composition (often at the request of
the client)

 Alignment refers to how objects are arranged in order to line up in a particular way

 Balance uses visual weight, or how much attention an object commands, to place

objects in such a way that each side of a composition is equal

 Contrast is the visible difference between objects based on one or more elements of
design

 Hierarchy uses visual weight to lead the viewer's eye through a composition in a

particular succession based on the importance of information at each step

 Proximity refers to how close or far apart a design places certain objects to create or
negate a relationship between them

 White space is the empty space that can declutter a composition

 Repetition is the repeated use of certain elements in a composition as a way to tie

them together; when they're repeated at regular intervals, we get the rhythm of the
piece
  Simplicity refers to focusing and editing excessive visual information in order to
clearly and strikingly express the message of a design

Practical Application: Principles of Composition

in Graphic Design Infographic
This infographic will help you recall and implement the principles of composition in graphic
design. This infographic can be used as a personal or workplace reminder of these design
principles.

Principles of Composition in Graphic Design

Composition is the arrangement of elements in a piece in graphic design. Composition
includes what objects are selected for the work and how they are arranged to communicate
a message. As you read in the lesson Principles of Composition in Graphic Design there are
nine main elements of composition:

1. Contrast
2. Alignment
3. Balance
4. Hierarchy
5. Proximity
6. White Space
7. Repetition
8. Simplicity
9. Function

An infographic is a way to display this information with visual cues. The infographic here
shows a visual representation of each one of these principles.
Refection
Contrast is the idea of two opposing colors or ideas next to each other in a design. Contrast
can draw the viewer's attention to the boundary between these two elements, such as the
black and white in the infographic.

Alignment is the positioning of elements in the graphic. We are familiar with alignment
when we write in a text document and choose to align our text to the left or right side.

Balance is the arrangement of objects in a graphic to evenly distribute the visual weight. In
the infographic, the mountains are perfectly symmetrical and balanced on either side of the
composition.

Graphic designers use hierarchy to draw your eye across the composition to the main
focus. We are familiar with hierarchy in our everyday lives when we organize things, such as
files on the computer.

Proximity is how close or far apart objects are in a composition. This can provide
information for the viewer or help draw their eye in a particular direction.

White space can be just as important as the color in a composition. Imagine the tiger in the
infographic without the white space. It would just be a collection of black lines! White space
helps break up the composition and can communicate just as much as the filled areas.
Repetition is important, especially in advertising, for getting across a particular message.
Repetition is a powerful way for designers to communicate the most important part of a
composition.

Sometimes, it's better to keep it simple. By using simplicity (a design with few elements), the
main purpose of the composition is likely to stand out more, such as the red arrow among a
sea of white ones. Although this design only uses one or two elements, it still sends a
powerful message to the viewer.

Lastly, all graphic designers need to remember the function of their work or the goal for the
composition. Many times, graphic designers will be creating a piece as an advertisement. So,
the main goal of the advertisement should always be kept in mind.

The Golden Section: Definition, Art & Method

Explore the aesthetic foundations of the golden section represented in classical and modern
art. Learn about artists who use the golden section to recreate beauty and composition
found in nature.

What is the Golden Section?

The golden section, also called the golden ratio, is one of those concepts that once you
know about it you start to see it everywhere. Related to the mathematical principle called the
Fibonacci sequence, the golden section was used by ancient and classical artists and
designers to create geometrical compositions toward an emanation of godlike natural
perfection. One of the peculiarities of the concept is its foundation in both natural and
artificial forms, a base principle of physics.

Many philosophers, poets, painters, engineers, and architects throughout history, including
Plato, Kepler, and Alberti, have made use of the concept, attracted to its formal beauty and
simplicity. The concept dates back to ancient Greece. The first recorded description of the
golden section is found in the writing of Euclid, but the concept is applied so diversely that it
is not attributed to any single person.

Golden section represented in sunflower seed pattern

The golden section brings together principles of aesthetics and mathematics to explain why
symmetrical compositions are pleasing to the eye. Many patterns found in nature, like the
organic growth of rose petals or the spiral of a conch shell, correspond do the mathematics
of the golden section.

Mathematically, the golden section can be represented both algebraically and geometrically.
The basic idea refers to the relationship between two numbers. Two numbers are in a
golden ratio if, when added together, their sum remains in the same relationship as the two
original numbers. Since this is a lesson in aesthetics and not mathematics, let's treat the
golden section as a matter of form, composition, and perspective, not algebra. Aesthetics, a
form of knowledge privileged by the ancient Greeks, is a branch of philosophy concerned
with the nature of beauty and art.

Conch shell

Synthesis of Nature and Art

Perhaps most famously, Da Vinci's 'Vitruvian Man' models the aesthetic principle of the
golden section. It exemplifies the standard of beauty in nature as one of the human body
itself. The image links the form of the natural world with human ingenuity and mastery,
creating a synthesis in engineering and art. Hardcore art historians might object, arguing
that Da Vinci's mathematical formula differs from both Fibonacci's and the basic algorithm.
But in principle, the concept is the same. This same principle exhibited in the 'Virtuvian Man'
can be seen exemplified in Da Vinci's 'Mona Lisa.' She's a pretty face to look at, but also an
object lesson of divine proportions.
 Da Vinci, Vitruvian Man

French architect and painter Le Corbusier (Charles-Édouard Jeanneret-Gris) developed a

system for maintaining architectural proportions in his modern art based on the principles
of the golden section. The Modulor has many similarities to the golden section, as it does to
Da Vinci's Vitruvian Man. All relate to the measurement of human proportions for the
purpose of attaining beautiful compositions.

Le Corbusier's Modulor pictures the silhouette of a human form standing tall, with one arm
raised. He intended the concept to be used as a standard of measurement, for the
attainment not only of beauty in architecture but for maintaining of human dimensions in
modern architectural scale.
 Modulor

Method
The golden section provides a model for the standard measurement of human form. As we
saw in the case of Le Corbusier, it can be used as a measure of height and proportion. One
of the tricks of studio art bases proportion of the human form on the relationship between
the size of the head and height of the body. According to this measure, an average figure will
be about 9 heads tall. But this shortcut doesn't ensure that the proportions will be either
pretty or accurate. Used as a method of calculation, for design, the golden section can be
used as a standard of measurement in the way Le Corbusier intended Modulor as a 'a
harmonic measure to the human scale, universally applicable to architecture and
mechanics.'

Lesson Summary
The golden section is a basic concept related to aesthetics (the study of beauty and art) and
mathematics (the science of numbers and quantification) that can be found exemplified in
the natural world in forms such as conch shells, sunflower seeds, and even the human body.
The calculations date back to ancient Greece, first recorded by Euclid but not attributed to
him. As a principle of aesthetics, the concept of the golden section has most often been used
as a measure of human body proportion.

Da Vinci and Le Corbusier were both fascinated by the concept and used the golden section
to calculate human proportions with the belief that would support the composition of
beautiful forms. Da Vinci used the general concept of the golden section, not the actual
number scheme, to represent the beauty of the human body. Le Corbusier based
architectural measurement off the direct calculation of the golden section to create a
system, called the Modulor, that facilitated the translation of human proportion to the scales
of modern architecture.
The Bauhaus Movement in Graphic Design:
Impact & Application
In this lesson, we'll discuss the Bauhaus Movement and its impact on graphic design. We'll
study the foundation of the Bauhaus School, its core principles, and its lasting contributions
to typography and graphic design.

Bauhaus
If you're just beginning to learn about graphic design, you might not be too familiar with the
Bauhaus Movement, the school associated with it, or the lasting influence it has had on
design. However, you've probably seen or heard the name several times regarding design,
furniture, and even architecture.

For all its influence on design throughout the 20th century and even today, it might surprise
you that the Bauhaus School was only open for 14 years. Let's take a closer look at this
revolutionary school, what it taught, and why it still has a powerful influence on graphic
design today.

The Beginnings of a Movement

The Bauhaus School was founded by Walter Gropius in Weimar, Germany. It officially
opened its doors in 1919. Six years later, it relocated to Dessau, moving into a building
designed by the school to physically embody its core teachings.

Bauhaus School Building in Dessau

The Bauhaus Movement was a reaction to the soullessness of manufacturing and industry.

They felt art was losing its place in society. It also drew inspiration from slightly-earlier
movements reacting to the same social conditions. The most notable of these was the Arts
and Crafts Movement that started in England which attempted to resurrect hand-made
techniques of pre-industrial construction and furniture building.
The Bauhaus Movement, instead of trying to turn back to a pre-industrial period of
craftsmanship, embraced the new technologies and the aesthetics of machinery. This
allowed the Bauhaus designers to create a style compatible with growing industrialization.

Core Concepts
You've probably heard the phrase, ''form follows function.'' Would it surprise you to know
this came from the Bauhaus School? They felt this statement applied to all fields of art and
architecture and would blend the ever dividing realms of creativity and industrial
manufacturing.

Under their roof, they taught a wide variety of disciplines and required students to study
each of them, regardless of their area of focus. This included painting, architecture, graphic
design, furniture design, and typography. In fact, they were the first school to introduce
graphic design and stress the importance of purpose-driven design as much as fine arts.
They even created a printing and advertising workshop in the Dessau building when they
moved to the new location.

Bauhaus magazine from 1968 helped keep the style alive.

One of their many endeavors toward returning art and design to daily life was to wed
theoretical and intellectual art concepts with practical skills, crafts, and techniques. They
looked to experimentation and problem solving as a motivation to master the techniques
and skills they taught. If art was going to regain a place in society throughout the change to
industrialization, it needed to have a functional role in the new society.
Lasting Effect
While the Nazi regime forced the school to close its doors in 1933, the faculty brought the
concepts of the Bauhaus Movement with them to many universities across Europe and the
United States. Though the school never reopened, their effect on 20th-century design and
even design today in the 21st century cannot be overstated. Aside from creating the field of
graphic design, their work in typography and their principles of simplicity still drive the field
today.

Typography
Not satisfied with the pure functionality of letters, the Bauhaus school sought to bring
elements of design into the world of printing. Inspired by the beauty of ancient manuscripts
that were painstakingly written by hand in controlled and ornate letters, they created a
number of fonts.

Typography became part of the core curriculum for all students and one of their key
typographers, Herbert Bayer, created the Universal typeface at the request of school
founder Gropius in 1925. Bayer famously said, ''Like modern machines, architecture, and
cinema, so too must type be an expression of our exact times.'' His typeface had an elegant
simplicity in its geometric forms and lack of ornamentation. In fact, the school helped to
develop a wide number of sans serif fonts, lettering without the straight, horizontal lines at
the end of vertical and diagonal lines.

Comparison of Serif and Sans Serif letters

They also changed how we look at the use of letters in graphic design. Information wasn't
written from top to bottom with a descending hierarchy of information. They used visual
hierarchy to move the eye around the page, following a visual trail from the most important
to the least important information. They would change font size and even style across the
single page and, in some cases, within a single word.

Graphic Design as Art

Finally, the school opened the door to seeing functional art on par with fine arts,
redeveloping the field into the ''visual arts'' that celebrated artistic principles whether
creating a museum piece or a sales brochure. They introduced the powerful simplicity of
grids in design, which is the basis of many layouts today. This is especially true in web
design.

We still see much of their influence in design today, with a focus on elegant simplicity to
convey complex ideas. The use of red and black mixed with text and geometric shapes still
plays a powerful role in making a visual impact, and many designers will create at least one
Bauhaus style piece during their career.

Lesson Summary
The Bauhaus Movement, with its objective of combining the social direction of machine
manufacturing with fine art, developed in the Bauhaus School founded in 1919 by Walter
Gropius. In 1925, the school moved to Dessau to occupy a building designed by the faculty
as the ultimate achievement of the school's core concept of ''form follows function.'' In the
new building, they developed the field of graphic design, putting it on par with fine arts. They
also greatly advanced the field of typography, introducing the Universal typeface and a
number of sans serif fonts that lacked the decorative, horizontal lines at the end of vertical
and horizontal lines. Even today, graphic design is seen as a serious art with a functional role
because of the experimentation and innovation of the Bauhaus School, regardless of how
short lived it was.

Visual Contrast in Graphic Design: Application &

Effectiveness
In this lesson, we'll look at the powerful principle of contrast and how it is used in graphic
design. Learn the different dimensions of contrast using different visual elements as well as
how to apply contrast well.

Opposites Attract
Like oil and water or night and day, our lives are full of contrasts. Why should it be any
different in graphic design? In fact, without contrasts, we would have a difficult time
designing many of our compositions. Everything would blend together and express nothing
at all. Have you ever used a colored text over a background, maybe in a PowerPoint
presentation or creating a meme? Unless you got the text color just right the first time, you
probably tried a few that didn't pop off the page as much as you wanted. At that moment,
you learned one of the most important lessons in graphic design, your subject needs to
stand out from your background. Let's take a closer look at contrast, some of the ways we
create it, and a few tips and tricks to use it effectively.

What Is Contrast?
In graphic design, contrast refers to a visible difference in the properties of objects. In
theory, any difference can be seen as contrast, but reality dictates that the difference must
be of a significant enough degree to clearly differentiate between the objects. Contrast can
occur in any of the basic elements of design, which are line, color, shape, texture, form,
space, and typography. Contrast draws the viewer's attention, creating interest and a
dynamic composition. When contrast is used well, all the elements the artist wishes to
highlight will stand out, but not in such a jarring way that the audience is confused or
irritated. Before we look at how to best achieve this, let's look at some of the ways we can
construct a contrast.

Contrasting Color
Color is one of the most recognizable forms of contrast, in part because we learn our colors
and their relationships to one another at an early age. We know our primary colors are red,
yellow, and blue. We might even know our secondary colors are orange, green, and purple.
What you might not know is the relationship between these colors. On a color wheel, a
color's complimentary colors are placed on either side. These will contrast with the original
color, but not strongly. Directly opposite a color on the color wheel will be its contrasting
color. When placed next to each other, these two colors will create the most contrast and
draw attention to each equally.

Color Wheel

Contrasting Shapes and Forms

You've probably heard the term ''a square peg in a round hole,'' meaning someone is trying
to be something they are not or that someone doesn't fit in because they are different from
everyone else. In the illustration below, we actually see this in a visual composition. Not only
does the artist make the square peg a different shape than the round pegs, but they also
highlight this difference by using the extreme color contrast of red and green, which are
contrasting colors on the color wheel.
 You can see a red square peg contrast with many green round pegs.

Other Contrasts and Contrast in Context

Aside from differences in color, texture, and other elements, we can create other kinds of
visual contrast when we use them in context. Look at the image below of a whale and a
person. If you just drew the whale, you might think the creature is a large animal but only by
your knowledge of sea life. For all you know, that whale could be a rare, microscopic whale
species. However, when the artist puts an image of a person with the whale, we have a way
of understanding the whale's size. We know how large an average person should be. That
is context, the relationship between objects or elements of a design that provide
information about each other.

Set next to each other, the human shape gives context for just how big the whale
actually is.

Executing Contrast Effectively

Contrast is a powerful way to communicate in a graphic design composition because of the
way it stimulates our visual senses and how our brains are wired to respond to these
differences. However, this makes contrast a design principle that must be used carefully with
strategic planning. You don't want every part of your composition to jump out, screaming at
your audience. Nor do you want it all to blend together so much that your audience is bored.
There are even dangerous degrees in between where your elements will contrast, but not
enough to stand out clearly. This will make your viewer strain their eyes to see the image.

To effectively execute contrast in your composition, determine what parts of your design
should stand out as the most important communication whether in words or images. Look
at the surrounding areas or the context of that part. Determine if you want your message to
scream off the page or just be very noticeable. Remember to avoid creating additional
contrasts of equal strength in the rest of the composition or it will draw attention away from
your desired focus.

Lesson Summary
Contrast, the observable difference between two objects or areas of a composition
regarding one or more properties, is one of the most powerful tools a graphic designer can
use, but they must use it carefully. While any degree of difference is technically a contrast,
we want to use enough difference for the two objects or areas to stand out clearly when
placed next to each other. Color provides one of the most powerful tools for creating
contrast. On a color wheel, we usually see the primary colors of red, yellow, and blue as well
as the secondary colors of orange, green, and purple. Complimentary colors are found on
either side of a color, such as red's complimentary colors of orange and violet. Contrasting
colors can be found on opposite sides of the color wheel. Using context, the relationship
between objects in a composition, we can create contrasts with additional meaning.
Ultimately, when using contrast, a designer needs to highlight the important information in a
way that draws attention without stressing the viewer's eyes.

Single Contrasts in Graphic Design

Contrast is a great tool in graphic design, but how much is too much? In this lesson, we'll
start with single contrasts and see how we can use this to build up more layered
compositions.

Just Enough Contrast

The tale of Goldilocks and the Three Bears is one that most of us are familiar with. The
young Goldilocks trespasses upon the property of a bear family, eats their food, and
vandalizes their furniture. At each turn, she experiences two objects at extremes, and one
that is just right.

While this is a fairy tell meant for children, we can learn a lot from it as graphic designers.
Like Goldilocks' quest for the best chair, porridge, and bed, designers want to create a
composition that is harmonious and enjoyable. But how do you do this while making
something that is still exciting and visually appealing? One common tool used by designers
is contrast, a balanced juxtaposition of opposites. It can be a difficult principle to apply. Too
little contrast, and your design can be boring. Too much, and it's overwhelming and unclear.
Like Goldilocks, we're looking for the option that's just right.

Single Contrast Design

The majority of the designs you'll see will employ contrast in a few ways, simultaneously.
That's fine to do, but designers also have the option of focusing on a single contrast, using
that as the primary focal point that draws the most attention. For all designers, single
contrasts are good practice. If you can create a design with just enough contrast to make it
interesting, all while using only a single point of contrast, it can help you better balance
multiple kinds of contrast later on.
 This design is consistent in many ways. The text all faces the same direction, the shapes
compliment the text, and the line widths are uniform. The biggest contrast is in the
color, which really stands out.

So, how do you build a design around a single contrast? To start, we have to realize that this
does not mean your composition must be monotonous, with only a single set of shapes or
colors. Remember, contrast is a balanced juxtaposition of opposites, so in a single-contrast
design you're looking to emphasize only one juxtaposition of opposites. Perhaps it will be a
juxtaposition of color, or size, or form. Whichever it is, that's your focus, but it doesn't mean
you can only use a single color. Imagine, for instance, you wanted to contrast to
complimentary colors, like red and green. That's your contrast, but you can still use other
colors, just as long as they are similar and not opposites. Bring in various shades of reds,
oranges, or purples that emphasis unity with the red, so that your main point of contrast is
still that green.

Using contrast in this way can be a great way to present straightforward designs with very
strong focal points, and numerous artists have employed it effectively. American artist
Barbara Kruger became famous for her feminist installation pieces that used text and
typography to critique gender norms in society. Many of her compositions are fairly
monochromatic, the text appears in uniform or similar typefaces, and the shapes
compliment each other. There is a lot of visual unity, often offset by a single major
juxtaposition, often in the color contrast between the text and background. This helps
establish a strong focal point and a direct image. There is no confusion of visual hierarchy
because Kruger clearly controls the movement of your eye through the concentrated use of
contrast.
 Design by Barbara Kruger, which makes effective use of contrast

Single Contrast in an Element and a Composition

Barbara Kruger's designs can represent extreme uses of single contrasts, and she uses them
very effectively. However, as we start to build up designs with multiple contrasts, we can still
use this idea to our advantage by focusing on a single contrast within each element of the
composition.

This magazine cover utilizes one main contrast of color, one main contrast of texture,
 and one main contrast of shape/form

For example, when determining colors, select one color to contrast and then make the rest
similar. Then, pick one common form or shape that will be consistent throughout the piece,
and find one way to contrast it. Then pick a uniform line width that will appear throughout
the composition, and contrast it one time. By thinking of contrasts in terms of single
elements, you can begin to add them together without oversaturating your composition with
too many contrasts of color or too many contrasts of shape or too many contrasts of
texture.

Lesson Summary
Contrast, a balanced juxtaposition of opposites, is a valuable tool in graphic design that
increases visual appeal and helps create a strong focal point. Most designs will combine
multiple contrasted elements in order to create a visual hierarchy and lots of excitement.
However, there can also be a lot of benefit to creating a composition with lots of unity, but
one major point of contrast. Doing this can create a very strong and uncontested focal point,
and can be very aesthetically satisfying if done well. A focus on single contrasts can also help
designers begin building up multiple points of contrast, by starting with only a single
contrast within a few elements of the composition like color, shape, or texture. We want
contrast in our compositions, but like Goldilocks, we're looking for the option that's just
right.

Multiple Contrasts in Graphic Design

In this lesson, we expand our understanding of contrast in graphic design to include
multiple contrasts in the same composition. Learn how to combine contrasts in order to
draw a viewer's attention.

Juggling Elements and Principles

When you compose a piece of graphic design work, your goal is to juggle a number of design
principles to effectively into your project. Basically, you have a lot of planning. One of the
major principles you want to work with is contrast, or the visual difference between objects
in a composition based on the design elements. The elements of design are line, shape,
color, texture, space, form, and typography.

So Many Contrasts
You will rarely use just a single contrast in your work. An example of single contrast might be
a canvas with the left side painted white and the right side painted black. In nearly all of your
compositions, you will employ multiple-contrasts, whether consciously or subconsciously.
The more you are aware of the contrasts you use, the more carefully you can plan your
design to maximize the desired effect. So, let's start with a simple two-element combination
in contrast. The picture shows shape and color, form and texture, and typography and line.
You can probably think of others as well.
 Here are three examples of contrasting two elements at once.

For shape and color, we contrast a red circle with a green triangle. For form and texture, we
have a round donut and a cube. The donut has a smooth, metallic texture while the cube has
a matte, dull texture. Finally, for typography and line, we contrast two different typefaces. In
doing so, we also create a contrast of lines between the straight lines in the word
''typography'' and the curvy lines in the word ''line.''

More Complicated Contrasts

We can see how combining two contrasts in a composition creates a more interesting design
than using only a single one. Let's get a little more complicated and go for three. We'll
probably need to employ more objects in the design.

In this image, we contrast three different elements.

If you look closely at the picture, we see a contrast in shape between the circles and
triangles. We also see a contrast in colors, but this uses more than just two colors like our
previous example. We create a slight contrast among the circles with red and orange
alternating colors. Likewise, we alternate green and blue triangles for a slight contrast.

However, both red and green and orange and blue are contrast colors, or colors directly
opposite one another on a color wheel that produce the maximum contrast when used
together. In this way, the circles and the triangles are set apart, creating visual interest by
not using the same color in each shape.
You can probably pick out our last contrast of line. With their rounded edges, the circles
follow one another through a curved line that is created by their placement. With their
straight, diagonal sides, the triangles create straight, diagonal lines through their placement
in the composition.

Identifying Contrasts
Let's give what you've learned a little test run. How many different kinds of contrast can you
identify in this image with the Spanish phrase? Remember, you might find more contrasted
than listed.

How many contrasts can you identify?

We can see some sharp color contrasts in this image. There are white letters and other
shapes on a black background. There are also red and green in the corners with the tiny
flowers. Red and green are contrasting colors. Finally, since pink is just a pastel version of
red, we see the red and green color contrast again in the larger flowers.

There is also a texture contrast between the solid look of the letters and images with the
chalkboard texture of the background. The chalk eraser marks move diagonally, whereas all
writing and lines either go horizontally or vertically. Speaking of line contrast, we also have
differences in line shapes and direction. We see many curving lines throughout the
composition, but we also see areas of perfectly straight line.

We see shape contrasts in the organic shapes for the flowers and the geometric shapes
created by the border and the two lines with perfect circles between them. Finally, we have
typographical contrasts between the three different lines of text, each written in a different
font and a slightly different size.
Lesson Summary
As you can see, even a composition that may appear simple at first can have multiple
contrasts throughout. When done well, the contrasts, or the visual difference between
objects in a composition, will highlight its relevant parts in a way that isn't too obvious or
irritating.

You can create contrast with any of the elements of graphic design, such as line, shape,
color, form, texture, space, and typography. Almost any design element can be used in
combination with others, such as contrasting colors, or colors directly opposite one
another on a color wheel. As you include more contrasts throughout the design, you should
avoid inadvertent contrasts that draw attention away from the focus of your work.

Typographical Contrasts in Graphic Design

Graphic designers often work with text, but do we think about words as an element of art,
same as shapes or colors? In this lesson, we'll examine typography as an art, and see how
contrast can be used to make it part of a composition.

The Art of Typography

Are you reading this lesson in the same way you would examine a painting? Probably not,
but why? Both are visual documents, created to communicate information in some form.
This lesson just does that textually, while a painting does it through non-textual figures and
shapes.

As graphic designers, we have to think about text as a part of the composition. It's an
element of artistic design, no different from other shapes or colors. In fact, some designers
go one step further and focus on text as the principle element of design in their
compositions. We call this elevation of text as art typography, and it has a long history in
design. One of the greatest 20th-century designers was Canadian typographer Carl Dair,
who is sort of the godfather of modern typography. Despite the fact that he never worked in
the digital age, his publications on typography still influence graphic designers to this day.
His main message: text is never just incidental in graphic design. It's an art.

Typographical Contrast
If typography, sees text as an element of art, then you have to consider its impact on the
overall harmony, balance, and aesthetic of the total composition. One thing that text can be
very useful for is creating contrast, a juxtaposition of visually opposite or disparate
elements. Contrast is exciting. It draws the eye, captures attention, creates focal points, and
helps establish visual hierarchy. It works best when contrasted elements are directly
juxtaposed; proximity emphasizes the contrast.

Think of it this way: which is more exciting, a painting of one flat color, or one with contrasts
of light, shapes, and colors? This same idea applies to typography. If you wouldn't paint in a
single color or just use a single shape, why only use one kind of type? Contrast is key to
keeping text engaging in graphic design, and Carl Dair outlined seven key ways this could be
done.
The Seven Typographic Contrasts of Carl Dair
Let's go through Dair's seven principles of typographic contrast. First is size. This is fairly
obvious. When you juxtapose text in a small size, next to text in a much larger size, it creates
a visual contrast that immediately draws the eye. You'll see this everywhere in graphic
design. Generally, the larger text creates the focal point, but not always. You can play with
this by making most text large, and then only a few words smaller, making them the
interesting point of contrast.

The second of Dair's principles is weight. Different kinds of text have different line widths,
which creates different visual weight. By making something bold, you increase its weight and
make it stand out, from text with thinner lines.

Third is form, which describes the basic shapes of letters and the variations of them. There
are a couple of things to think about here. An H and an O, for instance, have different
shapes. One is square, while the other is round. Obviously, the letters you use will depend
on the words you need to use, but you can arrange these words in ways that draw out the
contrasts between forms, and shapes of the letters. Dair points out that contrasting upper
and lower cases of these letters can be an effective tool as well.

In this composition, the letters on the page contrast in form and structure with against
the words spray-painted onto the building

Closely related to form is the concept of structure or the shape of the letter as it fits within a
typeface, what we might also call font. Different typefaces create different aesthetics, and
contrasting them can be a good way to create visual flow. The most common way to do this
is to contrast a serif typeface, with a sans-serif typeface, but the variations within this are
endless.

When you put form and structure together, you arrive at the concept of texture, which Dair
defines as the aesthetic of the text as a whole. Rather than just looking at individual letters,
texture is concerned with the entire line of the text, the way it fits together and how it
interacts with other lines. By changing the typeface, weight, or placement of one line, you
can contrast it against the others and make the entire composition more visually dynamic.

This cover of Vogue uses a contrast of color to accentuate a piece of the text

The sixth kind of typographic contrast is color, and this is both obvious and tricky. It doesn't
take a master's degree in design to realize that text in a different color stands out. However,
we also have to think of the relationship between the text and the background. A lot of text
is written in black ink, set against a white field (just like this text is). That's already an
extremely high degree of contrast, so creating text in other colors may reduce the contrast
between the background and the words. It's a delicate balance that you always have to be
aware of.

Finally, we have to think about direction. In this lesson, all the text is facing the same
direction, but graphic designers aren't bound by that convention. Maybe some words should
be sideways or upside down. A contrast of orientation can be very visually appealing when
used correctly.
 Words facing in different directions can create an interesting sense of contrast

Balancing Contrasts
In most great works of graphic design, multiple typographic contrasts will be used
simultaneously. However, there's a unique challenge here. You want to increase the dynamic
appeal of your composition, but you also don't want to decrease readability. A design with
every letter in a different typeface, color, or size is not readable, and that hurts the
effectiveness of your composition. That's always something to keep in mind. Typography
may be an art, but it's not always meant to be an abstract one.

Lesson Summary
Graphic designers often work with typography, utilizing text as an element of artistic
composition. As with other elements, visual appeal can be heightened with contrast, a
balanced juxtaposition of opposites. This concept was famously elaborated on by mid-20th-
century designer Carl Dair.

Dair outlined seven ways that text could be successfully

contrasted: size, weight, form, structure, texture, color, and direction. Through
typography, a graphic designer can create focal points, generate visual flow, or just make
something more exciting. As it turns out, poetry isn't the only way that words can become
art.

Image Contrasts in Graphic Design

In this lesson, we'll discuss how we can create contrast with images. We'll discuss
context, scale, and proximity and the way they all determine the story the images tell.
Images Change Everything
You can create visual interest by placing different shapes next to each other or by using
contrasting colors to make sections jump out. You can even use contrast in typography to
ensure your words stand out on the page. However, images are a whole different
ballgame. Images are more than shapes, colors, and letters: they are visual representations
of real-world objects. Yes, this includes people and animals.

Imagine a circle next to a triangle. The shapes contrast with each other. Now, imagine the
circle is a coiled and angry rattlesnake and the triangle is a baby. This composition prompts a
vastly different emotional reaction because of its additional meaning; it doesn't just contain
basic compositional elements.

All About Context

Creative visual contrast in images really is an issue of context, or the relationship between
objects in a visual composition; the information they provide about each other; and what the
viewer may know about them, such as their use or composite material in real life. We know a
rattlesnake is dangerous and that a baby is very vulnerable, so we see danger in the
contrast. We might even think about the visual pun by remembering that babies play with
rattles but not rattlesnakes.

Would you have the same reaction to a triangle and a circle as you do to this image
contrast?

Scale and Direction

In a good composition, we don't merely place these contrasting images next to each other,
we build a relationship between them so that a particular meaning emerges. One way we do
this is with scale, or the size of an object in relation to another. Imagine a skyscraper,
something we know is very large. Now imagine that same baby: it would be very tiny when
compared with the skyscraper. However, if we were to change the scale, our image would be
very interesting. Suddenly, the building is smaller than the baby. Does this make the building
a toy? Does this make the baby a giant? Your mind asks all kinds of questions because we're
contrasting scale and inverting normal size relationships.
 This baby and the Empire State Building show how we can play with scale, direction,
and shape.

Another thing you might notice about this image is that the baby is looking directly at the
building. When one object in your composition is a person or animal, the direction they are
looking creates a relationship with the objects in that direction. Imagine if the baby were
facing the other way. Would the composition look like the baby and the building just
happened to be there? Would the composition look as complete or interesting?

Shape and Texture

In both prior images, we've also created a contrast with shape and texture, even if you
weren't aware of it. With the snake and the baby, the rough texture of the snake skin
contrasts with the baby's soft skin. We notice the snake's curves in the image, but we also
identify snakes with long lines and sharp, pointed fangs. The baby has a rounded face and
lots of rounded lines in the body, the eyes, the mouth, and the bonnet.

In the image of the baby with the Empire State Building, the building is very rectangular with
a pointed top while the baby is round and soft. By the light reflecting off the building, you
can tell it has a smooth, reflective surface texture. The baby might have smooth skin, but the
surface still isn't hard and shiny.

Proximity
Proximity is another principle of graphic design that describes how close together or far
apart you place objects in your composition. In order to achieve image contrast, proximity is
a vital component to consider. If you place them too far apart, the viewer might not see a
relationship between them. Additionally, however close or far apart the images are will
create different relationships, especially with people. This even works with separate
photographs on a page; proximity will create relationships or separate them.
 In these three examples, you could tell very different stories about the two people based
on proximity and the direction they are facing.

Lesson Summary
The shapes in a composition change dramatically when we use images, or visual
representations of real-world objects. Each image comes with a complex assortment of
information that the audience already knows. This information and the relation between the
objects is known as context.

There are many different ways to create contrast in the images. Scale, an object's size in
relation to other objects around it, creates dramatic contrasts. Often, this contrast is
highlighted when the two objects are in close proximity, or the distance between the
objects. When the images are people, the direction they face or what they seem to be
looking at will also create a relationship. We can also use shape for contrast, as well as
texture. When we use contrast effectively in images, we tell complex stories in a work of
graphic design.

Cropping & Hierarchy in Graphic Design

In this lesson, we'll introduce the principle of hierarchy in graphic design, and discuss
how it helps us to present information. We'll also explore ways to create hierarchy and
the value of cropping, in establishing a focused design.
Have you ever looked at a photograph, flyer, or painting and found your eyes are led, almost
with a will of their own, through the composition in a specific order? If you walk away and
come back to the same design later, you'll likely discover yourself following the same visual
path again and again. Something, about that design, is actually having an effect on your
brain that makes you want to look at particular objects in a specific order.
You could interpret this as some creepy form of mind control, but that wouldn't be quite
accurate. What you are actually experiencing is a well-designed composition that uses the
principle of hierarchy. Hierarchy in graphic design uses the visual weight of objects in a
composition to establish an order of importance. It guides the viewer's eye, through the
information, in the specific order the designer intends.

Your eye is first drawn to the European flags in the windmill followed by the word
TOGETHER. The message tells us that these countries are together.

In case the term visual weight, which is also called mass, is unfamiliar, let's define it. Visual
weight is the degree an object in a composition commands attention from a viewer. This
means, a designer must always consider the visual weights in their composition, and the way
the hierarchy it creates will either help or hinder their presentation.

We can create hierarchy by manipulating the elements of design in the composition. These

are line, shape, form, texture, color, space, and typography. Our goal, when incorporating
hierarchy in our design, is to give the most weight to the most important information,
whether it includes words or images. Then, the next heaviest object contains the second-
most important information and so on.

So, let's take a quick look at how to establish visual weight among the elements of design, by
quickly focusing on the most commonly used methods.
Color
In using color, we want to create the greatest contrast for our main information, while
reducing degrees of contrast as we go. This could be a contrast of black and white or pairing
contrasting colors, those found on directly opposite sides of the color wheel. We also find
that the warmer colors of red, orange and yellow appear to be closer to the viewer, than cool
colors like blue, green, and violet. However, red is so bold that it carries the most weight,
while yellow carries the least weight.

Shape
Often, we find ourselves drawn to particular shapes over others. Geometric shapes, those
with mathematical regularities in their edges, angles, and curves have more visual weight
than organic shapes. Organic shapes have no mathematical regularities and are thus free to
turn, twist, and wander as they please. This mimics shapes found in nature.

What is the hierarchy in this image? You find yourself drawn to the geometric shapes in
the sculpture and the barn.

Space
Isolating an object in a composition can give it a substantial amount of visual weight.
Likewise, the size of a visual object, the amount of space it occupies in a composition, will
affect its weight. Larger objects will often have more weight than smaller objects.

Cropping
One tool in the graphic designer's kit is image cropping, cutting away parts of an image to
eliminate unwanted sections. This can be amazingly useful in establishing hierarchy. Often,
when taking a photograph, we want to focus on a particular element. Sometimes, however,
we realize objects around the focal point, or in the background distract the viewer, and take
away from the message. In these circumstances, we can cut away some of the edges to
remove those troublesome distractions.
 Much of the top image is useless space or objects taking attention away from the bird.
Cropped, you focus on the rare Southeast American kestrel.

Advanced cropping techniques can also create some exciting designs. Some artists will cut
away an object that is seemingly the focus of an image. Then, by laying the remaining
negative space over another image, parts of the new image fill the space left open by the
missing object. This creates visual interest while implying a relationship between the two.

Lesson Summary
In graphic design, we frequently use the principle of hierarchy, which employs the visual
weight of objects, to direct the viewer's eye through the information in a specific order. We
place the most important information in the heaviest object, reducing weight as we
approach lesser and lesser degrees of importance.

We create visual weight through the different elements of design: line, shape, form, texture,
color, space, and typography. Some of the most commonly used elements in visual weight
are color, shape, and space. A valuable tool, especially in creating hierarchy, is cropping.
This is the cutting away of unwanted, or distracting parts, of an image to increase focus on
particular objects or elements.
Showing Composition Elements in Context in
Graphic Design
In this lesson, we'll review composition elements of graphic design. Rather than
examine examples of each one individually, we'll look at three complete compositions
to see how these elements work together.

The Basics
As you've likely read from previous lessons, the elements of design are the basic building
blocks artists use to create their compositions. There are seven of them: line, color, shape,
texture, space, form, and typography.

In the image below, you can see line, color, and shape at the top. Below that, you see form,
typography, and texture. The element of space includes all the areas of the objects as well as
all the area around them.

The elements of design

Now, let's take a look at these elements when they are fully used in a design composition,
giving context to how they are used.

Line
In art, line is the path of a moving point through space. It can have any thickness as long as
it is longer than it is wide. You can even have an implied line where two areas of color or
texture meet without a specific line being drawn.

Color
We all learn to identify our colors from an early age, but what is it? Color is the visual
perception of light wavelengths refracted off an object. In art, we identify color by three
characteristics: The first is hue, which is the color itself such as red or purple, the next is
saturation or how intense or bright the color is, and finally, we have value which is how light
or dark a color is.

Shape
Shape as a design element is defined by boundaries created by lines or implied lines. You
can have geometric shapes with mathematical rules that appear manmade. You can have
organic shapes that have no regular rules or patterns and appear very natural. Finally, you
can have abstract shapes which are stylized images using the most basic attributes of a real-
world image.

Texture
Texture is how surfaces in your design feel or how they look like they would feel. In two-
dimensional compositions, texture is created through the illusion of light and shadow.

Form
A form is the three-dimensional equivalent of a shape. Basically, adding depth to length and
width creates a form; however, in a two-dimensional composition, form is an illusion created
by lines, shadow, and light in the same way the illusion of texture is created.

Space
Space is involved in every part of a composition and is either positive or negative space.
Positive space refers to the shapes of objects or anything that is a focal point of a design.
Negative space is the whitespace, empty space, or background areas of a composition.
Negative space can be just as important as positive space.

Typography
Typography as an element of design is more than just the words written in a composition. It
involves the way all the other elements are used in the words. This involves the typeface or
the style of the letters as well as the colors, textures, and sizes. It can even involve the
alignment you select in order to make the important words stand out in the design.

Example One
Now that we've gone over the elements with a small example in the beginning and fuller
definition below that, we can now discuss these elements when found in a real composition.
Our first example uses positive and negative space to create a stark contrast between the
man's silhouette and the negative space that ends up forming a woman's hands. Contrasting
the colors of light pink and black space makes both stand out even more.
 Positive and negative space are the dominant elements here.

The only part of the woman's hands that are not composed of negative space is the
fingernails. These are colored bright red. They are also the only part of the composition
using form, having a three-dimensional effect from the illusion of reflected light. Finally,
looking at the way the lines separate the man's form and the woman's hands, we have
clearly defined organic shapes. The only elements not used here are typography and
texture.

Example Two
In our next example, we have a poster from the 1940's advertising the plan for rebuilding
Europe after WWII.
 Marshall Plan poster

First, you see a variety of lines in the image. Most notable are the lines in the windmill tower
and the lines radiating out along the blades of the windmill, but you can find many others.
The blades create a large circular shape when put together, even though they are not
circular themselves. Shading creates a bit of form in the tower's rungs and on the blades.
The background is heavily textured compared to the smooth parts of the windmill. The
bright colors of the different European flags also draw attention to the message of European
countries working together. The negative space around the windmill is much darker so the
objects and letters stand out more. Finally, the typography involves colors that clearly
contrast the background and enlarges the word ''together'' as a strong emphasis.

Example Three
Our final example uses a heavily textured, colorful background space to contrast the black
image of the bird. The bird is also an abstract shape as no part of the drawing looks like a
real bird. The use of line between the parts of the bird creates the illusion of feathers. Within
the black spaces of the bird's shape, we find a number of other shapes and even a few
three-dimensional forms, like the globe. Again, the only element not used is typography.
 Shape and texture play an important role in this one.

Lesson Summary
In this lesson, we reviewed the elements of design which
include line, color, shape, texture, form, space, and typography. In our first example, we
saw how positive and negative space, created through color, can create an interesting
composition. In our second example, we saw colorful flags on windmill blades, a textured
background, and the use of typography. In our third example, we saw an abstract shape of a
bird with numerous forms all over its body against a brightly contrasted and textured
background.

Ch 9. Photography in Graphic Design

Digital Photography: Definition & Terminology
Do you have a camera? Is it digital? In this lesson, gain an understanding of what digital
photography is, and learn some important terms related to digital technology and file
formats.

What Is Digital Photography?

Do you have a favorite photo of family and friends? Did you take it? Many people enjoy using
a camera to take pictures.

Cameras and the resulting photos are ways to document important moments and preserve
happy memories. Today, most people, including perhaps you, use digital cameras to take
those pictures. A digital camera is an electronic device that takes a picture by using a light
sensitive device inside called an image sensor. The image sensor turns light into electrical
signals.

At one time, photography used a thin piece of coated plastic called film. The camera exposed
the film to light, and then photographers used chemicals to develop it and print images on
paper. But after the 1990s, digital cameras came into regular use and they've become
increasingly popular. The image sensor eliminates the need for film and allows you to
instantly view images after you take them.

Digital cameras allow you to view your image right after taking it

Today, digital cameras are everywhere. Odds are, if you have a smartphone, it includes a
digital camera.

Digital Photography Terms: Pixels and Megapixels

But do you understand how a digital camera works? Let's discuss some basic terms.

As mentioned, a camera's digital sensor captures the picture by turning light into electrical
signals, which are stored as tiny dots or bits of data. In the camera, these data bits form a bit
map, with rows and columns of dots. All the tiny dots combine to create the whole image.
Digital sensors come in many different sizes, so these bitmaps can vary greatly in size.
 Digital cameras, and their sensors, come in many sizes

To view the image on a computer or to print it on paper, the file from the camera is
downloaded onto a computer, which translates the bitmap into components called pixels,
or picture elements. One million pixels form a megapixel (MP). You'll often see camera
manufacturers advertise cameras by highlighting the number of megapixels. They've created
the impression that more megapixels mean a higher quality image.

While, in general, a high MP camera produces beautiful pictures, the MP number has more
to do with file size, than it does with picture quality. The MP number determines the
maximum size image that can be produced from the file. This is different from resolution,
or the density of the dots. Resolution determines how sharp and clear the image is.

If you're using your camera to take pictures to share on your computer, or you're printing
them as snapshots, you don't need a camera with extremely high megapixel numbers. Many
cell phones today have cameras with MP range of 9 - 13, and they produce nice, crisp images
with excellent resolution.

So when do you need a camera with a very large megapixel count? If you're a professional
photographer shooting images to be enlarged into posters, or used on wall-size billboards,
then a large MP number is important.

One more helpful term to know, related to your camera and the pictures it takes, is ISO
speed. ISO refers to the light sensitivity of the image sensor, and your digital camera has a
setting on it that lets you change the ISO speed to enable it to be more, or less, sensitive to
light. In general, low ISO speeds mean less light and crisper images. High ISO speeds allow
for images in dark areas but they might not be clear.

Digital Photography Terms: File Formats

When you download images to a computer, those pixels are stored using different kinds of
file formats.

The most familiar format might be the JPEG file. JPEG stands for Joint Photographic Experts
Group, and the format was designed by an industry group to ensure a standard format,
regardless of brand or type of electronic device. JPEG files can be compressed into a smaller
size, so the format is used for storing many images. There is a downside, though. When the
file is compressed, a tiny bit of data is lost. For snapshots and sharing images with friends on
your computer, JPEG is probably the file format you'll use.

Other file formats used in digital photography preserve image quality, but require a lot more
storage space. Such formats are used in the computer art, graphic design, and professional
photographic industry.

A Tagged-Image File Format or TIFF file preserves more image data. It's larger and not
compressed like a JPEG, so it creates very high-quality images. And, it's compatible with
many design and photography software programs used by art and design professionals.

A format with the file extension PSD means it's stored in a format specifically created in, or
for, Adobe Photoshop, a photographic software made by one of the most prominent
professional digital graphic design companies. PSD files are also compatible with other
Adobe programs, including Adobe Illustrator and Adobe InDesign.

You can store your photo files on your computer, in the cloud or on small memory cards. If
you take a lot of pictures, you should get a card with at least two or more gigabytes of
storage. A gigabyte is a unit of computer memory or data storage. Today's cameras take
larger images, and memory cards are becoming more powerful, equipped with higher
gigabytes to hold them.

Now you know more about digital photography, including terms that can help you decide
what kind of MP size you might need, and possible file storage formats. So get out your
camera and take some pictures.

Lesson Summary
Digital photography is a process that uses an electronic device called a digital camera to
capture an image. Instead of film, it uses an electronic digital sensor to translate light into
electrical signals. In the camera, the signals are stored as tiny bits of data in bitmaps, tiny
bits of data that form the image. When downloaded on to a computer, the bitmap is
translated into components called pixels, or picture elements. One million pixels form
one megapixel (MP). Camera manufacturers often advertise their products by touting high
MP numbers. But don't confuse high MP numbers with resolution, or how sharp and crisp
the image is. The MP number relates to the maximum size image that can be produced from
the file. The term ISO speed refers to the light sensitivity of the sensor, which can be raised
or lower.

Digital photography uses several file formats to store the data that comprises the photos.
These include the standard file format JPEG, which compresses files so many images can be
stored. File formats that don't compress data include Tagged-Image File
Format or TIFF and PSD, which is a format related specifically to Adobe Photoshop software.
PSD files are also compatible with other Adobe programs. You can also store your images on
memory cards that use gigabtyes or units of computer memory or data storage.
The Importance of Photography in Graphic
Design
Do you enjoy taking pictures? Did you know it can help improve skills in other creative
processes? In this lesson, explore why photography is important to graphic design.

What Is Graphic Design?

When was the last time you leafed through a magazine? Did you notice the advertisements?
They might have included drawn or painted illustrations or computer graphics, but more
than likely, they included photographs. In today's world, we see applications of photography
everywhere, including in graphic design.

Graphic design is the art of combining pictures and words to convey ideas. It's used in fields
like advertising and marketing. Unlike fine art, in which the image comes from the artist's
imagination, in graphic design, artists work for clients who want to convey specific messages.
The client might be selling products or services or trying to raise awareness about an issue,
and the artist has to create a design that meets their needs. All graphic designs have a
purpose and a message. Nothing in them is simply decorative or incidental.

In graphic design, images are often the best way to get ideas across. People respond to
images and process them regardless of what language they speak. Photographs are very
effective images that can convey stories very quickly. Think how less effective
advertisements would be if they used only words. And while graphic designers can use many
computer art and design software programs to create images, if they know how to do
photography, they have more skills in their arsenal.

But why is that?

Photography In Graphic Design

Even if you're already a working graphic designer, it's a good idea to develop photography
skills. And today, that probably means using a digital camera that takes photos with a digital
sensor rather than film.

Building photography skills can strength your graphic design skills

Using a camera is a creative outlet that can strengthen your abilities in ways applicable to
the design process. Photography is also a process. Every step requires making decisions
about the placement of objects, framing the shot, appropriate settings, and looking at
intricacies of light and color. All these elements are also important to graphic design.

Learning photography can help you develop a better eye for composition. Composition is
the combination of formal underlying elements like line, balance, and shape in an image.
When these elements are used well together, the result is a cohesive and effective image.
When photographing subjects, you're forced to understand how they relate to each other in
space, and you're constantly honing your skills in composition.

Photography can strengthen your eye in understanding the impact of light and color.
Graphic design includes a formal understanding of elements like warm and cool colors and
contrasts of dark and light. But photography makes you apply these ideas in real-world
settings. Think about trying to take an image of a stark winter landscape, and adding a
person with a red scarf to make the image pop. Now use that same idea in a design where
you want to create a focal point that reinforces the main idea with a splash of bright color.
The mediums are different, but the skill set is the same.

Photography can help you better understand the impact of light and color

Photography can also help you hone in on the importance of textures. Graphic design
often uses texture treatments for backgrounds and to create areas of emphasis.
Photographing textures like rough weathered barn wood or soft green moss give you a
better understanding of how differences in textures, whether dramatic or subtle, can have
an impact.
 Photography can help you better understand the importance of texture

There's another practical way that photography can enhance graphic design. If you shoot
your own images and develop a good photographic collection, you can use your own unique
images in projects rather than relying on other peoples' work or resorting to stock
photography, those readily available generic images of subjects that everyone else is using.
Plus, your photographs reflect your unique eye and vision, which can also make your graphic
design work stand out.

So, skills learned and increased through pursuing photography can directly impact graphic
design. The result can be stronger, more effective and dynamic work.

Lesson Summary
Graphic design is the art of combining pictures and words to convey ideas. It's used in fields
like advertising and every image created has a specific purpose. Photographs are some of
the most effective images used in graphic design. If you're a graphic designer, building your
photography skills can also lead to better design. Photography strengthens your ability to
consider composition, or the formal relation of elements in an image. Photography also
enables you to better understand the impact of light and color, and importance of
texture. In a practical sense, it can also help you develop your own library of photographic
images to use in projects, which makes you stand out from designers using other peoples'
work or those who resort to stock photography.

Photo Editing Software: Definition & Examples

When taking photographs, sometimes you may capture imperfections that you do not want
to be there! In this lesson, we will learn how photo editing software can make your images
look better.

What Is Photo Editing?

In the days when photographs on film were the norm, there was not much you could do to
make images look better except place the photographs in a beautiful picture frame or
album. Also, photographs already taken could not be changed, and you may even have
unwanted artifacts in the pictures, like a cat running across the yard or a bird flying
overhead. What do you do now?

Today there are software programs for editing photographs that allow us to take digital
images and edit the images to make them look more visually appealing. Computer editing
software programs also have the ability to take scanned images of old film photography,
convert them to digital images, and digitally restore them by removing blemishes and
enhancing the contrast. There are a number of other modifications available as well.

Photo Editing Software

Adobe Photoshop has become the industry standard for editing photographs and images.
You might have seen 'photoshopped' images before. For example, a well-known
photoshopped image is adding your face as a fifth president among the four actual
presidents in the real photograph of Mount Rushmore.

An image editing software found on all Windows computers is Microsoft Paint. Here you can
do basic image corrections, like crop an image, add text, change the image size, and airbrush
different colors to different parts of the image.

There are also a number of online photo editing software tools that allow you to upload a
photograph and perform a number of artistic manipulations on the image, including
cropping, adding borders, adding text, changing the background, adding objects to the
background, etc.

Commonly Used Tools in Photo Editing

There are a number of tools made available in photo editing software; we will now explore
some of them.

 The lasso tool allows you to use the mouse or keypad to draw an outline around a
digital photograph to select an object or a portion of an object. For example, you took
a photograph of you and your little puppy in the front yard, but the photograph also
captured a neighbor walking a dog. Since you did not want them in your picture, you
can use the lasso tool and carefully draw around the outline of the person and the
dog and delete them from the picture.

 The paintbrush tool works like a traditional paintbrush. You can select this tool, the
width of the brush, and the color of the paint, and then click on the selection of the
photograph that you would like the color to be changed to. For example, if in the
photograph there is a picture of a trash can against a white wall, you can paint over
the trash can in white so that it blends in with the background.

 The crop tool comes in handy because it allows you to crop or take out a portion of a
picture and get an image of the selected object without all the background. Suppose
you're planning to put up your sofa for sale; you can crop the sofa from the picture
and remove the entire background. Now you have the picture of just your sofa, which
you can then print out for flyers.
  The move tool can be used to move selections in the image. Imagine you have a
photograph of your puppy and your car in the driveway, and the puppy is playing by
your feet. You can, for instance, use the move tool to move the puppy to the hood of
the car. This will give you a more dramatic picture of your puppy!

Lesson Summary:
Photo editing tools are software programs that allow you to creatively edit a previously
taken photograph. If you have a picture of your dog playing with a ball in your backyard, you
can use the lasso tool to select the ball, paintbrush tool to brighten the color of the ball, or
crop tool to crop out the picture of your dog and the ball for a postcard. If you want to move
the ball away from the dog, then use the move tool, or the airbrush tool to hide or remove
the dirty paws on your dog. You can use these tools to make several different edits that help
make your picture more interesting and appealing.

Practical Application: Using Photo Editing

Software
Use this practical application to practice performing basic photo editing tasks such as
resizing and cropping. These basic tasks can be done with any photo editing software.

Photo Editing Software

Photo editing software is popular and necessary for business and personal reasons. For
business, photo editing software is used to edit images to make them ready for use on the
company website and for marketing and advertising purposes.

For personal use, photo editing software is used to make collages and digital scrapbook
pages, or to restore old photos. Examples of photo editing software includes Adobe
Photoshop, Gimp, and Microsoft Paint.

It's important to know how to perform more basic photo editing tasks, as these are
necessary to make files ready to be emailed or posted on the internet. Use the photo below
or another photo and then follow the task prompts to practice performing some basic tasks
such as cropping.

The Photo
Here is a photo that can be used for the tasks to follow. To use it, right click on the picture,
click Copy Image and then paste it into any photo editing software.
 Use this photo

The Tasks
Use any photo editing software to perform the following tasks to the photo.

1. Resize the image to 600 pixels wide.

2. Crop the image so it has a 1:1 size ratio and so that it doesn't have the tree in it, only
bubbles (it will have a square shape).

3. Rotate the image 45 degrees clockwise.

4. Add text that says 'Bubble Contest'.

5. Copy and paste this image onto your existing image.

 Copy this photo

6. Move the pasted image to the lower right corner of the image.

The final image should look something like this:

The final result

Types of Images: Vector & Raster Graphics

Software applications work with two types of images: vector graphics and raster graphics.
Learn about the different characteristic of each type of image.

Use of Images
Many types of documents use images to illustrate a product or concept. Presentations, in
particular, will become much more interesting when you have effective visuals. For example,
a presentation on the marketing for a product is likely going to have an image of the product
itself. When describing the manufacturing process of a product, you may want to include a
diagram that shows the steps in the production process.

There are a number of specialized software applications to create and edit images, including
illustration software and photo-editing software. In general, these applications work with
two types of images: vector graphics and raster graphics.
Vector Graphics
Vector graphics consist of illustrations created using line work. In technical terms, you use
points, lines, curves and shapes to create the illustration. Vector graphics are based on
vectors, also referred to as paths. You can think of drawing with a pencil as the process of
creating vectors, since you are drawing lines.

One of the key characteristics of a vector graphic is that the line work is sharp, even when
you zoom in very closely. In a computer application, the line work is stored as a
mathematical formula that describes the exact shape of the line. So when you zoom in, you
are seeing the line in more detail but it remains a line.

You can alter how vector graphics look by changing the properties of the line and by filling in
the area between the lines. This can turn a set of simple black and white lines into a great
illustration. When you see a photo-realistic illustration that is not actually a photograph, the
illustration typically consists of a very detailed vector graphic containing hundreds or
thousands of lines.

Vector graphics are created and edited using illustration software. There are a number of
different illustration applications. One of the most widely used ones is Illustrator by Adobe.
Others include CorelDraw by the Corel Corporation and the open source applications
Inkscape and Xara Xtreme. Vector graphics can be stored in a number of different file
formats, including AI, EMF, SVG and MWF.

Raster Graphics
Raster graphics consist of illustrations created using pixels. In technical terms, you use a
rectangular grid of cells of equal size and each cell has its own color. These cells are also
called pixels. Raster graphics are also called bitmaps. Digital photographs are the most
common type of raster graphics.

Digital photographs in general are raster graphics. If you have a digital camera, you may
know that it uses a certain number of megapixels. This refers to the number of pixels used
for a single picture. A defining characteristic of a raster graphic is that when you zoom in
very closely, you start to see the actual pixels.

An important property of a raster graphic is its resolution. Resolution indicates the amount
of detail, so a higher resolution means more detail. You can achieve a higher resolution by
using more pixels, which is why a larger number of megapixels for a digital camera results in
sharper photographs.

For example, a digital photograph of 800 (horizontal) by 600 (vertical) pixels uses 480,000
pixels total. A digital photograph of 2,048 by 1,536 pixels uses 3,145,728 pixels or 3.1
megapixels. This provides a lot of more detail to represent the object being photographed.
However, more pixels also means that more data storage is needed and high resolution
digital photography can take up a lot of storage space.

Raster graphics are manipulated using photo-editing software. One of the most widely used
ones is Photoshop by Adobe. Other ones are PhotoPlus X6 and Aperture. A popular open
source application is GIMP. Raster graphics can be stored in a number of different file
formats, including BMP, GIF, JPEG, PNG and TIFF.
Vector vs. Raster
Both vector and raster are widely used for illustrations. In fact, when you see an illustration,
you may not recognize which of the two formats is used until you zoom in very closely. In
general, most illustrations created from scratch by an illustrator or graphic designer use
vector, while images collected using a digital camera use raster. In addition, many vector
graphics are exported to raster format at high resolution to make them easier to work with
in other software applications. So, an illustrator may create a detailed line drawing in
illustration software, but the final image in a report may consist of a raster version of that
illustration.

Lesson Summary
Software applications work with two types of images: vector graphics and raster images.
Vector graphics consist of illustrations created using line work. You can think of drawing with
a pencil as the process of creating vectors. One of the key characteristics of a vector graphic
is that the line work is sharp, even when you zoom in very closely. Vector graphics are
created and edited using illustration software.

Raster graphics consist of illustrations created using pixels. Raster graphics are also called
bitmaps. Digital photographs are the most common type of raster graphics. A defining
characteristic of a raster graphic is that when you zoom in very closely, you start to see the
actual pixels. Raster graphics are manipulated using photo-editing software.

Learning Outcomes
After this lesson, you should be able to:

 Summarize how vector graphics and raster graphics are created

 Identify the defining characteristics of vector and raster graphics
 List examples of each type of graphic
 Compare and contrast these two types of graphics

Graphic Design Application in Time-Based Media

In this lesson, learn about time-based media and its creative processes. Also, examine some
of the uses of time-based media in graphic design and the benefits of this type of media for
transmitting memorable messages to your audience.

Time-Based Media
When we think about graphic design, we often think about logos, packages for a product, or
maybe posters for advertisements. However, the scope of graphic design goes far beyond
printed media into a world of possibilities involving time, which we call time-based media.

Time-based media refers to artwork and audiovisual media that have a duration of time
and are revealed to the viewer over a specific time frame. In other words, besides the
content's physical dimensions (like length, height and depth), time comes into play.
 Photographic sequence of a horse jumping (Muybridge, 1904). A video is made by
several frames played at time intervals.

Some time-based media include video, film, animation, audio, interactive art installations,
and performance art. If it has a time duration, it is probably time-based media, from a 30-
second ad to a 90-minute movie.

Creative Processes of Time-Based Media

The creative process to produce time-based media usually involves three main stages.

Pre-production is the first stage, when the general concept is developed. If texts will be used,
this is when you write them; you also define graphical styles, colors, locations, characters,
everything you will be using. Ideally, you should do a pre-visualization during this phase to
get a better idea if you are going on the right direction.

Next comes production, which includes creating all the material you have been preparing
for. This could mean filming, shooting photos, making computer animations, recording
music, etc. The goal is to gather all the desired material with the required quality.
 Video shooting is part of the production process

Finally, you have to put everything together, edit it and polish the details; this is post-
production. During this stage, you will adjust sound, re-do any part that might not look good
enough, insert digital effects and more.

At the end of the day, you will save the final output and have it ready for display.

Graphic Design for Time-Based Media

Graphic design is about communicating messages through visual media, and time-based
media offers designers many possibilities to complement or enhance the impact of printed
materials and other media.

In graphic design, one of the most common uses of time-based media is advertisement.
Short videos are a popular form of publicity on TV and the internet, in movies theaters, and
even in commercial settings. Nowadays we commonly find screens playing videos of the
menu of a restaurant, or displaying how a cosmetic product works.

Screens playing advertisement videos in London

You can also use time-based media for making product launch videos. Somewhat longer
than ads, these productions tell the viewer about your company, go into some detail about
the features and benefits of the new product and invite viewers to try it. Similarly, corporate
videos present the features of a company and the services it offers (rather than presenting a
specific product).

Media productions can feature actors, digital animation or, commonly, a combination of
both. Graphic designer can use a variety of elements, including images, texts and sounds, to
deliver a memorable message that will impact the viewer.

Working with a team to produce time-based media, graphic designers are often the creators
of the main concept, or the people who orchestrate the entire process. A graphic designer
can also work during pre-production to use their skills to define colors, create scripts, and so
on. Although less common, graphic designers may also act as photographers or cameramen
during production, or as editors during post-production.

Benefits of Time-Based Media in Graphic Design

Time-based media usually involves longer working hours and higher costs than printed
media so, as a graphic designer, you will often have customers asking why they should use it
for promoting their brands.

Consider this: If you have a product you want to sell, what would you prefer? One-hundred
word flyers stating the virtues of your product that you distribute to several people on the
street, or a 30-second internet video with engaging images and someone saying the same
100 words but to many, many more viewers?

Now you get the idea of the impact of time-based media. By using it, graphic design can be
very effective in conveying messages. It is easier for people to remember something that
stimulated the eyes and ears, rather than something they just saw and (perhaps) read.

Furthermore, with the massive numbers of people online, time-based media offers the
possibility of reaching broader audiences without investing all the money often needed to
buy space on television. People might even share your video on social media, and for your
brand that basically means free advertising.

Smartphones and internet offer countless possibilities for using time-based media

Big companies have noticed this potential and many now create videos specifically for the
internet. However, campaigns typically combine different media to maximize their impact.
Think of Coca-Cola - you know they're everywhere because you saw their ads on TV, on the
internet, and in a newspaper.

With all the possibilities of time-based media, it's good to remember that the message you're
transmitting is the priority, so focus on delivering it clearly. Digital animation can achieve
amazing effects, but too many might distract the viewer. Also, use a moderate amount of
text; remember that your viewer will only have a few seconds to read, so you don't want to
overwhelm them. Finally, keep in mind that attention levels drop quickly, so try to keep your
production short and concise.

Lesson Summary
Time-based media is artwork and audiovisual media that has a duration of time, like video,
film, animation and audio. Its creation usually involves three stages: preparation or pre-
production, making the material or production, and editing or post-production.

Time-based media offers great possibilities for transmitting messages in graphic design.
Advertisement, product launch and corporate videos are some of the time-based
productions commonly associated with graphic design. Time-based media can produce a
lasting impression on the viewer, and has the potential to reach a broad market, especially
by using internet and social media. When using time-based media, focus on keeping the
message clear, try not to exaggerate the use of text or visual effects, and keep the
production concise.

Ch 10. Web Design Basics

What is Web Design? - Definition & Elements
In this lesson, we'll explore the basics of web design, starting with a definition. We'll also look
at four categories of web design elements, such as technical, layout, content, and navigation,
as well as why they matter.

Building the Website

So, you've decided to build your first website but you're not quite sure where to start. Well,
first, you should be fully aware of what web design means. It's the process of creating
websites by combining the client's needs with useful content, aesthetic elements, and a
layout that aids users and allows easy navigation of the site.

The elements of web design take many of the basics of graphic design and include multiple
levels of linked pages with interactive features that are common on the internet. We'll break
these down into four categories: technical, layout, content, and navigation.
 Example of excellent web design

Technical Elements
The technical elements of webpage design are all about understanding limits, both yours
and your users. You might want a website with all the bells and whistles along with tons of
image content, but do you have enough space on a server to host that much data? Is the
server fast enough to load that much content quickly? Finally, would your average user's
computer or internet connection process data quickly enough for the page to load easily. No
one likes waiting around for a page to load.

Once you know your answers to those questions, you can go deeper into the tech needs. Do
you plan to code the website yourself using a design language called HTML or will you use a
software program to create the webpage? Web building programs allow you to insert the
various aspects of the webpage and the program handles all the background coding.
However, if you use a program, make sure it's compatible with the most common web
browsers, like Internet Explorer, Chrome, Firefox, and Safari. You should also be sure you
use compatible backgrounds, colors, and fonts, which we will get into in another
section. Compatibility will ensure that what you design can be read by your user's
computer and appear on their screen just as you intended.

Layout
The layout aspects of web design are often the most fun. This is where you get to pick how
the website will look, such as your background, font, pictures, videos, and sound. You'll need
to decide how words and images will be arranged on the page so that what you say relates
to the images shown.

You'll want to pick a background, even if it's just a plain, white screen. A background can set
the mood for the website by using colors or images behind all the other visual elements.
Make sure it allows users to easily read the words on the screen rather than cause the text
to blend into the background or strain the eyes. You'll always want to select a font, a
particular style and size, for the text on your website and be sure it's compatible with the
web browsers of your users. There's nothing worse than having someone visit your page
only to find out that all the words are a jumbled mess or that the visual elements are pushed
together so the page looks too busy.

Keeping in mind your technological limits, you should decide if you want images on the
webpage. Pictures can be helpful in breaking up large stretches of text, which can lose a
visitor's interest. However, the number of images per page will depend on the speed at
which the page will load.

The same goes for multimedia elements like video and audio content. Do you want a video
to begin playing as soon as users access the page? Do you want them to hear sound in the
background? Always ask yourself if these additions are necessary and if they enhance the
experience enough to make them worth the loading speed lag.

Multimedia elements to play video or download content

Content
Next, we have content, the information conveyed on the webpage through the words,
images, videos, and audio. What do you want to say to the people visiting your site? Also,
consider what kind of special features you will include, such as an option to sign up for a
newsletter or answer a questionnaire about the content. Those features are
called interactivity and can get the user invested in their experience on your website.

Navigation
Finally, we have navigation, the way a user will move through the different pages on your
website. Unless you only have a single page for all the information you want to present,
which is highly discouraged, you will want users to move through the different pages based
on their interests and needs. To do this, you need to arrange the information logically and
present clear ways for them to select what pages to visit next.
 Navigation Options

Lesson Summary
Web design is the process of creating websites by combining the client's needs with useful
content, aesthetic elements, and a layout that aids users. Elements of web design can be
broken down into the categories of technical aspects, layout, content, and navigation.

Technical aspects include the capabilities of your computer, the server the webpage will be
stored on, and the user's computer capabilities, all important in deciding how data-rich your
webpage should be. It also involves the compatibility of your design with the user's web
browser.

Next, the design of the website, including the placement of images, text, and other visual
aspects, are defined by the page's layout. You should decide what kind of background, the
color or image behind all the other content on the page, and font, the style of written text,
you want as well as if you will include multimedia elements like video and audio.

After that, you have the content, the information you wish to convey to users through text
and multimedia elements. In some cases, you'll want to include some interactivity to allow
users to interact with the website. Finally, we have navigation, the way users move around
the multiple pages of a website. This must be clearly and logically arranged to enhance the
user's experience.

Web Design vs. Graphic Design

This lesson will help you understand the basic concepts behind graphic design and
web design. You'll learn how they're different yet how both may be necessary at the
same time in order to complete a project.

Design
If you stop and think about it, there's a lot of stuff you can design. You can design homes,
magazines, and cars. There's even the concept of a designer baby, where we manipulate the
genes of an embryo. But in this lesson, we're going to stick to far less controversial designer
topics. We're going to delineate some of the concepts between graphic design and web
design.
What is Graphic Design?
We can simplify graphic design to the following statement. 'Graphics design' refers to the
creation of images and/or typography or the assembly of combinations thereof. In short,
graphic design is a form of visual communication. Graphic designers create images in order
to represent some sort of idea or convey a message.

You see the work of graphic designers all over the place, in places like:

 Brochures at the dentist's office

 Advertisements in a magazine that try to get you to buy a soda
 Posters at a convention touting a company's new technology
 Product packaging that makes that cereal look super-delicious
 Company logos on a business card that demonstrate what the company does

A graphic designer created the visual imagery on this airplane.

Graphic designers often illustrate their images with computer software, such as Adobe
Photoshop or CorelDRAW, yet they don't need to master any computer languages in order to
perform their work.

What is Web Design?

At least in this respect, graphic design is quite different from web design. Web design is the
creation and modification of the visuals, content, and performance of a website. It relies
heavily on computer-based coding languages, such as HTML and CSS.

So web design involves graphic design from the standpoint of creating or using visuals for a
purpose. Web designers must care about how a website looks just like a graphic designer
cares about how a brochure looks. The major difference between the two is that the web
designer must also be concerned about how the website works to support that visual
imagery.

For instance, a graphic designer might create a very large, super fancy, and very high-quality
visual for a poster at a trade show. A web designer may not be able to put the same kind of
visual on a website because it'll slow down the website's load times to a crawl (and therefore
annoy visitors enough to click away from the site). Or if they do put the visual on the website,
they'll heavily modify it so the visual doesn't impact the performance of the website.

The Overlap
Now it should be noted, that many times (especially in large organizations) graphic designers
and web designers work together. It may be up to a graphic designer to actually come up
with the visual layout and graphics for a company website.

While a graphic designer created these icons, a web designer will optimize and format
them for use on a website.

However, it'll be up to the web designer to actually take that visual information and then
have it be displayed on a website in a way that positively affects a user's experience and
interaction with the website.

Lesson Summary
Graphic design involves the creation or use of visuals and typography for visual
communication. Graphic designers use images to convey an idea or message. You can find
their work in product packaging, in ads, and many other places.

Web design is the creation and maintenance of the visuals, content, and performance of a
website. Beyond being concerned with how a website looks, web designer must also be on
the lookout for how a website works.

Graphic designer illustrate by hand or using software such as Adobe Photoshop. Web
designers must know how to code, including via the use of CSS and HTML.

Graphic Design for the Web

Graphic design for the web offers countless possibilities, but also requires special attention.
In this lesson, examine some important considerations and key aspects of graphic design for
the web.
Graphic Design for the Web
You love high-quality images, HD videos, and elaborate designs with plenty of graphic
elements. But, now that you are designing a website, you wonder if it would be wise to
include all that.

It is common for graphic designers to create material for websites and mobile applications.
However, graphic design for the web is not only about visual impact; there are several
important aspects you need to take into account if you want to create good and memorable
designs.

The balance between quality, compatibility, and simplicity is key to getting a good
performance and accurately delivering your message. Your web design has to be functional
and look good.

Functionality
You want your design to work well so you need to make it easy to use, and compatible with
common hardware and software configurations.

Navigability
Websites offer more interactive experiences than other media, like TV ads, that try to deliver
a message in just a few seconds. On a website, you want visitors to stay longer and remain
interested.

Therefore, you need a design that is easy for browsing around; that is, you need, navigability.
Your website has to be user-friendly so people can intuitively find all the information. It
needs links, and menus, that are visible and clearly highlight important elements.

For example, if your website is about a new line of clothes, but you include no images, and
the visitor has to go through several menus for buying, it is very likely that you won't sell
anything.

Hardware considerations
The way content displays changes between different types of devices. You need to create a
responsive design (one that adapts to different viewing methods) or design specific versions
for computers, smartphones, or other portable devices.
 Your design will change from device to device

Although the internet is much faster now, the loading time is very important. You want your
site to open as quickly as possible so customers don't have to wait; otherwise, they might
end up opening your competitor's site. Heavy images and videos often take a long time to
load.

Do not make your potential customers wait

When someone is browsing through your website, the physical memory of that computer is
used. A design with just the right amount of elements and small files will respond quickly,
and won't slow down the computer.

Software considerations
All the information needs to be delivered easily. Therefore, try to create content that will
properly display on commonly-used browsers. Also, do previews on how it will look on
different browsers.

Consider file formats and compatibility as well. JPG and PNG are usually sure bets for
pictures and images, as they are recognized by most browsers. For short animations that
don't require high resolution (like banners or memes), you could use GIF files. Be careful
when including less common formats because they might not display. For example, SVG files
won't load on older versions of Internet Explorer.

Compatible file formats help you avoid potential errors

Appearance
Your website may have many pages and lots of content. However, visitors must identify your
brand at all times, so a consistent design is key. You can still be creative and include unique
features, here and there, but make sure to keep a common language and repeat specific
elements, like your logo, colors or a slogan.

Design consideration
Font types are one design element to consider. In printed media, designers sometimes
choose elaborate fonts to make designs appealing, but for the web, you want easy to read
texts. Try to go with simple and clear fonts.

Colors might look different on different screens, depending on brightness and resolution.
Colors that contrast is a good choice, especially for texts. For example, black and white, or
blue and orange.

Check color configurations to make sure that your brand's colors will display properly.
Remember that cyan, magenta, yellow, black (CMYB) color codes, used in print media, are
different from red, green, blue (RGB) colors, used on the web and other digital media.

Regarding resolution, most computer screens usually display between 72 and 120 pixels per
inch (PPI). It is a good practice to keep your images within that range. They will look well, and
won't be too heavy. If you want to highlight a detail of one of your images, you can crop it to
make it smaller, while still keeping the most important part.

Content considerations
As with any other design project, you have to pay attention to how important information is
arranged. Remember that people usually scan the site before actually reading it, so help
them find what they are looking for, by making titles and key texts stand out.
 Organize what you want to show and where

A particular aspect of web content is search engine optimization, or (SEO). It refers to a

series of practices that can help your website gain visibility, and be among the first results in
web search engines (like Google or Yahoo). This helps to bring more visitors in. A common
SEO practice is to include, and repeat some keywords; specific words that people often look
for in search engines.

SEO will make your website easier to find

Finally, developing a website is not only about graphic design, it also involves some
computer programming knowledge. There are some websites and tutorials that can guide
you through the process, but if you are working on a complex project, it might be a good
idea to get a web developer to help you.

Lesson Summary
Graphic design for the web needs to balance quality, compatibility, and simplicity in order to
guarantee a good performance, and accurately deliver messages. The designs need to
be user-friendly and adaptable to the different devices from which the website can be
accessed. It is also important to optimize loading times and use compatible files, that will
display properly on most browsers.
Regarding the appearance, designs should have a consistent language on the different
pages of a website. Fonts and colors should help make the content clear, and easy to read.
Images with resolutions between 72 - 120 PPI will usually display well on most monitors.
Finally, content has to be clearly organized and SEO should be taken into consideration for
attracting more visitors.

Ch 11. Logos & Brand Identity

What is a Logo? - Design & Development
Businesses need to come up with a sort of sign to be identifiable in a market. This sign or
logo is what we will discuss today. We will go over the design and development of a logo.

Definition
Cindy is in marketing class. She has a project due in two weeks. Her project requires her to
select an existing business and develop a sign or logo for that business, something that is
eye-catching to the audience. The business Cindy selects sells natural foods. She asks her
friend Mark, 'What do I have to do to make this logo for this business?' She asks Mark, who
works in advertising, to help her come up with the design.

A logo is a design that is used to make the business recognizable and tells the audience what
the business stands for. It usually consists of a single symbol that instantly makes people
think of a specific business.

Mark tells Cindy to think of McDonald's. A good logo is very recognizable. The colors
McDonald's uses for its logo are red and yellow because those colors have a psychological
effect on people. The color red attracts attention and yellow symbolizes joy and kindness.
The person who made the McDonald's logo probably figured out that if he made the M
yellow it would stand out more. So Mark tells Cindy that logos are well thought out. They
often have a psychology behind them. You should know your audience and your company
very well before developing the logo.

Design & Development

Cindy's first step in designing a logo is to know the business. She needs to know
the history of the business, what would be a good description for the business, and what
the brand is. Only then can Cindy try to come up with drafts of logo ideas to find the best
one. Luckily, she has Mark to assist her as well. They continue to work together to find the
best design for the company. Cindy chose a natural foods company. The founders believe in
giving customers the best products. They also believe in recycling and helping the
community. Cindy and Mark have enough information about the company to formulate a
logo. The next step is making it.

Cindy likes to work with a pencil and paper, so she makes some drawings first of different
ideas for logos as she thinks of them. Mark likes to use programs such as Adobe Illustrator
the computer. Cindy and Mark decide to come up with an image, the graphic design
elements of the logo, and content, the text that often accompanies the image. Some
businesses focus more on the image and some just use written content. Some balance both.
The idea is to keep it easy for the audience to understand and recognize the logo. It is up to
the logo designer to decide what words best to capture the audiences attention and identify
the company. Cindy and Mark know that the color is important because it brings out
emotions. The font is also important. It's important to remember not to use many different
fonts in a logo because it will look less professional. Since the company focuses on selling
natural products, Cindy and Mark decide to use the color green in the logo to evoke a
connection with nature. Cindy and Mark finished the logo and got their peers to give them a
review.

Lesson Summary
In conclusion, a logo is a design used to grab the audiences attention and describe the
business. A good logo helps the company become more recognizable. It takes time to make
a logo. The developer should know the business, what its history is and what it stands for
before beginning the design process. The design and process requires thinking of many
ideas and working to find one that fits with the beliefs of the company and will attract the
audience. It's important to consider things like color and font when developing a logo.

Practical Application: Designing & Developing a

Logo
Almost every business you can think of has a logo - that symbol that immediately
identifies the business and sets it apart from others. Practice analyzing the factors that
go into the development of an effective logo, and then try your hand at developing one
yourself.

A Logo for Every Business

Logos are those symbols that help us to identify businesses and tell them apart from their
competitors. In the lesson What is a Logo? - Design & Development you examined some of
the key considerations that designers think about when developing logos. These include the
business the company is in, their brand personality and values, the psychological effects of
color, and the profile of their customers. All of these factors guide the final design of any
logo.

In this practical application, your task is to review the scenario, consider some key questions,
and then design a possible logo. You can sketch it by hand or practice using one of the many
computer graphics programs used by designers.

Scenario Company Needs a Logo

Two avid hikers, Jon and Michael Donner, started the Sequoia Hiking Company earlier this
year. Growing up, they spent years hiking throughout the western United States. One of
their biggest problems had always been finding hiking gear such as jackets, backpacks,
hiking poles, and other gear that is both high quality and affordable.
Often they made their own gear, having family members help them. After graduating from
college they decided to start their own company. They named it after the trees in one of
their favorite national parks.

Their company mission is to provide environmentally friendly products that reflect their own
commitment to the environment. They use recycled plastic to create clothing and backpacks
and construct their hiking poles from sustainable materials like bamboo.

Their target is outdoors enthusiasts who share their commitment to protecting the planet
and the places they visit. They believe in simplicity - a ''less is more'' approach to what they
design and sell.

They need a logo to help set their products apart from other companies. They want it to be
different from the logos of most companies who brand their products with the actual
company name, such as Garmont and Granite Gear. They want a logo that stands on its own
like those for Apple and McDonald's.

Getting Started: Picking a Program

When you create a logo you prepare the finished art with a computer-based program so that
you can export it for a variety of applications. Whether you work for a large organization or
are doing it just for yourself, keep four key considerations in mind:

1. Is it user-friendly? The program should not get in the way of your creativity.
2. Is it professional? Will the finished product look polished and high quality?
3. Is it customizable? Does it limit what you can do or allow you free-rein when creating
images, selecting fonts, and creating effects?
4. What is the cost? You get what you pay for but the most expensive or best known
name may not be right for your needs.

Some of the most common programs that meet all of these criteria better than most include
Adobe Illustrator, QuarkXPress, and CorelDRAW. A search on the internet will offer you a
wide variety of choices to meet your needs and be compatible with your computer platform
depending on whether you work on a PC or a MAC. Many programs offer limited free trials
so you can test drive them before you buy.

Getting Started: Analysis Questions

Once you have your computer program in place, before you start designing, ask yourself the
following questions:

1. Who is the core customer group for the company?

2. What are the values of the company and what do they mean for a logo?
3. What colors fit the concept of the company?
4. Where is the logo being used?
5. What types of logos do the company owners like?
6. Is their company concept in the name of the company?

A logo is a reflection of the personality of a company. Answering these questions helps you
generate ideas and gives your design focus. Now, start creating!
Business Logo: Branding & Importance
This lesson introduces the business logo, one of the most important aspects of marketing a
business. We will also discuss branding and its importance to business marketing. Finally, we
will look at how the logo and brand are related.

Yawn Be Gone
Lindsay is an entrepreneur who opened a coffee shop in her city a few years ago. After a
great deal of thought, she decided to name her shop 'Yawn Be Gone'. Lindsay chose this
name to celebrate coffee's most important characteristic. Despite her shop's unique name,
Lindsay still served a familiar product and she knew she needed a way to distinguish her
shop from other coffee shops so that customers would remember and continue to return to
'Yawn Be Gone'.

Lindsay needed a business logo. A business logo is defined as a graphic or a mark that is
used to identify a specific company, group, brand, or product. Wherever you are right now
you can probably see a logo. Look at your computer, your clothes, your snack or your phone.
They will all contain a logo (and probably one that is widely recognized).

Lindsay decided to use a logo that matched the name of her shop, so she drew a few
pictures of people in mid-yawn. After looking them over she decided to go with this business
logo:
Protect That Logo
After Lindsay had her logo finalized, she wanted to make sure no one else could use it for
another business. In order to do this she filed for a trademark. A trademark is defined as a
legally protected name, design, or symbol used in business to distinguish one brand from
another. Once Lindsay filed for trademark protection no other business could legally use her
logo. Lindsay's trademark lasts for ten years, so Lindsay will have to refile in a few years to
extend her protection.

From a Logo to a Brand

Since opening 'Yawn Be Gone', Lindsay has enjoyed great success and is about to open
several new locations. She knows that she needs to do the same things in her new shops
that originally made 'Yawn Be Gone' so successful. All of these things that have made her
successful are referred to as her 'brand'.

A brand is defined as the expectations that customers have from a particular business and
how those expectations differentiate the business from other businesses. Lindsay's brand is
the combination of her:

 Menu
  Service standards
 Hours of operation
 Location
 General shop ambiance

The business logo is the graphic representation of that brand. That means when customers
see the 'Yawn Be Gone' logo, they know what to expect as far as product quality and service.
Businesses work hard and spend a great deal of money and resources on creating, building,
and maintaining a brand.

Lesson Summary
The logo and the brand are very closely related. Businesses work hard at creating and
maintaining a brand. They use the logo to summarize that brand to their current and
potential customers. They also trademark that logo so that no other companies can use
their logo. Without this protection another company can essentially 'steal' all of the hard
work that was put into creating and maintaining the brand.

Brand Identity: Definition & Graphic Design

Applications
Learn what brand identity is and how it is important for the success of a company. In this
lesson, we will explore some key concepts and the different elements that make part of the
brand identity. We will also examine some interesting examples.

What Is Brand Identity?

You took the big step and decided to start that company you've been thinking about for a
while. You know what you want to offer, but the public still doesn't know you. You have a
product but not yet a brand.

Perhaps you are in the food business and want to run the best restaurant in town. But you
can't force people to think you are the best; you need to convince them. To do so, you will
launch promotions and organize some sampling nights. You will also hire a designer to
design your logo, create a stunning menu, prepare videos about your dishes, and come up
with a funny character for advertisements.

Let's explore some important definitions:

Your brand is the perception the public has of your company and the products or services it
offers. A brand is formed by the consumers' opinions and what they say about your brand; a
good image is what gives it value. The best restaurant in town — that's the brand you want
to develop.

All the actions that are oriented to positioning the brand are commonly referred to
as branding. That would include the tastings and promotions.

The brand identity groups all those visible and tangible elements created to represent the
company's image and shows it to the public. It establishes a connection with customers and
is what makes the company recognizable to them. Furthermore, the brand identity is what
sets you apart from the competition. The logo, menu, videos, and the character will be your
brand identity.

Designing Brand Identity

Graphic design is closely related to brand identity because all the ''language'' of your
company needs to be developed. This means that every element needs to be designed in a
way that is coherent with the image you want to transmit.

Before actually jumping into designing, however, you need to understand clearly your
product and company, know who your market is, and what it might expect from you. In your
designs, you want to highlight the values of your business, what it does better than anyone
else, and what makes it stand out from the competition.

Logo
The logo is a graphic representation of your company. It is one of the most important
elements for any brand and is usually among the first assets to be designed. Your logo is
basically a simple image that you use to symbolize your brand, like your brand's signature.

There are many types of logos; some are letters, images, symbols, or basic geometric forms.
However, a good logo is simple and memorable so it can be immediately associated with
your brand. You also want it to be versatile enough for use in different advertisements,
merchandise, and more.

Brand Language
The brand language is the common characteristics of the visual elements that will promote
your product, including colors, fonts, images, slogans, and so on.

You will use the same language for business cards, packaging (if your business involves
selling something physical), websites, email templates, promotional materials, and maybe
even uniforms for you and your employees.

The logo, websites, apps, letterhead, and business cards are all part of the brand identity.
Everything you design is important, but, depending on your business, you will probably pay
special attention to some elements. If you are running a restaurant, the menu will be a top
priority. If you have an online business, you will want to invest a lot of time polishing every
detail of your website.

After several years using the same designs, many companies choose to introduce a new
image. This is a big decision and often means that every element of your identity needs to be
refreshed so that it corresponds to the new language.

Brand Style Guide

Once you have all your material, you might want to define the guidelines for future works.
This is when the style guide comes into play.

The brand style guide is a document that includes all the key aspects of your brand
language, including how and when to use your logo, the general templates, fonts, and many
other resources. It will be useful if you decide to hire new designers for creating further
material.

A brand style guide

Some Real-life Examples

Fast food chain McDonald's is a great example of brand identity. It has been successful in
defining a strong and distinctive image. Regardless of the opinions on the food, the logo with
two yellow arches, the unmistakable character, and the use of red and yellow colors have
created a memorable impression on the public, and many can immediately identify the
company and associate it with its products.
 Regardless of the language, this brand identity can be easily identified.

Another interesting example is the brand identity of the American technology company
Apple. The logo of the bitten apple is an important part of its image and has remained
almost the same since the company's birth; only the colors have changed. The packaging is
also very characteristic, featuring simple white boxes with the logo on the center. But this
firm has gone beyond that; the product itself has specific design features, like the elegant
lines and the light colors of its laptops and computers, that consumers associate with Apple.

Technology and design are important to the identity of this brand.

Lesson Summary
In marketing and graphic design, the brand is the perception the public has of a
company. Branding refers to all the actions done to position that brand. The brand
identity consists of all the visual or tangible elements that represent the company's image
and show it to the public, looking to make it recognizable. It includes the logo, business
cards, packing, websites, merchandising items, and more. One of the most important
elements is the logo, which is a graphic representation of the company. It defines the brand
language, together with the color palette, images, fonts, and other common characteristics,
of the promotional material. All that language is often summarized in a brand style guide, a
document including the most important aspects of the brand language and how to use
them. It serves as an orientation for graphic designers and advertisers to promote your
product accurately.

Ch 12. Introduction to Adobe Design

Programs
How to Choose a Graphic Design Application
In this lesson, we'll discuss the software side of graphic design. Specifically, we'll focus on
compatibility with clients, the specific uses of different programs, and even tools for web
design and development.

The Computer Age

For the past few decades, graphic design has moved to a have reliance on computer editing
tools to create a plethora of work. Even when graphic designers begin with a hands-on
approach, creating images and basic layouts, these images are usually scanned and edited in
software specifically designed to modify images and create documents.

Compatibility with Clients

Going into graphic design, you'll probably need to use a variety of programs. While you
might think freelancing could give you the freedom to choose any software you want,
compatibility with your clients is paramount. With the selection of compatible programs
designed for different graphic design tasks, Adobe programs are currently the industry
standards. Familiarity with them is necessary for any professional work you do.

However, you can't just use one program for all tasks. Knowing the right tool for the job in
front of you will result in a better finished product and much less hassle. We'll take a look at
the Big Three involved in graphic design and printing, followed by a quick look at a new
Adobe program created to help web designers.

Adobe Photoshop
Odds are the editing software you're most familiar with out of the four will we discuss is
Adobe Photoshop. Its use as a photo editing tool is so ubiquitous that any photo editing or
tampering is accused of being photo-shopped, regardless of what program actually made
the edits. This program was intentionally created to aid in enhancing and modifying images,
whether they're photographs or other compositions.
 Photoshop is best for raster images

Photoshop works specifically with raster images. Let's take a quick detour to explain a few
technical terms. Raster images are pictures made from tiny, square dots of color
called pixels. The quality of the image depends on how many of those pixels you fit in a
square inch. This means higher numbers of pixels will use small squares of color to fit them
all this. This makes the image crisper and more detailed. It also allows you to enlarge the
image more without losing quality.

Photoshop is the right tool to use when you're enhancing images, adding filters, and using
effects, working with posters or simple layouts for print and designs for social media release.
With the compatibility between Adobe software, the images you create or modify in
Photoshop can be exported and embedded into projects in the other programs.

Adobe Illustrator
Where Photoshop works with raster images, Illustrator works with vector images. Rather
than being created from tiny squares of color, vector images use mathematical formulas
between anchor points to create various lines, curves, and shapes. This means you can
enlarge or shrink these images as much as you want and there'll be no quality loss.
 Illustrator is designed to work with vector images

However, vector images require simple designs so they aren't the right choice for
photographs. They work best when used to create things like logos, clip art, iconography,
charts and graphs, and even blueprints. As you can tell, each of these involves simplified
shapes and lines.

Adobe InDesign
With the introduction of InDesign, Adobe released the most powerful desktop publishing
software to date. This is one of the main reasons the Adobe suite of design products are
standard in the graphic design industry and the required software for compatibility with
clients.
 InDesign can import vector and raster images and develop a complete, finished layout.

This program focuses mainly on layouts, but easily imports images and objects from
Photoshop and Illustrator. It easily manages the inclusion of raster and vector graphics and
can export the final product as a single document, whether a single page or multi-page.

A good way to think about this is that it's like car manufacturing. Photoshop and Illustrator
might build the parts needed for the car, but InDesign assembles all of the parts and turns
them into a car.

This program is ideal for designing posters, brochures, magazines, books, and even
interactive PDF files.

Adobe Muse & Dreamweaver

Now that we've looked at the three Adobe programs primarily used for graphic design
related to print media, let's take a look at web design, one of the newest fields of graphic
design. Web designers are responsible for the same graphic design principles and practices
to create a visually appealing composition that serves the clients purpose. However, web
designs also work with designs that include audio and video components, links to additional
pages they designed, inventory presentation, and an overall interactive experience.
 Muse focuses on web design.

Adobe Muse allows designers to create a layout without needing to know the intricacies of
HTML and Java coding. The embedded features handle the coding for you. It also has
features that present different layouts based on the device a customer uses to visit the
website, as we've probably all experienced using a phone to web surf just to find a page with
an aggravating layout.

Adobe Dreamweaver is an alternative to Adobe Muse in that it's for professionals who
already know a thing or two about HTML, Java Script, and CSS. It's been around for a while
and is likely always going to be an option for people who want more flexibility in their web
design in comparison to beginners who'd rather have assistance while using Muse. If you
want to work on the nitty-gritty details of your site with maximum control, Dreamweaver
might make more sense for you to use.
 Dreamweaver is for more experienced web designers

Lesson Summary
Basically, we can't tell you which software program to use, since no single program does
everything you might need. However, working within the Adobe software suites, you can
select specific programs for the appropriate task and know your work is compatible across
your programs and will most likely be compatible with your clients.

Photoshop is the most appropriate program to work enhance photographs and other raster
images, pictures made with tiny squares of color called pixels.

Illustrator works much better with vector images that creates a visual representation based
on mathematical formulas. These images are usually simple, like logos, charts, graphs, and
typefaces.

Both images can be imported into InDesign and incorporated into a total design layout that
is ready for printing.

Finally, as we move to a more web-based world, web design becomes increasingly complex.
However, Adobe Muse allows web designers to focus on graphic design and user needs
rather than knowing how to code in HTML or Java, while Adobe Dreamweaver gives
experienced coders more options.
Practical Application: Choosing a Graphic Design
Application
This practical application explains how to choose a graphic design application based on a
given project. Read the scenario and associated questions and practice choosing the right
application for the job.

Graphic Design Applications

In the world of graphic design, there are many applications. The industry standard and most
popular applications are the ones made by Adobe, namely Adobe Photoshop, Adobe
Illustrator, Adobe InDesign, Adobe Dreamweaver, and Adobe Muse (from How to Choose a
Graphic Design Application).

Each application has its purpose and creates different files. Adobe Photoshop produces
raster files where image data is stored pixel by pixel. Adobe Illustrator creates vector files
where image data is based on mathematical formulas. Vector files can be made bigger
without loss of quality, whereas raster files lose quality when enlarged.

Adobe InDesign is a layout program that gives the user control over where images and text
are placed on a document. Adobe Dreamweaver and Adobe Muse are web design
applications used to design and create websites and webpages.

With all these applications out there, it's sometimes hard to know which one to use. But by
asking the right questions, you can find the best choice.

The Scenario
Read this scenario and the following questions and practice picking the best graphic design
application for the job.

Here comes Mark. He is going straight to his office because he was given a big project to do.
He wants to do it right. He doesn't want to create more work for himself, so he wants to pick
the right application for the job. The job he's working on is for the local humane society. The
local humane society wants to see a logo from Mark. This logo will be used on many things,
such as company t-shirts, company handouts, flyers, and pet care guides. This logo may also
be used on giant billboards to spread the word about what the humane society does.

Which graphic design application will work best for Mark?

Questions to Think About

To determine which application would be best, Mark needs to answer these questions:

 What kind of file is best suited for the specific job?

 Which application can produce that file?
Choosing the Best One
To answer the first question, Mark thinks about how his client is going to use the finished
file. The humane society mentioned using the logo both on letter-size handouts as well as on
giant billboards. This means the image needs to be enlarged quite a bit without losing
quality. Mark decides to use a vector file for the logo since these files can be enlarged
without loss of quality.

This brings Mark to the second question. There's only one Adobe application that produces
vector files, and that is Adobe Illustrator. So Mark ends up using Adobe Illustrator to do the
job. He is then able to enlarge the logo he designs to any size the humane society wants
without quality loss. The logo looks clear no matter how large or small it is.

Adobe Photoshop Fundamentals: Tools &

Navigation
In this lesson, explore a leading software in graphic design and image editing: Adobe
Photoshop. Learn how to navigate the interface and become familiar with the fundamental
tools. Also, discover how to make some basic editing to your images.

Adobe Photoshop
Many have heard about the use, or even abuse, of Photoshop for editing images and
transforming ordinary pictures into outstanding materials. However, if you've opened this
program without any prior knowledge, it can be overwhelming and hard to use, so let's
explore some basics.

Photoshop is a software for editing graphics, developed by Adobe Systems. Today, it is one
of the leading programs in the professional design market. Photoshop offers many tools and
options for manipulating and creating images, and is used in graphic design, illustration,
photography, architecture, web design and more.

Photoshop allows you to combine and customize images

A fundamental characteristic of Photoshop is that it works basically with bitmaps, unlike
other software like Adobe Illustrator or Freehand, which work with vectors. Bitmaps are
images made of many pixels on a grid. Each pixel is a tiny square with information on its
location on the grid and an assigned color.

Getting Started
Photoshop usually launches a new version each year. However, all CC versions (2013 - 2018),
C6 (2012), C5 (2010 - 2011) and C4 (2008 - 2009) have similar interfaces so if you learn any of
them, you will probably be able to work with all others.

Upon opening Photoshop you land on the main screen, known as workspace. It contains
several menu bars, option bars, the toolbar, and secondary windows (palettes) with different
functions and commands. The biggest part of the screen is where you will see the image
you're working on. Photoshop allows you to modify the workspace and save your
customized configuration.

Photoshop Worspace

To open any file, you can just drag and drop it, or open it from the 'File' menu and then click
on 'Open', or 'New' if you want to create a file from scratch. By default, files will be saved as
Photoshop documents (.PSD files). However, you can save in many different formats, like
JPG, TIFF or PNG.

Once you open a file, you can zoom in and out by using the mouse's wheel and pan around
by clicking and dragging. These two tools can also be found at the bottom of the toolbar.

The layers are fundamental in Photoshop. Layers are like transparent sheets, that you place
on top of the base image, and you can create different objects on top of each one. This
allows you to edit one specific element, without affecting anything else. For example, you
can create different texts, and colors, without altering a single pixel of your base image.

Layers can be managed from a palette on the bottom right of the workspace. When you
insert an image, it will be locked by default. To edit it, you have to go to the palette and
double-click on the layer to unlock it. This can frustrate new users because if a layer is
locked, and you didn't notice, editing tools won't work on it. You can also choose to lock
specific layers to prevent objects from being accidentally modified.

Basic Tools
We can access the working tools from the different bars on the workspace. Menu
bars include 'File', 'Edit', 'Image', 'Help' and more. They group several commands like 'save
as' or 'undo' and allow you to access tools not shown on the toolbar.

The toolbar groups most of the common functions, based on their main use.

The Toolbar

Selection tools are located on the top of the toolbar. They are:

 Move.
 Marquee: You can click and drag to select elements inside the selection box. There
are different box forms.
  Lasso: Allows you to select elements inside a polygon by clicking on the screen.
 Quick selection: Selects areas of similar characteristics as you click and drag on the
drawing.
 Magic wand: Selects all pixels of similar characteristics within the clicked area.
 Crop: Cuts the drawing to the selected form.
 Eyedropper: Selects the color you click on.

Retouching and painting tools are incredibly versatile and allow you to modify images.

 Brushes and pencils: Basic painting tools.

 Healing tools: Several special brushes that correct details and imperfections, like
acne or red eyes.
 Clone stamp tools: Copies a section and replaces another area with it.
 Erasers: Different brushes for deleting parts of the image.
 Blur, sharpen, and smudge are special brushes to soften or strengthen parts of the
image.
 Dodge, burn, and sponge, is special brushes to darken, lighten or saturate colors.

The vector tools are:

 The pen with different options for drawing vectors.

 The text creation tool.
 The path selector for selecting vectors.
 The polygon drawing tool.

Only these native elements are vector-based.

Each tool from the toolbar will open an option bar with different possible settings. The
options bar is, by default, located under the menu bars.

Basic Editing
Changing the size, and resolution is a basic yet useful editing tool. This can be done by
accessing 'Image size' from the 'Image' menu bar. On the dialogue window that pops, you
can change the number of pixels, resolution, and aspect ratio of an image.
 Dialogue window for size modifications

Another popular modification is to adjust brightness and contrast. This is used, for example,
if you have a very dark image and want to make it clearer. To do so, go to the 'Image' menu
bar, then 'Adjustments' and 'Bright and Contrast'.

Replacing the colors of an image is also a basic and useful modification for customizing
images. It can be accessed through the 'Image' menu bar, then 'Adjustments' and 'Replace
color'.

Now that you know the basic tools, you can play around with them and amaze yourself with
all the possibilities.

Lesson Summary
Photoshop is a software for editing graphics, developed by Adobe Systems. It works
with bitmaps or grids, made of many pixels. The main screen is the workspace and it
contains the toolbar, menu bars, option bars and palettes.

Most basic tools are found in the toolbar, including vector tools, selection tools like
marquee and magic wand, and painting and retouching tools like healing tools, and blur and
sharpen brushes. Each opens an options bar with further possibilities.

Other tools can be accessed from the menu bars, including functions like changing size and
resolution, replacing color and adjusting brightness. Photoshop uses layers, allowing you to
work on each element separately.

Adobe InDesign Fundamentals: Tools &

Navigation
Have you ever wanted to make your own newsletter or ebook? Computer software
programs can help you accomplish this goal. In this lesson, learn fundamentals about Adobe
InDesign, including tools and navigation.

What Is Adobe InDesign?

Today, artists, graphic designers and other creative professionals have many tools to help
them do their work. Many use computer software programs to design materials published in
print and in digital media forms. One of the most popular programs is Adobe InDesign.

Adobe InDesign was developed by the company Adobe Systems in the late 1990s. It's a
design and layout program, which means it combines words and images of many types into
formats like magazines, newspapers, brochures and websites.

Adobe InDesign is useful for many kinds of document layouts, including those with multiple
pages and double-page spreads, or the appearance of two facing pages. It can also help
with automatic page numbering. Adobe InDesign includes tools that allow designers to
create areas of text, insert shapes and graphics and shift elements around to create the
perfect layout. We can't cover everything, but a few basics will give you an introduction to
what this program can do.

Navigating Adobe InDesign

Let's start with how you get around in Adobe InDesign. Like any Adobe product, it has a
standard screen layout that serves as your workspace.

Let's say you want to create a simple printed document. Open Adobe InDesign and a window
will appear that asks what you want to do. You're starting from the beginning, so click on
Create a New Document. This takes you to the new document window, where you enter
information like whether the document is for print or digital form, as well as document size
and margins. When you're done with this screen, the program will open to the main work
screen.

Now you're looking at the main interface, which is your workspace. At the very left side,
you'll see a long vertical tool bar. This is where you'll find many kinds of tools for specific
functions and tasks. We'll get to those in a moment. But here's one important thing to
remember: when you see a tool with a small black triangle in its lower right corner, that
means it has multiple options. You can click on the triangle and hold it to view the other
options.

Across the top of the interface is a horizontal area called the control panel. This menu
changes and offers you options according to what tool you're using. Above it is
the applications bar, which provides different view options (for example, a view of the
document with all the guides and one that hides them to show you how it will appear when
printed). The applications bar also allows you to use or hide layout guides like rulers and
grids.

In the middle of the screen is your document window. This is where you'll see what you're
working on. And finally, running vertically down the right side of the interface is another
series of panels for more advanced workspaces. These panels can be expanded or reduced
depending on whether you need them.

Basic Tools In Adobe InDesign

Now that you know general locations of program elements, let's look at some basic tools. All
of these tools can be accessed by clicking on their icons on the left vertical tool bar.

Selection tools allow you to choose certain elements to work with. They help you move
things around and scale things, or make them larger or smaller. The main selection tool is a
small black arrow at the top of the tool bar. This is one of the most used tools in InDesign.

Type tools, as their name suggests, pertain to words and type. They're found below the
selection tools. The main type tool allows you to write in any text box, while tools allow you
to click on any line or shape to use it as a path for text. The main type tool looks like a capital
T. In the bottom corner is the small triangle that tells you there are other type tools. When
you use the type tool, you can enter new text or you can place text from other files that have
already been written.

At this point, look at the top horizontal control panel. Because you're using the type tool, this
panel will show options for font styles and sizes, word and line spacing, and other things
related to type functions. If you switch to a different tool, it will show you things related to
that tool instead.

Further down the tool bar is the frame tool, a small form with an X in it. This is used to mark
spaces where images will be inserted. The main frame tool is a rectangle, but there are
multiple options, including the ellipse frame tool. And then there are shape tools, which
allow you to create simple shapes like circles, rectangles, and stars without having to use
Adobe Illustrator. At the bottom of the tool bar are options for color, used in outlines and
as fill or whole areas of background color.

Once you become familiar with navigating the workspace, these tools allow you to create
many kinds of professional and polished documents. So, take some time to learn Adobe
InDesign and start creating a newsletter or website for yourself.

Lesson Summary
Adobe InDesign is a powerful computer software program used for document and web
design and layout. Adobe InDesign combines words and images for publications and can
design elements like double-page spreads.

Basic elements of the Adobe InDesign interface include the vertical tool bar running along
the left side, the horizontal control panel that changes according to which tools are used,
and the horizontal applications bar found above it. In the middle of the screen is
the document window, where you view the document being created or revised. Tools used
in Adobe InDesign include selection tools, type tools, frame tools, and shape tools. Many
tools have multiple options, identified by black triangles in the bottom right corner. At the
bottom of the tool bar are tools for color, which allow for outline and fill.

Adobe Illustrator Fundamentals: Tools &

Navigation
Do you like to draw? Have you ever tried using a computer to create images? In this lesson,
explore the basics of using Adobe Illustrator, including navigation and tools.

What Is Adobe Illustrator?

Artists and graphic designers create images in many ways. They might begin the old-
fashioned way, drawing a picture by hand. Or they might use a computer program like
Adobe Illustrator.

Adobe Illustrator is a software program made by a company called Adobe Systems. It's a
powerful tool in the art and design business, used for a whole range of projects, including
designing logos, illustrations, and graphic images for print and digital media. The program
has many versatile tools and the capability to create images of all sizes. We can't cover
everything about Adobe Illustrator, but in this lesson, let's explore a few of the basics.
Understanding Raster and Vector Images
Before we get to how Adobe Illustrator works, you should understand the kind of image it
creates. The digital world includes two types of images: vector and raster images. Raster
images are composed of tiny dots of information that resemble small squares. Photographs
are raster images. This format allows for subtle shading and detail, but images can only be
enlarged so far before they become grainy and fragmented.

Example of raster image

Adobe Illustrator is a vector drawing program. Vector images aren't made of tiny dots.

Instead they use mathematical formulas to create geometric shapes and paths. Unlike raster
images, vector images can be scaled or made larger and smaller with no loss of image
quality. They have areas of flat solid color and are a good choice for logos and other graphic
images.
 Example of a vector image

Navigating Adobe Illustrator

Now that you know the type of image you'll be creating, let's start with how you get around
in Adobe Illustrator. Like any Adobe product, it has a standard screen layout that serves as
your workspace.

Let's say you want to create a new logo for a print ad. Open Adobe Illustrator and a window
will appear asking what you want to do. Because this is a new project, you'll click on Create a
New Document. A new document window appears. Here, you'll enter information including
whether the image is for print or digital form and how many artboards. An artboard is the
area on which you do the work in Adobe Illustrator. You can have multiple artboards in a file.
The new document panel will also ask you to set artboard dimensions and define
colorspace. Colorspace is the profile for how color will be created in the images. This is
important because color in digital images is created in a different way than color in printed
images.

After you enter information in the new document panel, click OK. Now the program opens to
a workspace screen with a variety of panels. Running vertically down the screen's left side is
the tools panel. It holds tools you'll use to create, color and edit images. More on a few tools
in a moment. On some tool icons, you'll notice a small black triangle in the lower right
corner. That signals multiple options related to that tool. Clicking on the triangle and holding
it allows you to view the other options.
 Adobe Illustrator workspace with blank artboard

Running horizontally across the top of the screen, directly above the workspace, is
the control panel. It contains options that change depending on which tool you're using.
Above the control panel is the applications bar, which gives you buttons and menus related
to changing a document's layout. Running vertically down the right side are another series of
panels that can be collapsed or expanded. These address more complex actions like image
appearances, colors, and layers.

In the middle of your screen is the workspace. It displays your artboard, which appears as a
simple white rectangle with the dimensions you entered into the new document window.
This is where you'll create an image.

Tools in Adobe Illustrator

Now that you've been introduced to the general locations of program elements, let's look at
some basic tools. All of them can be accessed by clicking on icons on the left vertical tools
panel.

 The selection tools look like arrows, and they're at the top of the tools panel. They
let you choose a shape or a section of a shape to work with and allow you to move
objects around on the screen.
 Below the selections tools is the pen tool. The pen tool icon looks like the nib or
point of an ink pen and it has several options. This is a powerful tool that works by
drawing paths between anchor points. By setting locations of anchor points, then
connecting them, you can create shapes of any size and complexity. Admittedly, the
pen tool can take some time to master but it's an important element of Illustrator.
 To add simple shapes, you can also use the shape tool, identified by an icon of a
rectangle. The shape tool also has options, including creating ellipses (shapes with
curves like circles) and stars.

Other tools include:

  the paint brush tool, with which you can create and customize variable lines that
resemble brush strokes
 the blob brush, which works like a brush tool, but then closes strokes to create
larger areas of color
 a type tool, identified by a capital T. With this tool you can add words to graphics,
including bending them to fit circular images.

At the bottom of the tool bar are options for adding color, including as strokes or outlines
around an object, and as a fill or solid area of color.

Adobe Illustrator might sound complicated, but after you become familiar with navigating
the workspace, the tools allow you to create striking graphics and images. So, take some
time to learn Adobe Illustrator and begin creating your own images.

Lesson Summary
Adobe Illustrator is a software program used to create vector images, which,
unlike raster images, can be scaled with no loss of image clarity. When working with
Illustrator, you create an image on an artboard. When beginning a new image, you define
a colorspace.

On the main screen, the tools panel runs vertically down the left. Across the top is the
horizontal control panel, which changes according to the tool you're using. Above it is
the applications bar. Adobe Illustrator tools include selection tools that allow you to
choose objects and move them. An important tool is the pen tool, with which you set points
and connect them with paths. Simple forms can be added with the shape tool. Other tools
include the paintbrush tool, which adds brushstrokes; the blob brush tool, which creates
thicker stroke-like color areas; and the type tool, which lets you add words. Other tools
allow you to add color, including as strokes and fills.

Adobe Dreamweaver Fundamentals: Tools &

Navigation
Learn about Adobe Dreamweaver, a popular software used for web design. In this lesson,
explore the program's interface and learn to navigate it. Also, examine some of the
fundamental tools that you can use for creating your website.

Adobe Dreamweaver
Nowadays, most businesses, institutions and professionals have their own websites. When
you browse the Internet, you can find millions of different sites for almost everything and
someone had to design each one of them. They also had to be programmed so that they
work well and show you the information you're looking for.

Dreamweaver is software for designing and programming websites, developed by Adobe

Systems. It is used by many graphic designers and web developers and has a friendly
interface that is relatively easy to use. However, you need to know the very basics of
programming in order to make sure that your web designs will work properly.
 Dreamweaver allows you to create websites using simple tools

Dreamweaver works with Hypertext Markup Language (or HTML), Extensible HTML (or
XHTML) and Java. These are some of the most commonly used code systems for websites.

Navigating Dreamweaver
The first version of Dreamweaver was introduced in 1997 and was then produced by
Macromedia. Adobe acquired Dreamweaver in 2005 and launched the CS3 version in 2007.
The CS4 (2008 - 2009), CS5 (2010 - 2011) and CS6 (2012 - 2013) versions followed. The CC
version was launched in 2014 and has usually been updated every year. The current version
is CC 2018. However, all CC versions have similar interfaces, so you will probably be able to
work with any of them.

Upon opening Dreamweaver, you see a welcome screen (unless you configure the program
not to show it). It provides quick access to the recent files you have opened and gives you
the option of creating new files based on HTML or any other common code systems. This
screen also allows you to enter the program's tutorial; this is always a good idea if it's your
first time using this software. You can also open files by going to the 'Files' menu and then
click on 'Open.'

The welcome screen

Upon opening any file, you land on the workspace. This is the main screen and contains the
different menus, toolbars and windows. Dreamweaver works as an integrated development
environment, which means that the program interface includes all the elements you need to
edit and visualize the file you're working on.

The two main windows of the workspace are the visual design viewer, sort of a preview of
your site, and the code editor, showing the programming code. Together, they form
the document window. They are usually on the left of the screen and occupy most of it.

On the upper part, you find the menus and the toolbars. On the right side, you'll see several
secondary windows with advanced functions. There's also a properties bar on the lower part
of the screen.

The workspace. The visual design viewer and the code editor usually occupy most of the
screen

Dreamweaver saves files locally on your computer, not on the Internet. There is a pre-
visualization tool you can use to see how your design will display in different browsers
(Google Chrome, Firefox, Internet Explorer, Safari and others). Once you consider that your
website is complete, you can upload it to specific Internet servers.

Basic Tools
You can access the different tools and functions from the menus and toolbars. The menu
bars group has common commands like 'open' and 'save as' and also allow you to access all
the advanced tools.

Several toolbars are grouped together as tabs and are known as the Insert Panel. Some of
these tabs are Common, Layout, Form, Data, Spry, jQuery Mobile, Text and Favorites. You
can access each of them by clicking on the corresponding name on the upper part of the
bar.

The jQuery Mobile includes special features for websites designed for mobile devices. The
Favorites tab gives you the option of grouping the tools you use the most.

You find many of the basic tools in the Common tab. You can insert common elements like
hyperlinks, email information so that people can send you emails directly from your website,
anchors (specific elements you want to remain always visible), horizontal rules, tables, tags,
images, other type of media (like audio, video, animations), dates and time, comments,
headings, predefined templates and widgets for specific functions to your site.
The other tabs include several commands for inserting and modifying elements and the
layout of your site. In the latest version, the Common, Layout, Form, Data, Text and Spry tabs
have merged in the HTML tab.

Some of the tools found in the Insert Panel

Once you have inserted any object or element, you can select it from the document window
to edit its properties. The properties bar on the lower part of the screen will display the
options available for that object. For example, you can use this bar to modify the size and
fonts of texts and make them bold.

Another important basic tool is the Page Properties, which allows you to define the
background, color palettes, page title and several other settings. You can access this tool
from the 'Modify' menu at the very top of the screen and then click on 'Page Properties'. The
program will open a window from which you can make any edits.

Lesson Summary
Dreamweaver is software for designing and programming websites, developed by Adobe
Systems. It works with HTML, Java and most common codes for web programming. The first
screen upon opening the program is the welcome screen, from which you can open and
create new files.

Then you access the main screen, the workspace. It contains the different menus, toolbars
and the document window, formed by the visual design viewer and the code editor. The
menus are usually on the top of the screen and contain most commands and functions,
including 'save as' and the 'Page Properties' editor. The toolbars, or insert panel, are also on
the upper part and include several commands for adding and editing objects and elements
like texts, tables, images, links, email information and more. Once you have inserted an
object, you can select it and modify it using the properties bar on the lower part.